Journal of Daoist Studies Vol. 3 2010

Journal of Daoist Studies

Volume 3 2010

Journal of Daoist Studies

TheJournalofDaoistStudies(JDS)isanannualpublicationdedicatedtothescholarly exploration ofDaoism in all its different dimensions.Each issuehas threemainparts:AcademicArticlesonhistory,philosophy,art,society,andmore(68,000 words); Forum on Contemporary Practice on issues of current activitiesboth inChinaandotherpartsoftheworld(8001,200words);andNewsoftheField,presentingpublications,dissertations,conferences, andwebsites.

Facilitators: LiviaKohn,RussellKirkland,RonnieLittlejohn

EditorialBoard:ShawnArthur,FriederikeAssandri,StephanPeterBumbacher,Suzanne Cahill, Joshua Capitanio, Alan Chan, Chang Yihsiang, Shinyi Chao,ChenXia,KennethCohen,DonaldDavis,CatherineDespeux,JeffreyDippman,Ute Engelhardt, Stephen Eskildsen, Norman Girardot, Seth Harter, JonathanHerman, Adeline Herrou, Dominique Hertzer, Shihshan Susan Huang, P. J.Ivanhoe, JiangSheng,KangXiaofei,PaulKatz,SungHaeKim,TerryKleeman,Louis Komjathy, LiuXun, LXichen, VictorMair,Mei Li,MarkMeulenbeld,ThomasMichael, JamesMiller,ChristineMollier,HarrisonMoretz,MoriYuria,David Palmer, Fabrizio Pregadio, Michael Puett, James Robson, Harold Roth,Robert Santee, Elijah Siegler, Edward Slingerland, Julius Tsai, Richard Wang,Robin Wang, Michael Winn, Yang Lizhi, Yao Ping, Robin Yates, Yen Hsehcheng,ZhangGuangbao,Zhang Qin

Submissions:To makeasubmission,please contactusat daojournal@gmail.com.Articlesarereviewedbytwoanonymousreadersandacceptedafterapproval. Amodelfilewitheditorialinstructionsisavailableuponrequest.DeadlineforarticlesisNovember15forpublicationinFebruaryofthefollowingyear.

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2009byJournalofDaoistStudiesISSN19415524

Table of Contents

Articles

ALAN K. L. CHANAffectivityandtheNatureoftheSage:GleaningsfromaTangDaoistMaster 1

NORMANHARRY ROTHSCHILDEmpress Wu andtheQueenMotheroftheWest 29

SHIHSHAN SUSAN HUANGDaoistImageryofBodyandCosmos,Part1:BodyGodsandStarryTravel 57

KENNETH R. ROBINSONDaoistGeographiesinThreeKoreanWorldMaps 91

ADELINEHERROUADayintheLifeofaDaoistMonk 117

Forum on Contemporary Practice

ELLIOTCOHENPsychologyandDaoism: ResistingPsychologizationAssistingDialogue 151

SETHHARTERPracticeintheClassroom:ToTaijiorNottoTaiji 163

MARK JOHNSONNiHuaChingsAmericanizationofTheEternalBreathofDao177

ELENA VALUSSIWomensQigonginAmerica:Tradition,Adaptation,andNewTrends 187

JEAN DEBERNARDIWudangMountainandtheModernizationofDaoism 202

News of the Field

Publications 213

Dissertations 222

ResearchProjects 224

Conferences 225

Scienceon Qi 231

NotesonContributors 237

Articles

57

Daoist Imagery of Body and Cosmos

Part 1: Body Gods and Starry Travel

SHIH-SHAN SUSAN HUANG

Abstract

ThisarticlepresentsDaoistvisualrepresentationsofbodyandcosmos,drawingextensively on illustrations and diagrams from texts preserved in the MingdynastyDaoistCanon.ToexaminehowtheDaoistperceptionofbodyandcosmosunfoldedover time, I discuss images of four types: body gods, imaginaryjourneystostars,grotesquespiritsandbodyworms,andthebodytransformedininternalalchemythefirsttwointhispart,thenexttwoinJDS4(2011).

Thecurrentworkhopestocontributetointerdisciplinarystudiesof Chineseart,religion,andscience.Fromthevisualperspective, ithopestoaddtotheongoingexaminationofchartsormaps(tu)andtoenrichourunderstandingoftherepresentationandperceptionofwhatbodymeansinChinesevisualculture. In terms ofDaoist studies,mydominantly visual approach aims to complementthemanytextualapproachesonthistopic.Thisstudyalsoadds tothegrowingscholarshipofDaoistart,whichhassofarfocusedmoreonpublicdevotionalpaintingsandstatuaryandlessonprivateimageryassociatedwithmeditationandvisualization.

The Invisibility of Daoist ImagesAnyone who attempts to trace the history of Daoist imagery in traditional Chinawill probably be frustrated by its relative absence duringthe earlydevelopmentof religiousDaoismfromthesecond to the fifthcenturies.PastscholarshiprelatestheapparentlackofinterestinimagemakingtothephilosophicaldefinitionandfundamentalprincipleoftheDao:TheOne,orthecenteroftheuniverse,thepotencyresponsiblefor

58/JournalofDaoistStudies 3(2010)

the creationand continued existence of theworld (Kohn1992, 109) ismystic,formless,andempty.Therefore,itisaniconicinnature. 1

OnegetsasenseoftheaniconicvisualityofDaoistsacredspace inthealtardiagrampreservedinthelatesixcenturyWushangbiyao (Essentials of the Supreme Secrets, DZ1138, 225:189b; see Lagerwey1987,30;Little2000, Fig.4,19;Lagerwey1981)(Fig.1).

Fig. 1: Altar diagramfor the Fast of theThree Primes (DZ1138,25:189b).

Thisshowsabirdseyeviewofasquareritualspacedefinedbyathreetieredaltarmadeofvermilionmud.Theonlyobjectsondisplayarefivesetsofincenseburners,eachplacedonashortgreentable(qingjian), juxtaposedwithotherpledges(zhenxin),whicharemarkedoutbutnotillustratedonthetoptier.

