Journal text is avaliable on · Dear reader, We are honored and pleased to present a 16th issue of journal, the second number in 2014. This number is a bit unusual, because in addition

Dear reader, We are honored and pleased to present a 16th issue of journal, the second number in 2014. This number is a bit unusual, because in addition to many fine articles from the inner areas of Kinesiology, brings very nice sport figures, and an unusual proposal of getting energy from gravitational sources. It is only a small step forward in scientific Scylla and Charybdis, the journey through unknown areas of human knowledge, and through the labyrinths of human dilemmas embedded too often in the most primitive frames of authorities, violence or money. Freedom of knowledge, freedom of life and freedom of a man who has always the right to say: I do not agree and not so!, makes us human in the end. That is because science is there, no matter what fate awaited those free and intractable minds, sometimes indeed in the world with too many snakes, rats and poisons, but also in the world of happiness, love and knowledge. In the end, everyone takes of it what he can recognize as important and which can be further upgraded. If at all worthy as there is someone to snake venom, it does not mean it has to be our choice. Because it is not !! We are confident you will find interesting things in this issue and that will fill the cognitive interests, or at least touch on some of the great authors through their works. Try to reach them, though you will not have a direct financial benefit, pay will be mental, spiritual. And that is, you will admit, however, the most valuable. And on a path of knowledge, and even a possible success, whatever that may be, remember that it matters how you achieve that success. Moreover, it is the most important. And in that you are recognized.

Editor-in-Chief Prof.Žarko Bilić, PhD

Dragi čitatelju, Posebna nam je čast i zadovoljstvo predstaviti 16. primjerak časopisa, drugi broj u 2014.g. Ovaj broj je malo neobičan, jer osim mnoštva sjajnih članaka iz užeg kineziološkog područja donosi jako lijepe sportske ilustracije i jedan neobičan prijedlog načina dobivanja energije iz gravitacijskih izvora. To je samo jedan mali iskorak u znanstvene Scile i Haribde, u putovanje kroz nepoznate predjele ljudske spoznaje i kroz labirinte ljudskih dvojbi uklopljenih prečesto u najprimitivnije okvire vlasti, nasilja ili novca. Sloboda spoznaje, sloboda života i sloboda čovjeka koji ima uvijek pravo reći: Ne slažem se i nije tako !, čini nas ljudima u konačnici. Zato znanost i postoji, bez obzira kakva sudbina čekala te slobodne i neukrotive umove, ponekad zaista u svijetu s previše zmija, štakora i otrova, ali isto tako i u svijetu sreće, ljubavi i saznanja. Na koncu, svatko uzima iz svega toga ono što može prepoznati kao važno i što može dodatno nadograditi. Ako je u svemu vrijednome što postoji to nekome zmijski otrov, to ne znači da mora biti i nama. Jer nije !! Uvjereni smo da ćete i u ovom broju časopisa pronaći zanimljivosti kojima ćete ispuniti spoznajne interese ili barem dotaknuti neke od sjajnih autora preko njihovih djela. Pokušajte, iako nećete imati direktnu materijalnu korist, isplatiti će vam se duševno. A to je, priznat ćete, ipak najvrijednije. I na toj stazi spoznaje, pa i mogućeg uspjeha, ma što to bilo, prisjetite se da nije svejedno kako ste taj uspjeh postigli. Naprotiv, to je najvažnije. I po tome ste prepoznati.

