journal of International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance

A F R I C A R E G I O N

Journal of International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport

&and Dance (1CHPER.SD) Africa Region

Vol. 2, No* 1

P~dbIislzed by a Ion, @International Council for Health, Physical Educ t'

Recreation, Sport and Dance "ICHPER.SD A£rica Region".

Prii~ted by: BayoSoye Printing Services Coca-Cola Ibadan 08035673884

Published 2008

r All riglits Reserved

Contents

I'age Teaching Q ~ ~ a l i l y Physical t'ciucalion A Cutr~rnitriit~nl Tol\- i~r~ls EnIiancit>g Education Excellence in African Kegion In llic New h,lillcnniutll I Frufissor /uhrl A. / I ~ i ~ ~ i l ~ ~ j i

Allit~tde of ,Sccundarv Schoc,l Fcmiile Adolrsccnls in ll?.id.in Tci\\ .cir~l~ Fetl~dIc ';~l~ilill h l ~ ~ l i l ~ i l i ~ ~ t ~ 1 0 Ailel. Inlcrvenlion Progl-ammc on A\val.cncss ul l 's)cl~o-l'li!~siulc~fiic~il Irnplicatiori o l liic l'raclicc Dr. (Mrs.) T.A. Aliirriurrsi

I-leallh Education And Ni~c r i an National Develo~rnrnt 111 This blillenninti~ Dr. Frfl~~~.ist,lr (?/rikif Arr;/~?irii~rr 6 L>I-. /<llf!l ~)1~/1171r!/lf ,~lf~ll-k~[~.Sl'.~

Tlir Placr of Physical Activities and Wcllnrss in Achirvinl: M i l l c n ~ ~ i ~ ~ m I>cvcfopmc~it Coal Bi11rr;~b~~ '1'. A . ei LJlu~j~~~I,~ 1'. /\ .

Enhancing the Achievetilent oi lhc hilillcnni~im Dc\ elopmenl Goals Tlii-o~rgl~ I lcallli Ed~rcatioti 25 Ekoko R. 0. ~5 Ol~oro F. I.

Kliowledge and AtliIuJe of Nuacs Toward Ulilization of Ilc.illl1 Education in Acliieving Millcnniiim Dcvelopmctit Goals in Caidhar; Cros.? I<i\.cr Sl<~tc. Nigct-i,~ 3.7 P~ltirrlue E. Snirrson-Akhmii (Mrs.), Eilrorr I / . DliIl, ( M E . ) , Ehp~io,~~liil~lli E . s ~ ~ ( ~ I I ~ I I I ~ o (Mrs.) ii CMLY C. Rulririsi~rr-Bns.~~y fL1r.J

) Teaclicrs' Awareness ol h~lillcn~iiunl Vevclopmct~l C;oLils ;itid Ccndcr Abusc I1rc\,cnlioii Through 38 Ilealth Education in Secondary Schools in Cnlahar, Nigeria.

: M n y li. E,I/u (P11.11) 6 Prifivrrcr. Snrrrsorr-Ak{~fl!r (Mrs.)

Mental IZcadincss: I'sychological Tips for Optitniil Pcriormancr ol Tcntiis I'lnycrs in Lhc New IC Millennium 43 vr. (M~s.) / I ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ c. M. />rob I~ I , I~~? ,O 11. ij. ol~~.v, LLB, DL.)

:s Nulritional S~t1.7~~lef1iet1talion arid EliteSports Pcrlormancc

,T AL~irss, A.O., OIi?~iipo, 1. U., L ; I I I ~ Y I / I I ~ ~ L I L;.& /\/(I, 5.B.

I7erceived Sources Of Stress Aluo~lg Fetllalc Soccer Players In Lagos Slate, Nigeri,~ At~it~clii, Cecil O~~t/crnrrchi

Id Physical activity and exercise as a tool for the managemrnt o i HIV/AII)S 0. A. Alil~rt~follr (1'11.1)) ei M. A A~L$~!IP

id1 7Ic Preventing Ce t~de r Abusc Through I3ealll1 Education

M.A. OI111iflyo - Fntirc;yrire, PI!. D.

o 11 Sport l'sychologp and The Mill~nniutil Lle\.elop~ncnl C:oals: An Echo iot- I',irlnc~-in:: Actiotl 72