Similarly,onlyfourobjectswereallowedinanearlyDaoistoratory(jingshi ), according to Lu Xiujing (406477): an incenseburner(xianglu),anincenselamp(xiangdeng),atableofmemorials (zhangan) forpresentingwrittenpetitions to the gods, andawritingknife(shudao )whichthegodswereintendedtousetomake

1For a recent study of Laozi iconography applying this concept, seeWu2002.FormysteriouslooksofLaozi,seeKohn1996.

2Daoist texts from theDaozang are numbered according to Schipper andVerellen 2004 and follow the Sanjia ben edition in thirtysix volumes (Beijing:Wenwu,Shanghai:Shanghaishudian,andTianjin:Gujichubanshe,1988).

Huang,DaoistImageryofBodyandCosmos/ 59

corrections on the petition (Daomen kelue , DZ 1127, 24:780;Kohn2003,108;Schipper2005,93).

LucontraststhesimpleDaoistspacewiththoseusedbypeoplewhofollowed vulgar customs and had ornate decorations with benches,chairs,images(xingxiang ),bannersanddaises(24:780).LaterintheTangdynasty,theBuddhistmonkFalinfurtherdifferentiatedDaoisthalls fromBuddhistbycitingTaoHongjing (456536), seniorDaoist ofMountMaoand Shangqingpatriarch, noted forhis scripturecompilation andhiswide knowledge ofDaoism, Buddhism,medicine,andpharmacology (seeStrickmann1979).AccordingtoFalin,Tao tookturnsinpayingtributetoBuddhismandDaoism,alternatingeveryotherdaybetweentheirrespectivehalls.Amongthem,theBuddhisthallhadsacred statues while the Daoist one did not (Bianzheng lun, T.52.2110:535a; Chen 1963, 268). Following this idea,most scholars haveidentifiedsculpturesandvotivesteles fromthefifth toeighthcenturiesas the earliestDaoist images andunderstandthemasbeingheavily influenced by the Buddhist tradition of iconmaking (Bokenkamp 1996;Abe1996;Liu2001; Kohn2003,16468).

While the early construction of Daoist ritual spacewas devoid oficonicdisplays, imagesofbodyandcosmosaspart ofmystic innervisionswerecentral inDaoistmeditationfromanearlyage,especially inthe Shangqing tradition. Often referred to as cunsi, this practicemeans keeping (something inmind) and contemplating (it), in otherwords actualizing or visualizing an internal object. Daoism thusmadeuseofimagesintheintermediaryworldofvisualmeditationto transformpsychiccontents,therebytoestablishaperceptionofanewspiritualbody(Robinet1989,15960;1993,4854;Kohn2009a,69). 3

Primary sources addressing Daoist meditative images tend to dealdominantlywith theindividualmysticalsearchfortranscendence,asopposedtoworks thatfocusontheworshipof thedeities,saints,and

3Buddhist visualations inmedievalChina relate to thePureLand associatedwiththeBuddhaAmitbha(Amituofo).TheFoshuoguanWuliangshou fo jing (Visualization Sutra, T.12.365) offers detailed instructions fortheSixteenVisualizations(Shiliuguan);seeRykoku2004,xivxvii. In the Tang and Song, the Sixteen Visualizations inspired many artworks.SeeDunhuangyanjiusuo 1999,5:1007,141,145,149,157,.177,181,1934,201, 214,235,237.


ancestors. 4Furthermore,imagesintendedforvisualizationpracticesurvivemostlyasillustrationsinDaoisttextsknownasillustratedinstructions (tujue)aswellas inmeditation texts thathavepictures forvisualization(cunsitu )intheirtitles.MostearlyDaoistimages,itseemsmoreover,appearedintextsnotinforgeneralcirculationbutonlyaccessible toselectedadepts. 5 It is, therefore,quitepossible that theunderrepresentation or invisibility of such images inmodern scholarshipresultsfromtheprivacyandselectivityof their intendedaudience.Early adepts who applied these images were advised to meditate ontheminsolitude withoutanyoneknowingaboutthem.

Daoistadeptsperceivedtheworldofintermediaryimagesasamicrocosmwithin their ownbodies, analogous to the time and spaceof thecosmicworld.ThisconceptisfirstfoundintheancientChineseschoolofyinyangcosmologyandthefivephases,asoutlinedintheLiji(BookofRites ) and the Yijing (Book of Changes ). Because the samenamedesignatingapointwithinthehumanbodyoftensimultaneouslyrefers to a celestial place, the adeptsmental visitation of these realmsthroughecstatic travelwithinhis ownbody symbolizeshisroaming inthecorrespondingheavenly spheres. Suchvisualmeditationandactiveimagination accordingly served to turn theadeptsbody into a cosmicbody,atheaterofmovinggods(Robinet1993,52).

Daoistimagesofbodyandcosmosrevealthehumanbodyasasacredsitethatmyriadsofdeitiestraveltoandfro,matchingthedivinitiesofthecosmosactiveinthecourseofDaoistritual,althoughtheyremaininvisibletotheobservingaudienceinthesacredspaceofDao(daochang).Thisholdstruewhethertheimagesappearasscrollsinatempleoraprivatechamber,astextualillustrations,orasverbaloutlines.

BytheSongdynasty(9601279),visualizationcontinuedasamainstay even innewlycodified rituals, 6 then furtherdeveloped in internalalchemy (neidan),which canbe described as an innovativedevel

4These two aspects have formed the essential categories ofDaoist textualtraditionsincethefifthcentury;seeSchipperinSchipperandVerellen2004,16.

5ForanoverviewofDaozangtextsingeneralcirculationvs.textsininternalcirculation, seeSchipperaandVerellen2004,134792.

6Atypeofinternalorprivateritual,visualmeditationwasconductedindividuallybyDaoistadeptsandwasdeemedsuperiortoexternalorpublicforms.Seetherecentstudyofinternalalchemyinthethunderrites(Chao2009).


opmentofbreathingandmeditativepractice,ora formofsubtlebodyecstasy,aimingtonourishlifeandattainimmortality (BaldrianHussein1990;Kohn1993,313319;Robinet1997,21256;Pregadio2006;KohnandWang2009;Kohn2009b,114).Hereanewtypeofbodyimageryemergeswhose physiological features find common groundwith the body imageryused inmedicine.All in all, the imagesprovideagreatresourcefor a better understanding of the visual culture of Chinesemysticism,demonology, disease, andmedicine (Kohn 1992, 2009b; Despeux 1994,2005,2007;Mollier2006).