Glavni Urednik Prof.dr.Žarko Bilić

The measure of our success is the mean by which we achieved it. (Author unknown)

Mjera našeg uspjeha jest sredstvo kojim smo taj uspjeh postigli. (Nepoznati autor)

Journal text is avaliable on http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

International scientific journal of kinesiology

Vol. 8 (2014), Issue 2 (1-101)

Contents: Dear reader . . . . . . . . . . . 5 José Manuel Palao and David Valades (Original scientific paper) Serve speed peaks in FIVB world tour beach volleyball (2005-2012) . . . 7 Miroljub Ivanović, Srđan Milosavljević and Uglješa Ivanović (Original scientific paper) Common negative events and depression relations of junior karate sportsmen . 11 Jadranka Vlašić, Goran Oreb and Ksenija Bosnar (Original scientific paper) Metric properties of an attitudes-towards-dance inventory . . . . 20 Francesco Perrotta and Angelo Pannelli (Review paper) Sport for the formation of the person: "Sport as an educational tool, training of adults and children: a resource for school and strategy for the job . . . . 25 Hasan Adabi, Mozafar Yektayar and Sardar Mohammadi (Original scientific paper) Presenting the regression model of the relationship between organizational climate and org. trust with the participation level in the decision-making of the managers . 28 Pavol Pivovarniček, Martin Pupiš, Michal Lacena and Roman Švantner (Original scientific paper) A level of tapping frequency of lower limbs of elite Slovak soccer players at different positions . . . . . . . . . 35 Ante Perica, Igor Jelaska and Slavko Trninić (Original scientific paper) Differences between successful and unsuccessful euroleague teams based on nonstandard situational efficiency parameters . . . . . . 40 Biljana Trajkovski, Zvonimir Tomac and Dražen Rastovski (Original scientific paper) Impact of a sports program on the functional abilities of children aged 5 to 6 years . 45 Tina Šifrar and Petra Zaletel (Original scientific paper) The influence of motor abilities and morphological characteristics on the performance of sports dancers . . . . . . . . . . 48

Journal text is avaliable on http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

International scientific journal of kinesiology

Vol. 8 (2014), Issue 2 (1-101)

Contents (continuing): Draško Jurišić, Zoran Donadić and Mislav Lozovina

(Original scientific paper) Relation between maximum oxygen uptake and anaerobic threshold, and the rowing ergometer results in senior rowers . . . . . . 55 Leyla Kraydjikova, Tatyana Andonova, Andreas Matzuridis, Anastasios Matzuridis and Lenče Nikolovska (Review paper) Adaptive physical activity and sport in 15-years old students with thoracic deformation . . . . . . . . . 62 Ratko Pavlović, Kemal Idrizović, Aleksandar Raković, Daniel Stanković, Aleksandar Simeonov and Mensur Vrcić (Original scientific paper) Differences in morphological status and result success of shot-put between Students of physical education and sport from different backgrounds . . . 65 Nikola Radulović, Ilona Mihajlović and Ratko Pavlović (Original scientific paper) The influence of voluminosity and skin folds on functional abilities of fifth grade pupils . . . . . . . . 72 Hamid Arazi, Tahmineh Saeedi, Manije Mansour Sadeghi, Morteza Nastaran and Mojdeh Mohammadi (Original scientific paper) Prevalence of supplements use and knowledge regard to doping and its side effects in Iranian athlete university students participated in sports Olympiad competitions at summer 2012 . . . . . . . . . . 76 Predrag Dragosavljević, Žarko Bilić and Gorana Tešanović (Original scientific paper) Psychological and social factors of estimates of effects of recreation . . . 82 Nenad Rogulj, Mladen Marinović, Nikola Foretić, Vatromir Srhoj and Zvonko Herceg (Original scientific paper) Spirometric and morphological indicators of top level handball players . . 88 Dobromir Bonacin and Danijela Bonacin (Original scientific paper) Factor approach as universal model of optimization methods with application in kinesiology . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Dobromir Bonacin (Preliminary scientific communication) Product ‘free’ energy or not – that is a question !? . . . . . 97 Guidelines for authors . . . . . . . . . 100

Tekst časopisa je dostupan na http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

Međunarodni znanstveni časopis iz kineziologije

Vol. 8 (2014), Broj 2 (1-101)