111 IJrqf Aik,~noIn Orrifrrrlc ii 1lr. lsialc /Ikirrlu!~t~ O!l~~i~~rrrri

:ac. I'rovision and ULilizalion of t4eallh Care Ser\.ices as C:orrclaies of Incidelicc of 0ccupation;iI 75

Diseases Among Textile Workers In Lagos State, Nigeria Dr. Ogrtrtdl~lr Ii.0, b Dr. O~rmrinrrtri, M.:I.C7

illy

I<clalionship Bclwectl Frcclt~ency And Inlunsily Of Traini~rg ,4114 blcn~ll-n~tl Flow' And Pains Ati~otlg SO Nigerian Universily Female Athletes ~ l ~ f ~ l r ~ ~ , V. (hlrs.) ei V~~r!kiftl~.~~r~rrr/!~, K. f Prof)

Needs for Elfecti\:e and Q~iality blanagenlenl 01 l - t c ~ . ~ l t l ~ Ed~rciilion i l l Acllie\,ing Millenniuln Uevelop~nent Coals. Blni~o, liiri~~ fellri bOmui~od~~, T~rirrarinrebi C'irkiii~r.

The I'lace of Dance in the Goals ol Education Fidelnin LI. Okiucsn (l'11.D)

Total Quality Managelllent ilnd Managen~ent by Objective for Achieving the Millet~~lium Develop~nent Goals in Spurts Admillistration: Tile Nigeria Experience Dr. 1. 0. Arr~o!/infn ti Dr. C. 0. F~?snr~

Univcl.sily Sludcnl-Recrrnliwisls' Pcrrcplion On T l~c Interplay 01' Leisurc i\lld Wc-llncss A:: Aven~les For Pro~noting The Mi l l e~mir~~n Filness Goals Oklliibor, A.O. P1i.D. & Agiumibikt,, E.O. PI1.D.

Effect of Physical Exercises on the Body Coordination of Persons with Mental Retardation O?jurlduyifz, J.O. P1r.d rrird A~fi,po/rl, A.B.

Will People Living Wilh HIV/AIDS be Accepted in Nigerian Schools?: Redclions of School Stakeholders in Edo state, Nigeria Dr. M. A. Olzrb~~!/o-Fntirt~~r~ir nrrd Dr. R. B. A!/odiali,

Empowering Adolescenls Sexual Km>owledgc and Uel?aviour Through Schoul Basccl Sexualily Education Progra l l~~ l~e Alicniijll Pn~ilille Ll~.eizzun (Mrs.)

Gender lmbalance Determinants And Leadership Status Of Women In Sports Adminislratiol~

i Dupr Banjo

SLress Management Exercises for the Competilive Atl~lele: Attainillg Millennium Development Goal Nunrber Six Mlrobuglla~.c, P. A. (PIID), Nnbo.31, 0 . E. C. Ahrnh, E.

- Nutritional Supplemel~tatio~ and Elite Sports Performance

Abass, A.O., Oladipo, I. O., Emeahara G. Dl~~~nrtii~t~itt ofl~irrrrrrrrr Kiri?ti~,s &' /.l~vilflr Ediiolfinrr,

Llrrivcrsif!y !l?[lb~ldnrl, Nigkrin;

&

Alo, S.B. C/o Dcpnrtincirt oftlrriirnbr Nirtn'tion

Collqi. of Mrdiciile Llitiuersit!/ [ ~ f llir~~lnit, Ni~n.in.

Abstract Tl~is paper nttia~rrpf fo criticnlllj rcoiem n!~d ii~z~rstgotr' tlrr,

I-

role of Ntitritiotl irr physic~nl oct.irrittcs mrd sports pei:forrinrnct'. Tl~r rcvii?w eonllrntes thc th?ort.ticnl rntiurrnlr~ nrrd )lot~~irtifll effects of athletic peiforrrrnnc~ of cnrboll~jdt~ntc, proteiir nrtd ii~icroiir~trient s~,pplcrr~ei~fntior~. Cnrbol7!/drntes nrcz tlr? most i@cieittfitel for e~cerg!] pradr~ctio~~. 77wy m11 nlso L? storr~i ns glycogen iff rrrilscle n17d liurr,frr~rctio~rirlg ns n rendil!y nvnilolrlr c~terg!y for proloi~ged sfrrrrcrore e.sr,risr, For nrl clite ntlrlctc tlrr totni rrlcrgy rcqnir~rireilt is nir nucrnge of 4500 colories peer' a From prmiorts strrdics, due fo flre di$jic~iIties of

, rvn1unfir1,p energy oicfpcit d1rr;ng sports pr~fornrnnce, the cnlorirs r.tp~~rzdrd wcre riot s tntrd.