Early Body GodsBodygods (shenshen)aredivineentitiesbelieved toreside invarious parts of thebody, ranging frommajor centers such as head, eyes,andnavel,tothefiveinnerorgans(wuzang ),includingheart,spleen,andkidneys.Whilebodygodscananddotravelinandoutofthebody,theirprolongedexitmayresult insicknessordeath.Hence,visualizingthemandtheirassociatedbodypartsindetailedphysicalityispowerfulmeansofkeepingtheminplaceandthuspromotinghealthandlongevity(Robinet1993,6465).

Literarysourcesofbodygodvisualizationpredatevisualdocumentation.OneoftheearliestDaoistscripturesonthesubject istheTaipingjing (Scripture of theGreat Peace, ed.Wang 1960). 7Dated in itsearliestsurvivinglayerstothesecondcentury,thetextadvocatestheuseofpaintedimagesofbodygodsasaidstomeditation,whichwillpreventsickness ifdoneefficiently.Their imagesshouldbepainted in fullcolorand displayed in an empty and sunlit meditation room. The adeptshouldfacethepaintinginsolitudeandvisualizethebodygodsappropriately(Lin1993,236238;2009; Hendrischke2006).

ItfurtherdescribestheMethod ofHangingImagestoCallBackthe[Body]Gods(Xuanxianghuanshenfa ):

7ForTaipingjingstudies,seeLin2009,21920;Hendrischke2006.The textwastransmittedinmultipleversionsandreeditedinthethirdandsixthcenturies.SeeLi1994.Itscirculationinthetenthtothirteenthcenturiesisdocumentedinvarioussources,e.g.,YJQQ6:98,6:104;7:12;,11:223;12:277;49:1087,119:2628;Taipingyulan,Jingshitushugangmu44a;Songshi158:15a.


TheMethodofHanging Images toCall Back the Spirits: Thespiritsliveinsidethebody.Therearetenspiritsofspringthatlook like boysdressed in blue; tenspirits of summer lookinglikeboysdressedinred;tenspiritsoffallthatappearlikeboysdressed in white; ten spirits of winter that look like boysdressedinblack;twelvespiritsofthefourseasonsthatseemtobeboysdressedinyellow.

Thesearethegodsresidingintheinnerorgansofmaleadepts. The same numbers of gods [in female form] reside inthose of a female.Males bestmeditate on [the gods] inmaleform,whilefemalesenvisiontheminfemaleform.Each shouldbe[painted]aboutonefoot[chi]tall.[If]theimagesarenicelypainted and lovable, adepts will feel happy and their spiritsoulspromptlyreturntothebody.(Wang1960,2122)

Elsewhere in the same text, theMethodof FastingandMeditatingontheSpiritsinOrdertoRescueOneselffromDeath(Zhaijiesishenjiusijue)advisesadeptstousepaintedimagesofthebodygodsof the five organs and other corresponding cosmic divinities as visualaidsformeditationtoattaineternallife(Wang1960,29293).Depictedonplainsilk,thesedeitieswearrobeswhosecolorscorrespondtothecolorsof the five phases. Their corresponding cosmic divinities appear astwentyfiveanthropomorphicgodsmountedoncelestialsteeds,dividedintofivegroupsmatchingthefivedirections(1960,293).Theywearbonnetcapsandareequippedwithavarietyofweaponsincludingarrows,crossbows,axes,gildedshields,andswords (1960,299).

InadditiontotheTaipingjing,theLaozizhongjing(CentralScriptureofLaozi,DZ1168,27:14156;Yunqiqiqian 1819[hereafter YJQQ]; P. 3784) is an early Daoist text describing internal gods(Schipper 1993, 10812; 1995;Kat 1996; 2002, 6870;Neswald 2009, 3033).Dating fromtheearlymiddleages, thetexttransportssacredgeography and corresponding divinities to the human body. Schipper suggests that the text may have been accompanied by pictures, possiblypurelyabstractbecausetheyweremeant tobemeditationandvisualizationprops(2005,95).

Thebodygodshereareperceivednotonlyascosmicdivinitiesbutalsoasofficers inacelestialadministrationmirroringEasternHansociety.Certaingodsaregivenfulllengthintroductions,whichoftenincludebiographical details such as surname, name, cognomen, birthplace,


physicalappearance,dress,bodysize,andresidenceinthebody(YJQQ1819). Thisbodilypantheon is furthersupportedbyeighteen thousandattendantofficers.

Forexample,thehighestrankingdeityistheMostHighGreatOne(Shangshang taiyi), hovering above the head. He appears tohaveahumanheadandabirdsbody.NextistheQueenMotheroftheWest(Xiwangmu),traditionallyassociatedwiththecenteroftheworldonMt.Kunlun, buthereassignedtotherighteyeandpairedwith theLordKingof theEast (Dongwanggong),whogovernsthelefteye.Inaddition,thereistheJadeMaidenofGreatYinofObscureBrilliance(Taiyinxuanguang yunu)wholivesinthespleen,alsocalledthePalaceofGreatSimplicity (Taisugong).HerhusbandistheLordoftheDao(Daojun)another manifestationoftheGreatOnewho lives in thegallbladder,calledthePurpleChamber (Zifang ),andisservedbyLordLao(Laojun),whoholdsthemagicalmushroomandagreenbanner.TheirchildisthePerfectedCinnabarChild (Zhenren Zidan ), who is seated on a bed of preciouspearls at the entrance to thestomach, or theGreat Storehouse (Taicang),whereallthegodseatanddrink.

If adepts follow the texts instructions and visualize the gods fornineyears,theGreatDeityoftheCelestialMaster(Tianshidashen )willsendanothereighteenthousandofficersintotheadeptsbodyfordivineprotection.Togetherwiththeexistinggods,theywilltravelinchariots driven by blue dragons, white deer, galloping horses, divineturtles,andcarpandworktogethertolifttheadeptsbodytoascendtoheaven(18:433).