Sadržaj: Dragi čitatelju . . . . . . . . . . 5 José Manuel Palao i David Valades (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Vršne brzine servisa u FIVB svjetskoj turneji odbojke u pijesku (2005-2012). . 7 Miroljub Ivanović, Srđan Milosavljević i Uglješa Ivanović (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Relacije svakidašnjih negativnih događaja i depresivnosti karatista juniora . . 11 Jadranka Vlašić, Goran Oreb i Ksenija Bosnar (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Metrijske karakteristike skale stava prema plesu . . . . . 20 Francesco Perrotta i Angelo Pannelli (Pregledni rad) Sport za oblikovanje osobe: “Sport kao edukacijski alat, trening za odrasle i djecu: školski resurs i poslovna strategija” . . . . . . . 25 Hasan Adabi, Mozafar Yektayar i Sardar Mohammadi (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Predstavljanje regresijskog modela odnosa između organizacijske klime i povjerenja sa sudjelujućom razinom odlučivanja menadžera . . . . 28 Pavol Pivovarniček, Martin Pupiš, Michal Lacena i Roman Švantner (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Razina taping frekvencije donjih ekstremiteta elitnih slovačkih nogometaša različitih pozicija u igri . . . . . . . . . 35 Ante Perica, Igor Jelaska i Slavko Trninić (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Razlike između uspješnih i neuspješnih europskih seniorskih košarkaških ekipa temeljem nestandardnih situacijskih varijabli . . . . . . 40 Biljana Trajkovski, Zvonimir Tomac i Dražen Rastovski (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Utjecaj sportskog programa na funkcionalne sposobnosti djece uzrasta 5 i 6 godina . 45 Tina Šifrar i Petra Zaletel (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Utjecaj motoričkih sposobnosti i morfoloških karakteristika na izvedbu sportskih plesača . . . . . . . . . . 48

Tekst časopisa je dostupan na http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

Međunarodni znanstveni časopis iz kineziologije

Vol. 8 (2014), Broj 2 (1-101)

Sadržaj (nastavak): Draško Jurišić, Zoran Donadić i Mislav Lozovina (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Odnos maksimalnog primitka kisika i anaerobnog praga, i rezultati veslačkog ergometra kod starijih veslača . . . . . . . . 55 Leyla Kraydjikova, Tatyana Andonova, Andreas Matzuridis, Anastasios Matzuridis i Lenče Nikolovska (Pregledni rad) Adaptivne tjelesne aktivnosti i sport za 15-godišnjih studenata s torakalnom deformacijom . . . . . . . . 62 Ratko Pavlović, Kemal Idrizović, Aleksandar Raković, Daniel Stanković, Aleksandar Simeonov i Mensur Vrcić (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Razlike u morfološkom statusu i rezultatu uspjeha bacanja kugle među studentima tjelesnog odgoja i sporta iz različitih sredina . . . . . . 65 Nikola Radulović, Ilona Mihajlović i Ratko Pavlović (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Utjecaj voluminoznosti i kožnih nabora na funkcionalne sposobnosti učenika petog razreda . . . . . . . . . 72 Hamid Arazi, Tahmineh Saeedi, Manije Mansour Sadeghi, Morteza Nastaran i Mojdeh Mohammadi (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Učestalost korištenih dodataka i znanje obzirom na doping i popratne pojave kod studenata Iranskog sportskog univerziteta koji su sudjelovali u ljetnjim Olimpijskim igrama 2012. . . . . . . . . . 76 Predrag Dragosavljević, Žarko Bilić i Gorana Tešanović (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Psihološki i socijalni čimbenici procjene učinka rekreacije . . . . 82 Nenad Rogulj, Mladen Marinović, Nikola Foretić, Vatromir Srhoj i Zvonko Herceg (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Spirometrijski i morfološki pokazatelji vrhunskih rukometaša . . . . 88 Dobromir Bonacin i Danijela Bonacin (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Faktorski pristup kao univerzalni model optimizacijskih metoda s primjenom u kineziologiji . . . . . . . . . . 93 Dobromir Bonacin (Prethodno znanstveno priopćenje) Proizvoditi ‘besplatnu’ energiju, da ili ne - to je pitanje !? . . . . 97 Uputstvo za autore . . . . . . . . . 101