St11.dir.s oil ntldetts ~itiliziri~ onreyn-3 ,f~ntf!y ncid nrrd ~zeifiui~z - chnirl tr~jglycerrides (MCTs) utye nssocioted ioith iinp?ou~tneirts in inctn6olic iirdices. S~rpplr~ni~i~tntio,r roitlt cssentinl uifnmins, ntetn6olic intrrtnrdintes ond nzinernls slzor~~s cor~$ictin,p resnlts, zuhich demnndsfirrtfrer rcsenrch. Of fhe nlifriertts rcuirwd, imrlrolrydrntes, Dmriclzcd-cllairt nirti~ro acids (BCAA) and crentiirr nppenrs to linve tlle most nutritiorznl ergogenic potentinis for athletes iillvolvcd irr n~drrrnnce ntrd irttrrzse trninilrg. All srcpplernents reoierv~~d herr rleed irtore'runl~mtior~ for safety nltd @?cts 011 athletic perfornmiice.

Keywords: Micronutrient, Glycoge~t, Calories, Creatine, BCCA, Ergogenic, MCTs.

Introduction Nutrition is an important feature of any training

pfogramme. Qgs&ngbe (2005) defined nutrition as an

aspect of science that deals wit11 the relationship of food to the proper functioning of the body using clien~icals for gr"oth axid providittg energy to;. day to day living. Fro~n earliest times, certaui foods were regarded as essential preparation for vigorous exercise. Aside from nat~cral talent and training, nutrition may be the most important influence on athletic perforlnance (American Dietetic Association, 1993). Good feeding can be good fuel for muscular work, energy supplies and ultinlately i~liprove performance capacity.

Sports nutrition is the terln normally applied to those aspects of nutrition science that relates to the interaction

. - . .b - ;b; - , l bnd ~hysical activity (Maughan, 2001). - I . . . ..

tremendous demand on [he physical condition, vitality, ertdurance and ntenlal powers ol the participants today Inore than ever before. Since high performance standards are now demanded lrom athletes, those who are in the finest and fittest conditions can withstand the wear and tear of competitive sports season.

Success in competitive sports, especially at the elite level goes beyo~td adequale training experience and fitness level ol the individual athlete. It involves tl~orough scientific manipulations or permutatioils of which nutrition play a very significant role. In an attempt to seek cqlnpetitive edge, athletes are often susceptible to fat d i ~ t s or supple~itents that have 1101 been scier~tifically validated.

For the purpose of this paper, emphasis would be placed on the contribution of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and tnicron~rtrienls to elile sports performance. Tl~erefore, the focus of [his paper is to examine the specific contribution of selected food supplemenl to athletic performance at the elite level.

Carbohydrate, Exercise and Sports Perforn~ance Carbohydrate foods have been identified as havine

the most significant impact 011 exercise performance especially prolonged, strenuous exercise (Costill anc Hargreaves, 1992; Buskirk and Puhl, 1989; Valeriani 1991). Carbohydrates are present to muscles primarily a: the monosacchal-ide glucose. Accordir~g to Oloyede anc Akinsanmi (2005) carbohydrates are coinposed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen. The. combination of these thre elements fonns either sugars or starches that provi& primary source of fuel for the body. Since carbohydrate are the major source of energy at exercise intensities r >70% VOZ inax, its availability to exercising muscle obviously of paramount inlportance for rnaintena~~ce 1

performance. Wlien ntuscle glycogen stores are deplete and blood glucose levels are significantly lowerem fatigue sets in (Valeriani, 1991).