Amongthemanydwellingsofthebodygods,theabdomenisperhaps themostscenicsitecontainingavarietyofwaterwaysandmountains.Itisalsotheplacewherethemyriadgodsflocktogether.TheJadeMaidens of the Six Ding (Liuding yunu), for example, are agroup of female officials who guard the kidneys and are in charge ofmerit evaluation (18:423). 8They routinely leave for excursions in the

8Thesefemaledeitiesarethepersonificationsofthesixcombinationsofthecelestialstemdingwithterrestrialbranches inthesexagenerycycle.SeeAndersen 198990, 34;Mugitani inPregadio 2007, 69597. For a Picture of the JadeMaidensoftheSixYin, seeYJQQ 80:1835.


GreatOcean,locatedbetweenthekidneys;theyalsorideondivinecarpandturtleswhosegoldenyellowshellsbearmagicalwrits.Theybreathetheoriginalbreathoftheessenceofpureyinenergy(18:423,42930,434;19:449).Inadditiontothekidneygoddesses,theWindLord(Fengbo )andtheRainMaster(Yushi )alsoroamtheGreatOcean(18:430),associatedwithasitenearthenavelandthesmallintestines,respectively(18:425).

In thedepthof theOcean, about three inches (cun)beneath thenavel andadjacent to the spinenear thekidneys,one reaches themostimportantareaoftheinnerbody:theCinnabarorElixirField(dantian ). This is identified as the root of the humanbeing, or the PalaceThat Contains Essence (Cangjing gong). It is where men storesemenandwomenmenstrualblood(18:428429;Schipper1993,106).

The body god residing in theCinnabar Field is a ninemillimeter(fen)tallbabyboydressedinredandemergingfromtheredqi (YJQQ19:441).ThischildmetaphoralsoplaysapivotalroleinthevisualizationofbodygodsintheHuangtingjing (YellowCourtScripture),oneoftheoldestDaoisttextscentraltotheShangqingschool. 9

Planets and BureaucratsAnother important Shangqingdocumentonvisualization is theDadongzhenjing (PerfectScriptureoftheGreatCavern,DZ6),collatedby the Southern Song Shangqing patriarch Jiang Zongying (d.1281)onMaoshan(Robinet1983;1993,97117).Composedofstanzas,thescriptureismeanttoberecitedwhiletheadeptvisualizesbodygodsandcosmicdivinities (Robinet1993,104). Itemphasizes therelationshipbetween thedivinities residing in thebody and the heavenly sphere, encouraging adepts to embark on ecstatic journeys: soaring into the sky,absorbingthecosmicenergies,andintegratingwiththeDao.

Byconcentratingtheirmind,meditating,andbreathingconsciously,adeptscanvisualizetheirsalivacondensing intovarious formsofbodygods. The gods descend from the head toward the gates of death,

9Thetextdividesintoaninnerclassic:theHuangtingwaijingyujing (DZ 332)and an outer one, theHuangtingneijingyujing(DZ331;YJQQ1112).Forstudies,seeSchipper1975;Kroll1996;Robinet1993,5596;Kohn1993,181188;BaldrianHussein2004.


whichareprecisepoints in thebodythroughwhicha fatalbreathcanbeinhaled,suchasthenipples,theears,theinnerorgans,thebladder,andthefeet(Robinet1997,133).Bynavigatingthebodyinthismanner,the gods close up the bodily orifices to make it into a hermeticallysealedworld(Robinet1993,103).

Mostofthefiftyillustrationsinthetextshareacommonimageofaseatedadeptshownfrontallyorwithhisbacktotheviewerwhilevisualizingagroupofbodygodsfloatingonacloudmassemanatingfromhishead(Fig.2ad).Amajorcategoryamongthemareplanetarydivinitiesfrom Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun and theMoon. 10

Shownasofficialsholdingatabletinbothhandsbeforetheirchest(Fig.2a), 11 theymayalsoappearaskinglyfigureswearingimperialrobesandcapsdecoratedwithpendants(Fig.2b).Otherillustratedbodygodstendtobemilitaryinnature,includingguardians(lishi)(Fig.2c)anddivine generals wearing armor and holding weapons (Fig. 2d). 12 Theirdressvariesinstyleandcoloraccordingtotheirrankandbodylocation.

a. b.

10The numbers of planetarydeities from each star also vary. Jupiter hasnine,Marseight,Venusseven,Mercuryfive,andSaturntwelve(DZ6,1:51618).

11Moreillustrationsarefoundin DZ6,1:51618,521,524,52729,543. 12One particular trinity consists of a general who resembles the Great

GeneralofHeavenly Mugwort(Tianpengdajiang ) ( DZ6, 1:520a).


c. d.

Fig.2:a.EightDeitiesofMars(DZ6,1:517a);b.TwelveDeitiesofSaturn(1:518a);c.SixGuardians(1:539c);d.DivineGeneralswithWeapons(1:537a).

Allthesevariousillustrationsshareacommoncompositionalstructure, featuringaseatedadeptwithbodygodsstandingoncloudsemanating fromhis head. This pictorial scheme becomes standard in laterDaoistvisualizationpictures,asreflected,forexample,inanillustrationfromtheseventeenthcenturyXingmingguizhi,ZW314(Fig.2e).

Fig. 2e: Visualization picturefromtheXingmingguizhi,BritishLibraryedition.


Thepictorialconventionsofdeitiesemanatingfromtheheadas illustrated intheDadongzhenjingarecomparabletopictorialmotifs fromBuddhistvisualizationpaintings,suchas theSouthernSongpaintingofAmidasparadiseintheChionincollection,Kyoto(Fig.3)(NaraMuseum1996,Figs.142,138;2009,Figs.57,64).

Inthispainting,thePureLandissymbolizedbyalotuspondwiththenewly rebornseatedon lotusblossomsandheavenlybirds floatingaboutthejeweledterrace.AmidaBuddhastandsat thecenter.Emanating fromhishead isanassemblyof twogroupsofbuddhasandbodhisattvas. Based on thevisual comparison, it ispossible that theprintedillustrations of the Dadong zhenjing, carved in the Ming dynasty, arebased on prototypes of the Southern Songwhen Jiang Zongying compiledthetext.

Fig. 3: Amidas Pure Land. Southern Songdynasty.1180.Colorandinkonsilk.Chionin collection, Kyoto (Nara Museum 2009,Figs.57,64).