Palao, J. and Valades. D.: Serve speed peaks in fivb world tour beach volleyball… Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 7‐10

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SERVE SPEED PEAKS IN FIVB WORLD TOUR BEACH VOLLEYBALL (2005-2012)

José Manuel Palao1 and David Valades2

1 Faculty of Sport Science, University of Murcia, Spain

2 Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Alcala, Spain

Original scientific paper

Abstract The purpose of this study was to give reference values for serve speed peaks. A retrospective analysis of the 10-20 fastest serves in men´s and women´s World Tour beach volleyball from the 2005 to the 2012 seasons was done. A total of 136 serves from the men´s competition and 141 serves from the women's competition was included in the study. The results show: 1) for males, the average serve speed peak was 98.3 ± 4.3 km·h-1, and the serve speed peak was 114.0 km·h-1; and 2) for females, the average serve speed peak found was 80.0 ± 2.7 km·h-1 and the serve speed peak was 86.5 km·h-1. No significant differences were found between the first four years and the next four years in the men´s competition, there were significant differences between the first four years and the second four years in the women´s competition. Significant differences were found between men and women in speed serve peaks. The data found can help coaches establish the reference values of serve speed for the power serve to assist in working on the serve and reception in training. Key words: team sport, performance, reference values, monitoring

Introduction Improving sport performance requires appropriate training. New technologies offer novel instruments and material that can help coaches and players in their training. In sports such as baseball, tennis, or indoor volleyball, the use of radar and throwing machines are commonly used. Radar provides information about ball speed (e.g. pitches or serves). Throwing or pitching machines allow a high number of repetitions in practice at different speeds. Beach volleyball is a young sport which has similar characteristics to indoor volleyball. The use of radar and throwing machines is also common in this sport, and in fact, radar is used to monitor serve speed in competition. In the bibliography review that was done, reference values for speed of pitches in baseball, serves in tennis, or serves in indoor volleyball were found (e.g. Menayo et al., 2008; Moras et al., 2008; Warren et al., 2001), but nothing was found about beach volleyball. In beach volleyball, the most common serves are: the standing serve, floating jump serve, and power topspin jump serve (Koch & Tilp, 2009). The first two types of serves seek precision and/or unpredictability in the serve. The power top-spin jump serve seek for power and a reduction in the opponent´s reaction time. An increase in the serve´s speed increases the floating effect of the ball (Busca et al., 2012; Lopez-Martinez & Palao, 2009) as well as the Magnus effect of the ball (Selinger et al., 1987). In men´s beach volleyball (Busca et al., 2012), the usage of the different types of serve is: power top-spin jump serve (45%), floating jump serve (37.8%), and standing serve (17.2%). In women´s beach volleyball (Busca et al., 2012), the usage of the different types of serve is:power top-spin jump serve (35.5%), floating jump serve (32.0%), and standing serve, (32.5%).

In beach volleyball, two studies have looked at the serve speed (Busca et al., 2012; Ferris et al., 1993). These studiesprovide average values of the different types of serve. Therefore, the values of the serve speed are means (Table 1). Due to its aim and characteristics, the top-spin jump serve is the one that presents the highest speeds for both female and male beach volleyball players (Busca et al., 2012). Table 1.Mean serve speed by technique in men´s and women´s beach volleyball (Busca et al., 2012).

Gender Standing Floating jump

Power top-spin jump

Men 39.6 km·h-1 41.8km·h-1 63.4km·h-1 Women 43.2 km·h-1 46.4 km·h-1 59.0 km·h-1

The available information about the average serve speed in beach volleyball does not allow for establishing reference values to guide the training of the serve and the reception or the use of radar and throwing machines. If the serve speed used is unknown, objective goals cannot be established with regard to the serve or the intensity of the reception training (e.g. with a serve machine). This absence of information means that coaches are probably using subjective criteria to design and monitor their practices in beach volleyball. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide reference values for the peak serve speed in men´s and women´s World Tour beach volleyball from the 2005 to the 2012 seasons. Methods This paper carried out a retrospective analysis of the 10-20 fastest serves in the FIVB men´s and women´s World Tour beach volleyballfrom the2005 to the 2012 seasons.