Carbohydrate status is directly related lo dieta intake rather than other variables. During long-ter exercise lasting more than 2 hours, muscle glycog stores are lnobilized first (Friedman, Neufer and Dok 1991), followed by blood glucose (Miller and Massa: 1949), livcl. glycogr~,, glucc,i~rogcncsis, and (inn

- r-..I....I .-,t, r1hPn becol

tllc chicf t,rlerg) %lurre ic~r exel-cising muscle (LVillian~s, 1985; Sherlnan, IYS3). - A carboliydralc loading diet is a strategy used by endurance athleles lo incrcase muscle glycogen rcserves in order to improve perlo!-mancc. Carhohydralc l o , ~ r l i ~ i ~ can be accomplished in two stages: Llre depletion ?lase (Aslrand or classical regimen) and [he carbohydralc IoaJirlg stage (Sllcrman/C.'ostilI mcthocl). In llrr lirsl

9 method [he alhlele combii1es cxercisc with c l ~ a r i ~ e s in carbohydrale inlake. Duriiig the carboliyclsate loading stage, the diet is swilcliecl Lo a high- carboltj~drate intake for [he nest three days, wl~ilc training is reduced.

Carboliydrate loading is a pre-e\ienl str-alcgy Ihal improves performance for solne endnrance alhletes. Ogedengbe (2005) slalcd 1I1,11 rn;lxi!nclln glycogc,n .sl[>ragr is very imporlant for athletes like middle distance evenls, long-distance runners, and long-distance sporls likc cycling where endura~rce lreighlens sincc glycogc~i loading is a major source of mei-gy for high inter~sity and duration.

Protein, Amino acid and Athletic Performance Amino acids are [lie building blocks oi protein. A

considerable amocint of research lras evai~laled dicl,lry prolein needs ol allilcles (Krcicicr, 1999). T~venly anrinu acids a w ncedcci lo build Lhc val-ious prolein used in lhr growtl~, repair and inainlenance of body [issues. Accorcling to Ihe instilule of Medicuie of the Nalional

I.

Academies (2002) the recommended daily allowhnce (RDA) for prolein is 0.8 of k ~ / d lor all healthy adulls, will1 110 increase lor persons who exercise regularly.

Calnpbell and Geik (2004) observed that endurance athletes may require 1.2 - 1.4s of kg/d and strength- trained alhlclcs may rcquirc as much ;IS 1.6 - 1 . 7 ~ 111 kg/d ol prolein. Allho~lgll (11~1-e is 50111~- dcbalc, inosl s l~tdies indicate that in order Lo mainlain protein halance d~r r ing inlense resistance, including endurance t ra in i~~g, athletes should ingest approxi:nately 1.3 to 1.Sg o l protein per kg body inass per day (Bulterfield, 1991; Lemon, 1998; KI-eidei; 1999). PI-oleins (and ainino acids) are a minor soul-ce of energy lor exercising muscles which account lor 5 lo 1O0b of energy production during endurance exercise (Lemon and Proclor, 1991; Lemon, 1987; Kaulmann, 1990).

The anlinu acid, glulan~inc supplcmr~~tal inn raisc:: levels of growth l~orrnone at a n inlake of 2 jiranls per day. This llelps to stimulale muscle growl11 according to the iindings of Macintyre (1987). Flowe\.rr, Nicman and Pcdersen (1999) noted tI1'1t glutaiiiine supplementation ],as nol improved pcr lorm~nce or immune slatus of hained atlileles Crcatine ~ u ~ ~ n o h y d r a l e is us~:d in luusclc

i t isst~e lor the yroduclion o i pliospliocrcatine (L'C), a faclor in the lormalion of ATP (Greenhaff, 1995j. Tn the opi~iion of Kreider (1999) an increased slorcof creatiiie . would ilnprovc the ability lo pro~iucc- wcrgy Juring h ig l~ inletrsi1)t rwl-cise as well as iluprovc the r-[~cccl or recovery fi-om high-inlcnsity exercise. Flocvever, b1ujik.1 and I'adilla (1997) did I IOI :-ci~oi-1 any signiiicanl improvcmcnl. 1!r another ::[udy by Balsoln, Harriclgc

and Sodcr!ulrci, Sjuciin , Jlid Ukl,lc>rn (I9C13) crc.ili11t. s ~ i I e r ! c ! ~ l l i i t I f i l e I r , inc1.cnl.e cnilul-;in(? perlornrance, it ,?Iso c o n l r i l ~ ~ ~ t ~ c l 10 wriglit gain.