Most early sourceshave the tendency to picture higherDaoist divinities in bureaucratic attire. The Six Dynasties work Jiebao shier jiejietujue (Illustrated Instructions for How to Untie theTwelve EmbryonicKnots,DZ 1384), serves as a good example (Fig. 4)


(34:98a). 13Thetextadvisesadeptstovisualizetheassemblyofbodygodsinordertountie(jie)theinbornknots(jie)hinderingtheflowofqiinthebodyandcausingillness. 14 Itshowsthebodygodsonebyone,depicting them as generic bureaucrats in long robeswith long sleevesandceremonialcaps.Somedeitiesholdatabletwithbothhands;otherssimplycuptheirhandsneartheirwaists.

Fig.4:Imagesofthebodygodsoftheinbornknots(DZ1384, 34:98a).

Acolophonaccompanyingeach image identifiesthedeitys title, styles,andcolorofgarments.PicturinggodsasofficialsisalsothenormamongdevotionalimagesinDaoisttemples,suchasthefourteenthcenturymuralintheYonglegong(TempleoftheEternalJoy),aQuanzhen sanctuaryinsouthernShanxi(Fig.5)(Xiao2008,115).

13Not included in early canons, this was probably added from a Songsource.SeeSchipperandVerellen2004,32.

14Theseinbornknotsformedinthebodyatbirth.SeeJiebaoshierjiejietujue,DZ1384,34:96;Robinet1993,13943; Kat2002,7488.


Fig. 5:Daoistmural from theSanqing Hall, Yongle gong.14th century. Yuan dynasty.Shanxi province (Xiao 2008,115).

Ritual ActivationThe visualization of body gods also plays an important role in Daoistrites.TheofficiantentersastateofdeepmeditationinordertosummonthedivinitiesfromhisbodypartofanopeningritewhichalsoinvolvesLightingtheBurner(Falu)andCallingForththeOfficers(Chuguan) (Asano 2002, 17071; Davis 2001, 30708; Andersen in Pregadio2007,40041). 15

15Thisconnectionofvisualizationandritualisdocumentedinseverallostscriptures listed in the fifteenthcentury Daozang quejing mulu (CatalogueofMissingScripturesoftheDaoistCanon,DZ1430).TwosuchtextsonPicturesofCallingForththeOfficials(Chuguantu)andPicturesofMeditating on the Officers (Gongcao sishen tu ) have the headingZhengyi (OrthodoxUnity),referringtotheDaoismoftheCelestialMastersschool.Theymayhavebeenvisualaidsformastersincallingforthhisbodygodsin ritual. Other texts with the prefix Zhengyi fawen are related toMengAnpai (fl.699).See YJQQ6.18a;SchipperandVerellen2004,467.


The twelfthcentury Yutang dafa (Great Rites of the JadeHall, DZ 220), compiled by the Tianxin (Celestial Heart) DaoistmasterLuShizhong ,depictsrelevantritualbodygods(Fig.6ad)

a. b. c. d.Fig.6:a.MasterOfficer;b.JadeMaiden;c.Officer;d.HeavenlyClerics(DZ220,4:74c75b)

(Boltz1987,3338;Hymes2002;AnderseninSchipperandVerellen2004,107073;AnderseninPregadio2007,71516;Davis2001,5657).TheyareshownasstereotypicalMasterOfficials(Fig.6a),JadeMaidens(Fig.6b),Officers(Fig.6c),andHeavenlyClerics(Fig.6d).

AseriesofdynamicillustrationsfromaTangvisualizationmanualofferalternativerepresentationsofthebodygodscalledoutbytheadept(Fig.7ab)(Dacunsituzhujue,SecretInstructionsandIllustrationsoftheGreatVisualizations,DZ875;YJQQ43:95356,96366;seeLagerweyinSchipperandVerellen2004,498).

a.


b.Fig.7:a.Visualizationof thesoldiersandhorsesoncloudswhiletheadeptwalksin ritual;b.Visualizationofthebodyguardswhileascending totherostrumtopreach(DZ875,18:720c21a;18:722ab).

Thetextoffersinstructiononhowtopracticevisualizationatdifferent times and for different purposes. Each section ends with a phrasethatreadstheimageis[illustrated]assuchattheleft(qixiangruzuo ).Inthe Daozangversion,thisphraseisfollowedby Fig.7a.Anoteon theupper leftofan illustrationconcernscolor:Theperfectedbeing[adept] shouldwear thebluishgreencapandgreengarments, andtherest of the figures andcloudscanbedrawnas [the illustrator]sees fit(18:721a).

This image shows the swift arrival of officials, generals, andheavenlyanimalsonclustersofcloudssurroundinganadept,whomeditatesin a seatedposition inside apavilion (18:720c21a).This illustrateshowanadept shouldvisualize the soldiers andhorsesoncloudswhile theadept walks [in ritual].The accompanying text refers to thesemobiledeitiesasthecelestialboys,jademaidens,heavenlydeities,earthdeities,sunandmoon,stars,FiveEmperorsandninebillionriders comingoutoftheadeptsorgans(18:719c20b).

Fig. 7b, next, depicts the body guards manifesting themselves infrontoftheadeptsaswarriorsonhorses,andfloatingontaperingclouds.Thisillustrateshowtovisualizethe bodyguardswhileascendingtotherostrum[topreach.]Basedonthis,itislikelythataSouthernSongritualmasterwouldvisualizeimagesliketheseinhismindwhilesummoninghisbody gods in ritual.Compared to the godsdepicted in Dadongzhenjing (see Figs. 2ad above), whose content veers toward selfcul


tivationandmeditation, thedepictions in this textpresent a larger andmoredynamicassemblyofbodygods.

Journeys to the DipperA rather different type of imagery inDaoistmaterials features the adepts imaginary journeys to thestars,visualizationswhich enable themtointegrateselfandDao,bodyandcosmosonahigherlevel(Robinet1989;Kohn1992,96116;1993,257).

Fig.8: ImaginaryJourney to theFirstStaroftheDipper intheSpring (DZ765,17:219a).