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A total of 136 serves fromthe men´scompetition and 141 serves fromthe women's competition were included in the study. Data about thepeak serve speed was gathered from the Media Guide of FIVB’s World Tour beach volleyball.The Media Guide document was obtained from the website of the FédérationInternationale de Volleyball (http://www.fivb.org/). Descriptive statistics were applied in order to obtain the mean, standard deviation, median, maximum, minimum, and range, both for men and for women.An inferential analysis was done to assess the differences between male and female players (Mann-Whitney U)as well as the evolution of the serve speed throughout the years (Mann-Whitney U). Non-parametric testing was used because the data

were not standardized, when compared with a standard normal distribution (Kolmogorov Smirnov normality test). Results Table 2 presents the descriptive results of the peak serve speed in the men´s FIVB World Tourvolleyball. The peak serve speed was similar between the eight years that were analyzed (Figure1). No significant differences were found between the first four years and the last four years. The average speed was 98.3 ±4.3 km·h-1. Ninety percentage of the peak serveswere between 94.0 and 103.7km·h-1. The maximum serve speed was 114.0km·h-1.

Table 2. Descriptive values of peak serve speed in men´s World Tour beach volleyball (2005-2012)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Overall Mean 99.0 97.4 99.1 99.9 97.4 102.5 97.1 95.9 98.3

SD 3.2 4.9 4.0 4.1 4.7 3.7 4.2 3.7 4.3 Maximum 104.4 110.0 109.4 114.0 113.7 108.7 108.1 101.2 114.0 Minimum 91.1 93.2 95.0 96.8 93.1 100.2 92.1 88.9 88.9

Mode 100.2 98.0 95.0 104.0 94.7 94.7 - - 100.2 10 Percentile 95.4 93.5 95.1 96.9 93.8 100.3 92.8 89.7 94.0 15 Percentile 96.0 94.0 95.4 97.0 93.9 100.3 93.4 92.9 94.5 85 Percentile 101.4 99.1 103.1 103.2 102.5 105.8 99.7 98.9 102.5 90 Percentile 101.5 105.3 103.6 104.0 102.6 106.7 101.4 99.0 103.7

Table 3.Descriptive values of peak serve speed in women´s World Tour beach volleyball (2005-2012)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Overall Mean 80.4 76.9 79.7 80.5 81.4 83.3 79.9 80.5 80.1

SD 1.3 1.7 3.0 2.7 2.3 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.7 Maximum 83.8 80.7 85.5 86.0 86.5 85.6 85.0 85.6 86.5 Minimum 77.6 75.0 76.5 77.2 78.4 81.5 76.6 75.3 75

Mode 82.0 76.0 78.0 77.2 80.9 - 81.5 80.9 80.9 10 Percentile 78.8 75.2 76.6 77.2 79.3 81.6 77.7 78.5 76.6 15 Percentile 79.4 75.4 76.6 77.2 79.4 81.7 78.4 78.8 77.2 85 Percentile 81.3 78.6 83.7 83.0 84.0 85.2 81.5 81.2 83.0 90 Percentile 82.0 80.0 84.1 84.1 84.9 85.4 81.8 82.0 83.9

Figure 1. Evolution of peak serve speed in men´s World Tour beach volleyball (2005 - 2012). Table 3 presents the descriptive results of the serve speed peaks for the women´s FIVB World Tour beach volleyball. The peak serve speed was similar throughout the seven years that were analyzed (Figure2), through significant differences were found between the first four years and the

next four years (p<0.001). The average speed was 80.1 ± 2.7km·h-1. Ninety percent of the peak serveswere between 76.6 and 83.9km·h-1. The maximum serve speed was 86.5 km·h-1. Significant differences were found between men and women in peakserve speed (p<0.001).