According lo Kelly (1997) s i~pplementnl Liranched ~11~ i in c ~ i ~ r i i ~ o cicids (IK'/\A) '10 1)ci1 ~ ~ : s L I I I i l l ~ n c - ~ i ~ ~ i ~ i s l ~ i l ch;ingcs in Liody compc~silinii or enhanced pliysicnl (raining and euercise pel-fo~.mance. BCAAs is a c-on~L?in.ilion of leucine, isolcucinr ,111cl valinc, lhrcc oi l l ~ c eleven cssenli;~l amino ncids. 1-lieorclically l:('i\~\

s i~pplcnlcnia tion dul-ing intense [raining may hrlp ii~inin~izr-. prolein ciegradation ancl [hereby l e d lo grei1le1- p i n s in ial-frec n ~ + ? (Kreidcr, 1990).

I~lIvllS (bela 11ydros)-l>ct,i-mitl~\~Ih~~Lyrale) i.; a melaholite o l Iet~cine, one ~i i l ~ e esscl1lirll bi-a~lclied ~ l l ~ l i 1 1

i~lnino acids. Kt-cir<ci- 1 9 9 wrolr lli;11 I ~ I X I I : supplcn~cntation has been n:porlrd lo rccluce cc~labolisni and pr0111oLe grealcr gains in slr'nglh and fat-free in untrained individuals initiating training. I-lo~.vever, Lhc~-e are repurls of no signilicanl effect of I-IMU supplc~.iicnlalion in well-lrainrd ;illilrtes (KI-cider, 1999).

There is no convincin; e\~icicnce tllat incrcaseci dietary prclein inlake PI-ovi~ics a significant ergogenic cfIcct lor long-term endi~rancu cwi-cise. I-lowever, increased prolein inlakc n i ~ y L1c ncccs::.lry during shui-l- lei-m increases vf I I Ic, k>r<wcnl ncpilive allcratic~ns in nilrogcil nrclabolisin.

Fats and Ergogenesis Fats represent [he major source for nuiscular energy

al lccv inlensities, iinci training cnllances llle aliility lo melal~olize ids lor i n ~ ~ s c u l a r energy C~LII-iiig excrci5c (LYilliams, 1985). I-ligl~ intakes of dietary lat have experie~lced illmost no beneficial eficcts o n ~ n u s c ~ ~ l a r exercise k,crI'or~lia~lce anci I .rclually decl-rase pcrlorn1~1nc-e a lo liigll c~ir l lol~ydratc ~ l ic l s (Williams, 1985) ' -

Most fats consisl inainly or fatly acicls. There are at least 40 diflerent latl), acids. According lo King and Burgess (1993) each fatty acid is different beca~ise llle chains of carbon atoiils may be different lengihs (long -, medium -, aliil shui-l - chniii lC1lly acids).

Medilinl cha i l~ triglycer-ides (MCTs) contains a class of tally acids lorrnd orily in very srnall alnounls in (lie diet, tlicy ai-e inore I-apidly aLisnrbed aiici hiirned a s en'!-gy lhan arc ollirr i l s (Jeukrn~ll-LIP, Saris, Wasenmakers 1994). A controlled sluiiy iound increased periormance when MCTs \vet-e adcled to a IO'YU carboliydrale solution (Van Zyl, Lambert, IHalvley 1996), but another study actually reported Jecreascci perfor-lnance i,vilh lliis combination, t~ ro l~ab ly , due lo qasli-oinlcstin,?l dis lre~s, in alhlcles sing hl ( - rs (!ei!kendr~~p Tl~ielcn, Wagenmakc~rs 1998).

D m e p -3fatt); 'Icicis are l o ~ i g cllain, polyunsaluri~icd (ally acids with a double bond on the ilrircl c.irbo11 Irom llic end o l the ilicdec~~le. O l n e p -3 1,rlty acids maniiesl L~iological I'unciion:: tilal- h , ~ v e p~. ' , inu~,~l i ~ l l y ~ i n l c ~ ~ i c ; ~ l eflecl5 (No]-cloy, 1991). I%iulo~ical efiecls o i omega - 3 fatly aricls inclucl~ ainonsst othcr beiiclicial qualilies,

ieilured plasn~a cholesterol ancl Lr-i~lyceridcs levels (Siriiopoulos, 1991).

(h~icrunutrient Supplerncntativ~l and Ergogenesis blicronrtlrients i~iclude dielary co~ilpou~lds thal are

normally loumd in r1r recl~~ircd by lhe body in illinor +qnankitics. Esscnlial vilamins, miner'lls and rne1,ibolic

interniediates arc the n~os l common micro~?utrients.