A prime example appears in theWudou sanyi tujue(IllustratedInstructionsofVisualizingtheThreeOnesintheFivePhasesoftheDipper,DZ765)(Fig.8),aShangqingdocumentoftheSixDynasties which focuses on the adepts ecstatic journey to and beyond theDipperattheEightNodesoftheyear,i.e.,atthebeginningofthefourseasonsplusthesolsticesandequinoxes.

TheexampleshownheredepictsthespringtimejourneytothefirststaroftheDipper,YangBrightness.Theadeptisseatedattherightofthepictureplane, facing theDipperat theupper left.TheDipper is represented as a graphic configuration of seven dots lined up like a scoop


withahandle(Kohn1993,213). 16AyoungladystandingbelowtheDippermay represent the celestial attendant of the first star. Between theadeptandtheDipperaretwogroupsofsevenseatedfigures,movinginoppositedirections.Thegroupingofsevenechoesthesevenvisiblestarsof theDipper. 17 In eachgroup, the figureswearbureaucratic robes andholaudiencetablets,whilemovingalongontaperingclouds.

Theexplanatorynotesabovethe illustrationdesignate theadeptatthecenterasaperfected(zhenren)withgarbdifferentfromthatoftheothers (17:218a).The groupat thebottom ascending to theDipperrepresenttheadept;theyarethebodygodscalledtheThreeOnes(Sanyi) as well as other internal divinities (Robinet 1993, 124127; Kohn1989;2007).ThegroupontopdescendingfromtheDippermayindicatetheadeptsjourneybacktoearth.

Fromtheperspectiveofvisualstudy,theexplanatorynotesprovidevaluableinformation.Likematerialsinsimilardocuments(Figs.7a,13),theyfunctionascoloringguidelinesforillustrators.Onemayeveninferthat the original illustrations were handcolored drawingsthe dominant formofreligious illustrationsproducedbefore theageofprinting(Drge1999).

The Dipper occupies a significant place inChinese visual cultureevenbeyondreligion.IntheHandynasty,itappearsinpictorialartasaseriesofsevendotsjoinedbystraightlinesformingtheshapeofascoopormimickingtheimperialchariot,suchasintherubbingretrievedfromtheWuFamilyShrine (Tseng2001, 173,226) (Fig.9) . 18

16Cf. Tianguansantujing ,(DZ1366,33:808b18c);Robinet1989,178;Kohn1993,25767.ScholarshavesuggestedthattheTianguansantujing wasaddedtothe Daozang fromaSongcanon;see SchipperandVerellen2004,32.

17TheDipper consists of seven visible stars and two invisible ones.Foradiagram,seeKohn1993,213.

18ForassociationsoftheDipperwiththeimperialchariotinTangandSongsources,seeYuShinan(588638),Beitangshuchao 150:7b;Taipingyulan 7:3b; Su Song (10201101), Xin yixiang fayao , 28; WangYinglin (12231296),Yuhai 1:2a. OnDaoiststars,seeSchafer1977.


Fig. 9: Rubbing of aKingRiding on aChariot in the Shapeof theDipper.WuLiangShrine,Shandong. Handynasty(Zhongguogudaitianwenwenwutuji,51).

AtenthcenturydrawinginaDunhuangcalendar datedfrom924(S.2404)similarlydepictsanintriguingscenecalledtheMethodofSirImmortalGeforHonoringtheGreatDipper(Fig.10;see Mollier2008,149152, Fig. 4.3).Theofficiallooking ImmortalGe, i.e.,GeXuan (seeBokenkampinPregadio2007,44445),kneelsinfrontoftwocelestialfigures landing on amattress under the scooplike Dipper diagram. ThegodoftheDipperwearskinglyrobesandacap,holdinga tablet inhishands.Afemaleattendantstandsbehindhim.Thetextbelowindicatesthatthescenetakesplaceatnight(Mollier2008,14142,149)

Fig.10:GeXiangongWorshipingtheDipper(S.2404).


Because of its symbolic role as axismundi and its position as thebridgebetweenthesunandthemoon,theDipperhasplayedanimportantroleinmedievalDaoistritualperformanceandvisualization (Kohn1992,110,114;Mollier2008,13473). 19AsPoulAndersennotes,theDaoist ritual dances of walking along the guideline and treading on thestars of the Dipper (bugang tadou) can be traced back to theearlySixDynasties (1990; inPregadio 2007, 237).Pertinent to theritualdancemimickingtheDipper isachoreographicdiagramemployed inavisualization practice called Method of Pacing the Kongchang (BuKongchangzhidao)(Fig.11a)(Wuxingqiyuankongchangjue ,DZ876,18:725ab). 20 Inadditiontothesevenvisiblestars,thisdiagrammarksthetwoinvisibleones:theImperialStar(Dixing ,or Fu ) and the Honorable Star (Zunxing or Bi) within thescoop(Robinet1989,17273).Ifadeptscanseethesestars,theymaylivefor hundreds of years, as many as 300 or even 600 (YJQQ 24:54748;25:563).

a.

19AlreadytheLaozizhongjing notesthattheDipperresidesinthehead,thorax,andabdomen oftheinnerbody;seeSchipper1993,108.

20Kongchang refersto the invisiblestars;seeRobinet in SchipperandVerellen2004,172.ForSongsamplesofritualdancediagramspreservedinearlyTianxintexts,seeZhuguojiuminzongzhenbiyao (DZ1227,[dat.1116],32:103c,104b,105c).See AnderseninSchipperandVerellen2004,1060.


b.Fig.11:a.ChoreographyfortheDanceoftheDipper(DZ876,18:725ab);b.TheNinePalacesofthePerfectedoftheNineHeavens(DZ1396,34:245a).

Thevirtualexperienceofpacingthevoidandtraversingstarsisalsoechoed inaTangmeditativestarmapfound in theHetubaolu(PreciousRegisteroftheRiverChart,DZ1396, 34:245a;Mollier2008,166,170,Fig.4.11;SchipperinSchipperandVerellen2004,60203)(Fig.11b).Itshowsboththeninepalacesofthestellardeitiesaswellastheirninemalegods,eachwearingatopknotandholdingatablet. 21Thesearecircledstationsconnectedbymeanderinglines,whichindicatethecelestialpathwaysadeptsvisualize.