Figure2.Evolution of peak serve speed in women´s World Tour beach volleyball (2005 - 2012)


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Discussion The purpose of this study was to obtain reference values for the peak serve speed to guide the training of serve and reception. Due to the serve speed data found, it can be indirectly established that the data that were analyzed are from the power jump serve. The data found that peak serve speed is higher for males than females. The reasons for the differences are probably due tothe differences in height and strength between males and females (Malina& Bouchard, 1991; Palao et al., 2008). These results show that males and females should be training using different values for monitoring serve and reception. These data are higher than those found by Ferris, Signorile,and Perry (1993) and Busca, et al. (2012). The reason for these differences is principally because these studies analyzed all the serves and present average values while the present study analyzed the peakserve speed. This information allows coaches to become familiar with the peak speed that players can find at this level of competition (FIVB World Tour) in the men´s competition (average 98.3km·h-1) and in the women´s competition (80.1km·h-1). The men´s values have greater dispersion (23 km·h-1) thanthe women´s data (11 km·h-1). It is not clear why these differences in dispersion for the peak serve speed exist. One possible reason could be the different waysthe serve is executed and conditions in which it is executed (i.e. jump height, power applied to the ball, incidence angle of the court, wind conditions, type of sand, etc.). From an evolutional perspective, a significant increase in the peak serve speed is found in the women´s

competition (2-3 km·h-1). This tendency was not found in the men´scompetition. Thisevolutionis probably the result of the higher use of the power jump serve (Busca et al., 2012; Koch &Tilp, 2009; Lopez-Martinez & Palao, 2009). The data from the present study have several limitations: a) the data are only from the power jump serve; b) the wind conditions (i.e. wind speed, directions, etc.) were not monitored; and c) the serve direction (origin, destination, etc.) were not monitored. Future studies are needed to establish the norm profiles according to the type of serve for males and females at the different levelsof performance and age divisions. Conclusions The results found show: 1) for males, the average peakserve speed was 98.5 ± 4.3 km·h-1 and the maximumserve speed was 114.0km·h-1; and 2) For females, the average peakserve speed was 80.0 ± 2.7km·h-1 and the maximum serve speed was 86.5km·h-1. These data can help coaches establish the reference values of serve speed for the power serve to aid in training serve and reception. The results allow coaches to establish the top reference values for the serve speed for training the serve and reception of top-spin jump serve. For example, when training the reception, it is common to use serve machines to work on a higher number of repetitions, cadence, and speed control. The data that were found allow us to establish the highest speeds that should be practiced: a) range of 94 - 102 km•h-1 for males, and b) range of 76 - 84.0 km•h-1 for females.

References Busca, B., Moras, G., Pena, J., & Rodriguez-Jimenez, S. (2012). The influence of serve characteristics on

performance in men's and women's high-standard beach volleyball. J Sports Sci,30(3), 269-276. Ferris, D.P., Signorile, J.F., & Perry, A.C. (1993). Ball velocities of elite beach volleyball players [1065].

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 25(5), S189. Koch C., & Tilp, M. (2009). Beach volleyball techniques and tactics: a comparison of male and female playing

characteristics. Kinesiology, 41(1), 52-59. López-Martínez, A.B., & Palao, J.M. (2009). Effect of serve execution on serve efficacy in men's and women's

beach volleyball. International Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 21(1), 1-16. Malina, R.M., & Bouchard, C. (1991). Growth, maturation, and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human

Kinetics. Menayo, R., Fuentes, J.P., Moreno, F.J., Clemente, R., & García-Calvo, T. (2008). Relación entre la velocidad

de la pelota y la precisión en el servicio plano en tenis en jugadores de perfeccionamiento. Motricidad. EuropeanJournal of Human Movement, 21, 16-30.