Vitamins In tnost well-conlr-oiled studies, exercise pcriuriiiancc

lids not been shown Lo benefit from supplemenlalion o f Vilai~lin C, unless a cleficiency t.xisls, as iniglil occur in i ~ ~ l ~ l c l c s with ~~~xhea l lhy or irratiolial pallerns (Joh~islon Svan a n d CorLc 1999). Widcspre.ld use, availability, and low cost have prompted numerous st~idies on 11~1111an pcrfor~tiancc, with results t h d t are conlusing, confo~~nding, conteslable, conlrontational, contentious, contradictory, and controversial.

Vilami~i E tias not benefited exer-cise performance, except possihly at high ;:llitudcs (Simon-Scllnass and Pabst, 19%; Shephard, 1983; Tiidus and blouston, 1995). Rcci~~clions in L?loocl indicalors oi mirsrie ~iani.igt" and irce radical activity liave also bern i-rportccl lor supplemenlation with 100 lo 1,200 IU per day of \,il,irnin

In most studies (McBride Kraemer, Triplett-Mcsride, 998; Rokilzki, Logemarui, tIuber 1994; Meydaui, Evans, 4.

I-landelmnn 1993). Tlie U-con~plex vilan~ins art3 i111pul-la111 lot- all~lelcs,

because they are needed to produce energy from carbohydrales. Exercises may have slightly increased requirements for some of the B Vitamii~s, including Vitamin 02, Vitalnil1 136, and Vitamin 85 (pantothenic acid) (Keith and Alt, 1991); athlelic pcriormance ~'111

suffer if these slightly increased needs are tiol me1 (VatlderBcek, VanDokkum, Wedel '1994). However,

1 most athletes obtain enough B Vitaluins from their diet witlir~~it ~upplementation (VanderUeek, 9 9 ) and sup~~leti?cnhlion sludies Iiave found no cilect on perfor-mance measures lor Vitamin B2, I33 or B6 (Tremhlay, Boiland, Breton 3984; Murray Bal-toli, Eddy

I 1995, Manorc, 1994).

1 Metabolic Intermediates and Minerals The ilse of alkalinizil~g agents, such as sodium

, bicarbonale, sodium cityate, and phosphorous, to enhance athletic performance is designecl to neutralize Ihe acids produced durii~g exercise that may il~lerr'el-c

a $vi l l i cncrgy produclioii or muscle cot~lraclion ( f lorsrvill, 1995). L - ('ar~liljne, rvliicli is norn~ally rni~n~~iaclilrc:ci by ~ h c h ~ ~ m a n body, has been popular as a potential

k r - l -gogen ic aid becailse oi its role i:: Ihe coilversion oi ial + r , energy (Cerretelli atid hlarconi, 1990). Wliile some .;luJics liavc f<>uncl tlial L-carnifinr inipmvcs eel-tain tiieas~~res of ~ i i ~ ~ s c l e pli~tsioiogy, rese;irch 011 the eiiecls o l 2 lo 46 of carniline per day on pcrfomia~icc have produced inconsislenl resulls (I-Ieinonel~, 1996).

Coenzytlir Qlo (ubicluinonc) is a higitly lipopliilic con,poitnd Illat occupies a a I-ole in transfer oi (>lectt-ons produced from nielabolicm oi Ioodstufis lo o\ici,~li<ti. ~ l i i~~sphur \~ ln l i~ :~? (clcclron 11-ansporl chain), resultins in act-obic goiel-ation ot ATI'. Strenuous physical a ~ L i \ ~ i l \ ; loi\~rr+ blood icii~ls ol coenzyme C)~,I (Co(Jlo). Ovcrvacl, l>i~~~i :~inl ,inri I l r ~ l n ~ (1997) observed Ilia1 Ihe eiiccls of Co(>to on ho\v Lhe lieallhy body rt.~po~id, lo i.xcrcisc lia\ c h c ~ m incr~nsistctil.

Elcclrolylc 1-cpl.ircmenl is 1101 .IS inipcirla~il ;is walcr intake in most all:li.lic cri~leavoi~rs. I t usually lakes several Iioui-s of exet-cise in warru clin~ales before sodiunl deplelion becomes significant and ever1 longer for clcplclions I o l i s s i ~ ~ t i , c l~ lo r i~ i r ancl mCigticsium lo occur (l'ivnr-nik and I'.ilmcr, 1994). Ilowevcr, [he cons~~mptiou oi dilutr ~1q~1cous solutiolls conlaining clcctrolylcs, simple s ~ ~ g a r s , and carholiydralcs during excrcisc 111~1y cnlxit~ce pcrfcrrtiiancc according lo (131-ooks, Fahcy, Wliile and l3aliIwi1?, 2000).