21The convention of representing the nine star gods and their palaces incirclesisalsoprominentintwootherTangtext:Zhengyimengweifalu ,DZ791,28:478a; Qusujuecilu ,DZ1392,34:174c75b(Mollier2008,16869,Fig.4.10).


Stellar Imagery in the BodyThe tradition has continued unbroken into late imperial and modernDaoism. The thirteenthcentury Shangqing lingbao dafa (Great RitesofHighest Clarity andNuminousTreasure,DZ 1221) containsadiagramusedinritualvisualizationsthatshowstheNinePalaces(jiugong)linedupintheadeptshead(Fig.12),whichinturnfloatsonamassofcloud (EspositoinPregadio2007,77577). 22

Fig.12Illustrationof theNinePalacesvisualized in a Daoists head (DZ1221,30:673a).

ThisinnervisionoftheNinePalacesrecallsthePictureoftheNinePalaces (Jiugong zifang tu ; DZ 156) circulated in the TangtoNorthern Song period (Schipper in Schipper and Verellen 2004, 612),shownhereinasectionalview(Fig.13).TheYJQQpraisesthepowerofthispictureforenablingadeptstovisualizeandreachthecelestialdeities(80:1833).Thepictureislaidouthorizontallyand,likeahandscroll,isviewedtobe fromrightto left.Here,asalso intheDacunsituzhujue(Fig.7a)andtheWudousanyitujue(Fig.8),theillustrationsareaccompaniedbyshortnotestomaketheircontentclear.Theysignifytheprocess

22This is similar to the torso image in the Jinshu yuzi shangjing, DZ 879,18:743c44a;Mollier2008,Fig.4.8,164.NeswaldhasidentifiedtheNinePalacesintheheadasmentionedintheHuangtingjingwiththecorrespondingpointsofMt.Kunlun,thecelestialdwellingofQueenMotheroftheWest(2009,30).


ofvisualizationandclarifytheconnectionbetweenbodyandcosmos.Ontheright,theadeptstorsoappearsfirstinprofile,thenfrontalshowinghisconcentrationontheNinePalacesinhishead.Twolargetowersfollowingthetorso imagesserveaselaborationsof theNinePalaces illustrated in theprevious twotorsos.FollowingthetwotowermotifsareaseriesofvisualizationscomparabletoFig.8.

Fig.13:VisualizationPictureofthePurpleChamberandtheNinePalaces.Detail. Shangqingdongzhenjiugongzifangtu,DZ156,3:128b.

A forerunnerof this technique is the Method of Reclining in theDipper(wodoufa ),firstrecordedinthefourthcenturyJinshu yuzishangjing (Golden Book with Jade Characters, DZ 879,18:743c44a). Here the adept should lie on a mat, covered with thegraphicpatternsoftheDipper(Robinet1993,207).Therecliningmethodhelpshimseetheessenceoftheninestarsfusingandtransformingintoadivinity,sittinginachariotandilluminatehisentireinnerbody(Mollier2008,163).Theaccompanyingdiagramshowsachildundertheconstellation(Fig.14)(Mollier2008,164,Fig.4.8).Hisfeetpointtotheeightandninthstars,whilehishandstouchthesecond andfourthstars.

In the Southern Song, the same practice is associated with theTianxintraditionasfoundintheYutangzhengzonggaobenneijingyushu (Jade Text of FlyingHigh in the Inner Landscape


fromtheCorrectTradition,DZ221,4:133b34c;Robinet1993,208;Mollier2008,163164)(Fig.15) . 23

Fig.14:DiagramoftheDipperandtheTwentyeight Lodgings (DZ 879,18:743c).

Matching the swift flight of the stars from the sky to the adeptsmouth,theseillustrations(Fig.15)depicttheadeptsmagicalabsorptionoftheDipper.Thesevenstarsilluminateallhisorgansaswellashiseyes.Sixoftheimagesfeatureanimaginarytorsowithaheadattachedtotherelated organ. For example, the sixth image (Fig. 15f), showing a relationship between the sixth star and the kidneys, consists of a headspinalcordbodychartwiththekidneyshighlightedinthelowerbody.

23Fora similar description of theReclining in theDipper (Wodou)and the original layout of the illustrations, see Yutang zhengzonggaoben neijingyushu,DZ221,4:132a34c.


a. b. c. d.

e. f. g.Fig.15:TheDescentoftheSevenStarsoftheDipperintotheBodilyOrgans(DZ221,4:129b30b).a.thefirstStarintheheart;b.thesecondStarinthelungs;c.thethirdStarintheliver;d.thefourthStarinthespleen;e.thefifthStarinthestomach;f.thesixthStarinthekidneys;g.theseventhStarintheeyes.


The Iconic Form of the DipperElsewhere in the text, the Dipper is personified as nine sacred figures(Fig.16a)(4:129b30b). Sevenaredepictedaslonghairedmaledeitiesinlongrobes,holdingatabletwithbothhands in frontof thechest. 24Theothertwo,followingtheseven,aredepictedasimperialfigureswearingroyalcapswithpendantsandholdingtabletsinbothhands.ThisechoestheconceptoftheImperialStarsnotedintheaccompanyingtext(4:130b),whichidentifythesetwofiguresastheinvisibleeighthandninthstars.

SimilariconographiesoftheninestardeitiesoftheDipperareillustrated inotherDaoist textsdating to the thirteenthcentury (Fig. 16bc)(DZ220,4:10a11a;Beidoubenmingyanshengzhenjingzhujie ,DZ751,17:53a54b;Mollier2008,Fig.4.5,157).Thisiconography seems tobesharedbyBuddhismaswell.The imagesof the sevenstardeities seen in the aforementionedDaoist texts compare closely tothose in theYuandynasty (12791368)Buddhist scripture Foshuobeidouqixingyanmingjing(SutraoftheGreatDipper)(Fig.16d) (T.21.1307;seeMollier2008,136140,especiallyFig.4.1,139).

a.

b.

24Cf. the iconographyof thesesevenstardeities in the formsofperfectedbeingswhowear jewelrycrownsandcolorful shawlsandhold jade tablets inhandsin YJQQ 25:563.


c.

d.Fig.16:TheDivinitiesoftheDippera. DZ221,4:129b130b;b.DZ220,4:10a11a;c.DZ751,17:53a54b;d.T.21.1307.