Iron is important ior an allilele because it is a compo~ienl of l~.iemoglobin, which lra11~1>orls oxy~e11 to ~iiuscle cells. 5 o i - i ~ alhlcles, especially women, d o nol ~ C L rnoi~gli it-c~n i r i theit. dirl. I-lowc.vr~-, a~iac~iiin in a~liletrs is r ~ i l r s ~ : ~ i o t L I L I ~ ((1 iron ~ l c i i c i ~ ~ ~ i c y ; I I I ~ ~ i i ; ~ y hi, a nornialadaptalion to ihc slrc:ss olescrcisc (Srnilli, 1995).

Wnicl- is the most abundant substance in the hunian body a i d is essential ior normal physiological function. Water loss due to sweating d ~ ~ r i t i g exercise can result in ~\ccrca~ert pcriornia~lcL .i~id C J ~ I I ~ I - p rnhl~~i is . Fluids slioi~lcl be consumed pkior to, d~rring, and ailcr- exercise, especially \vi~en extreme conditions of cli~uale, exercise intensity, and exercise duralion exist (Pivarnik and Palmer, 2994). Favourecl sports dritiks containing cleclrolyLcs are not necessat-y ioi- fluid replacemcnl ciuring brief periocls o i exercise, bul [hey may We moi-e effective in encouraging [he athlete to drink frequently and in large amounts (Convertino, Armstuorig, Lee, 1996).

Athletes Caloric Requirement Many coaches make dietal-y iizcon~mendations based

01-i Iheir own 'feeling" and past experiences rather- than {rely on availahlc evidence. This PI-oblctn is co~i ipoi t~iJc~l by ihe i;lct tlial allili-les oilcn liavc either i~n, idrq~~ale or incorrecl i~llorniation concerning prudent dietarf practices as well as l l ~ e role o i specilic nutrients in Lhe diet.

Ycsuiu (1994) ol~served lhal lo bCilancc ihc increased ~ I I ~ ~ L I L ellerg!, ,IS eupencled !~v [he allilete, a high calol-ic die[ o i 4,000 - b,001) c.~lorics per ci:~y ,:st. ncedcd iar loothallcrs, and '1 lesser amot~i>t for hockey, lracks, basketball and lhandball players. In 211 ear-lier write I I ~

by jcriscn and Fishel- (I979), he observed t11.it (Ile lolal Pncr.gy rcquii-t,menl lor all aclivc alhlele may range froiu' 3,000 - 7,000 cal. pcr day ~li:pt:nding up011 his size, conriition, and lhe amoi~nl oi \\,i>rk IIE pe1-iort11~.

A5 [he aLhlrie work harilcr in iiis it-ainins, lic consunics ii1oi.c calvric2s arid musi have ,I pl.oporlionatc

- increase in i<,~d, if lie vals less, l ~ e lvil l bu rn body ti:-sur.; - - to make L I ~ the delicil, and apprr)acll "stalcness" morc

readily. If he consumes more food than hc needs, he will add fatty tissue with its accompanying mechanical and

+ endurance disadvantages:

Conclusio~l Carbohydrates are the major source of enel-gy for Ihc * exel-cising muscle. Carboliydrate loading is a slratesy

used by endurance athlete Lo increase. muscle glycogen reserves in order to i~nprove perfor~ua~ice.

Dietary supplementalion oi prolein beyond thC1t necessary to maintain nitrogen balance may not provide additional ergogenic benefit. Omega - 3 fatty acids and MCTs, two types ol dielary lats posscss intercsling properties tlial may benefit exercise perfommancc if manipulated correctly.

Finally, the nulnerous studies done on the ergogenic effects of essential vitamins, metabolic interulediates and minerals were not co~~clusive. Altl~oough significant advances have been made on the role of nutrition in physical aclivities and sports, much remains lo he learned about their functio~x and , effects. Further research should also evaluate the long-term safety of amino acids, vitamins and tnineral supplemenlation. ,*, References America11 dietetic Association (1993): I'osition oi the

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