AnanonymousSouthernSongpaintingfromtheJapaneseHgonjicollectiondepictsthestardeitiesoftheDippersimilarlytothoseseenintheaforementionedreligioustexts(Fig.17)(Ide2001,pl.14;NaraMuseum 2009, 172: Fig. 121).On a background mimicking the sky atnight,thestardeitiesdescendonclouds inagroupformationrecallingthescoopshapedDipper. 25

25IwouldliketothankDavidBrodyforhisinputontheHgonjicomposition. For an innovative interpretation of a Song copy of a Tang court paintingwhose composition echoes the diagram of the Dipper, see theNorthern SongCopyofZhangXuansLadyGuoguoonanOuting (FangZhangXuanGuoguofurenyouchuntu )inMiao2006,Fig.2(no pageno.),34.


Fig.17: Deities of the Dipper.SouthernSong.Thirteenthcentury(?).Ink,colorandgoldonsilk. 112.5x54.1 cm. HogonjiTemple, Shiga, Japan (NaraMuseum 2009,172:Fig.121).

Theseven longhaireddeitiesaredressed inwhite,collarsandupper sleeves decorated with exquisite golden patterns. The redness oftheirshoescontrastswith theirwhiteclothesandthedarkbackground.Following these seven deities are two attendants depicted as officialswearingceremonial robes,multicolored in red,black,white, andgold.Theirdress resembles that from a thirteenthcenturyDaoist textshowninFig.16c. Intheforegroundaretwofemaledeitiesholdingswords.


Accompanyingcolophonswritten in smallgoldencharacters identifythemasmessengersservingtheDipper:Qingyangontherightand Tuoluoni on the left.The fourteenthcentury Qingwei (Pure Tenuity) texts associatedwith the ritual summoning of the godsfirst make reference to these two deities (Daofa huiyuan , DZ1220, 28:820b, 29:15c.Xuanshuzougaoyi , DZ 218, 3:611c; seeSkarinPregadio2007,8045). 26

TheHgonjipaintingprobablywasusedinaritualforsummoningthe star gods, 27as is suggested by a diagram in the thirteenthcenturyliturgicalmanual Lingbao lingjiao jidu jinshu (GoldenBookofSalvationaccordingtotheLingbaoTradition,DZ466)(Fig.18).

Fig.18DiagramoftheImageDisplayontheNorth,WestandEastWallsoftheOuterAltar(DZ466,7:27c28a).

26Inthese14thcenturysources,thetwomessengersarefurtheridentifiedastheQingyangMessengerYang[Ruming]([])andtheTuoluoniMessenger[GengMiaozhen]([]), membersofDippertroops.

27TheiconographyoftheHgonjiscroll iscomparabletothefifteenthcenturyWater Land painting from the BuddhistMonastery Baoningsi; seeShanxi1985, pl.74;Mollier2008,Fig.4.12,171.


Accordingtothis,theimageoftheDipperistobesuspended(xuan) on the east [left] wall of the outer altar area next to images of theNineHeavens(jutian),theSixPlanets(liuyao ),theThreeChancelleries(sansheng),theThreeOfficials(sanguan),andtheFiveSacredPeaks(wuyue)(Huang2001,13,Fig.4).

The imperialpainting catalogue of theNorthern Song, theXuanhehuapu (Xuanhe Painting Catalogue), sponsored by EmperorHuizong(r.11001125), labelsnumerousDaoistpaintings fromtheearlySongasimagesofstardeities,quitelikethosemarkedonthealtardiagram. 28Some of thesepaintingsmay evenhavebeen transmitted totheSouthernSongcourtandusedthereonritualoccasions.

ConclusionThis article investigates the esoteric image tradition of body gods andstarry travelasalternativesourcesofDaoistartandvisualculture.Themajorityofimagesunderinvestigationaretheillustrations,charts,mapsfrom theMing Daoist Canon. These Daoist images form an importantpartofChinesetu,whichdenotesbroadlypictures,charts,diagrams,drawings,designs,andpictureliketexts(Reiter1990;Brayetal.2007).AsystematicstudyoftheseDaoistimagesalsohelpsustorethinkDaoistmysticism,visualizationand meditationfromavisual angle.

Inrepresentingbodygods,someimageshighlightthegodsexitingthe adeptsbody (Fig. 2ad), others focus on genericbureaucratic gods(Figs.4,6ad),whileothersyetdepictthesegodsindynamicmovement,stressingtheirabilitiestobeswiftlysummonedandnavigate incosmos(Fig. 7ab).The evocationofbodygods, thoughnotvisible to the audienceobservingtheritual,playsacrucialroleintheofficiantsvisualizationandtheperformanceofcallingforththeofficersasameantoactivatetheritual.

The imagesofthejourneystothestars,on theotherhand,emphasizetheconnectionbetweenthestarsandtheindividual.Somestressthe

28Paintings of astral deities are listed under the headings of Daoist andBuddhist Paintings (Daoshi) as well as Figure Paintings (Renwu).SeeXuanhehuapu,inZhongguoshuhuaquanshu ,vol.2,editedbyLuFusheng (Shanghai: Shanghai shuhua chuban she, 1993), 6475, 78, 83;Huang2001,14;Ebrey2008,29397.


adepts going to the stars (Figs. 8, 11, 12, 13), while others feature thestarscomingto theadept either inprivatemeditationor inritualperformance(Figs.15,16,17).

MostimagesofbodygodsandstarrytravelfromtheDaozangareillustrated in the Six DynastiestoTang Shangqing texts or the Songdynasty Tianxin texts connected to the earlier Shangqing tradition.Scholarsseethesetextsas internal textscirculatedonlyamongselectedadepts. This is perhaps why these images, in spite of their repetitivepresences in the Daozang texts, have remained esoteric in the overallDaoistvisuality.Viewedinthisway,theimagesdiscussedinthisarticleformacontrarytotheimageswewillexploreinPart2ofthisstudy(JDS2011). There, we will discuss illustrations of body worms and bodychartsusedby inneralchemists fromtexts ingeneralcirculationduringtheSong.

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Journal of Daoist Studies Vol. 3 2010