Moras, G., Buscà, B., Peña, J., Rodríguez, S., Vallejo, L., Tous-Fajardo, J.,& Mujika, I. (2008). A comparative study between serve mode and speed and its effectiveness in a high-level volleyball Tournament. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 48(1), 31-36.

Palao, J.M., Gutierrez, D., & Frideres, J.E. (2008). Height, weight, Body Mass Index, and age in beach volleyball players in relation to level and position. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 48(4), 466-471.

Warren, C.D., Brown, L.E., Landers, M.R., & Stahura, K.A. (2011). Effect of three different between-inning recovery methods on baseball pitching performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(3), 683–688.


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VRŠNE BRZINE SERVISA U FIVB SVJETSKOJ TURNEJI ODBOJKE U PIJESKU

(2005-2012)

Sažetak Svrha ovog istraživanja bila je utvrđivanje referentnih vrijednosti vršne brzine servisa. Urađena je retrospektivna analiza 10-20 najbrđih servisa u muškoj i ženskoj Svjetskoj turneji odbojke u pijesku od 205 do 2012. Ukupno 136 servisa iz muškog i 141 iz ženskog natjecanja je uključeno u istraživanje. Rezultati su pokazali slijedeće: 1) kod muškaraca, prosjećna vršna brzina servisa je bila 98.3 ± 4.3 km/h, a maksimalna je bila 114.0 km/h; i 2) kod djevojaka, prosječna vršna brzina je bila 80.0 ± 2.7 km/h a maksimalna je bila 86.5 km/h. Nisu pronađene značajne razlike između prve četiri i druge četiri godine u muškoj konkurenciji, ali u ženskoj konkurenciji su te razlike bile značajne. Značajne razlike su utvrđene između muškaraca i žena u vršnoj brzini servisa. Dobiveni rezultati mogu pomoći trenerima kod uspostavljanja referentnih vrijednosti brzine servisa kod snage servisa u pomoći u radu kod servisa i prijema u treningu. The data found can help coaches establish the reference values of serve speed for the power serve to assist in working on the serve and reception in training. Ključne riječi: momčadski sport, izvedba, referentne vrijednosti, praćenje

Received: March 17, 2014 Accepted: July 15, 2014 Correspondence to: José M. Palao Faculty of Sport Science University of Murcia C.P. 30720 Santiago de la Ribera-San Javier(Murcia), Spain Phone: 868 88 88 24 E-mail: [email protected]

Ivanović, M. et al.: Common negative events and depression relations... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 11‐19

11

COMMON NEGATIVE EVENTS AND DEPRESSION RELATIONS OF

JUNIOR KARATE SPORTSMEN

Miroljub Ivanović1, Srđan Milosavljević2 and Uglješa Ivanović1

1 Colege for Nursery Teachers and Computer Scientific Education, Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia 2 College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia

1 Sports management college, Alpha University, Belgrade, Serbia


Abstract The basic aim of this paper was to examine the prediction of everyday negative events (unwilling unconscious thoughts, the sense of general self-efficiency, dealing with issues skills and perceived support of family, coach and team peers) and depression symptoms of junior karate sportsman. This research was conducted on the appropriate sample of 187 karate sportsman from Kolubara and Macva district (Serbia), being 14-16 years old. The applied measure instruments were - Adolescent Perceived Events Scale, Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Confrontation with Stressing Situation Questionnaire, Social Support Questionnaire, Children's Depression Rating Scale - demonstrated satisfactory reliability. The data was processed using descriptive parameters, Pearson’s correlation coefficient and hierarchy regression analysis. Achieved results didn’t show that predictor variables (common automatic thoughts, the sense of general self-efficiency, confrontation strategies and perceived support of family, coach and team peers) are the cause of the common negative events and depression relations of karate sportsmen in the middle period of adolescence. On contrary, the results - with the significance level (p < .05) - have emphasized the fact that mutual relations of common negative events and depression of karate sportsmen, in this young category, can be explained using independent variables (unwilling unconscious negative thoughts, confrontation focused on feelings, as well as support of family, coach and team peers). Key words: negative events, self-efficiency, stress, social support, depression, karate Introduction Despite the great importance and contemporary status of everyday negative events and depression in adolescence, which include major changes in cognitive, social, and emotional level, in our country, they have been relatively rarely investigated. This paper tempts to give an answer to the question if there is a correlation between complex everyday negative events and depression in the population of junior karate sportsmen, and what the quality of that correlation would be. According to the available studies, in previous research, this problem was studied in the last few decades by a number of authors. Studies by Croatian authors (Kurtović, 2007; Sesar, Živčić-Bećirević & Sesar, 2008; Subotić, Brajša-Žganec & Merkaš, 2008), emphasize that stress life events, including war events, predict the formation and intensifying of depression symptoms and other problems of adaptation on the sample of adolescents. Moreover, in their research (Adkins et al., 2012; Scott & Dearing, 2012), believe that the accumulation of less significant life events represents better predictor of depression than major life events, as well as the fact that the relationship becomes stronger with the age. In their studies (Alloy, 2001; Ge et al., 2001), concluded that the sensitivity to the effects of life events is more intense in people, resulting from increasing cognitive and emotional maturity, romantic relationships, present and past negative events, complex social situations and stress, which leads to increase of the level of depression during the stressful period of adolescence. According to a study (Thompson et al., 2010), the model of individual factors, such as cognition and coping, social support and environment factor, permanently

become significant in prediction of depressive symptoms. When interpreting depression and its definition, cognitive patterns predict the fundamental function of negative thoughts in generating depressive disorders among athletes. This conclusion has been made by Barinov et al, Beljc i Portnyagin (Баринов et. al, 2011; Бельц, 2007; Портнягин; 2012) in their research on a sample of junior karate athletes. The results of the research conducted by (Abela et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2009), confirmed the hypothesis that negative cognitive tendencies of adolescents, independently or in combination with stress, contribute to their current depression. The research conducted by (Scott et al., 2008), suggests that the depressed persons in adolescence are unable to successfully affect their daily negative events. In their studies (Horwitz Net al., 2010; Thompson et al., 2010), found out that adolescents coping skills with stress contributes to the prediction of depression symptoms and the interpretation of the relation of stress and adaptation. It is assumed that badly developed strategies or predominant use of inadequate skills, individually and interacted with stress, are especially harmful to the mental health of adolescents. Also, according to research (Flynn et al., 2010), social support of parents, peers and teachers, is negatively interrelated with depression symptoms. Apart from doing research on samples from school populations, a number of authors investigated the relation between cognitive dimensions and depression in athletes in youth categories. Research made by Markelov, Markelov and Komarovskaya, Sokolov and Jakovlyev (Маркелов, 2012; Маркелов & Комаровская, 2012; Соколова, 2012; Яковлев, 2010) showed that negative everyday events experienced by karate athletes unequivocally lead to


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depression, and Gloria et al (2013) consider that these negative events act as central figures in interpreting depression among junior karate athletes. In addition, Popov, Rybakova and Veshchikov (Попова, 2010; Рыбакова, 2013; Вещиков, 2013) embrace the fact that negative events occurring on a daily basis greatly increase chances of developing hopelessness among junior karate athletes, leading unequivocally to depression. Results from research by Golovihin i Demchenko (Головихин; 2013; Демченко, 2013) proved that everyday negative events are linked to stress, and that the negative particularly affects mental health among junior karate athletes. Moreover, findings made by Szark-Eckard et al (Szark-Eckarda, 2013) in their research point out the fact that negative events occurring on a daily basis, whether being correlated to stress or not, increase chances of depression occurring among karate athletes. An interesting study by Beckman et al (2013), which turns the attention to the interaction between daily negative events and symptoms of depression in German karate athletes, while a study conducted by Kondryatev (Кондратьев, 2012) shows that daily negative events of junior karate athletes affect their mental health. A review of previous research shows obvious lack of research papers on the correlation of negative events, unconscious thoughts, self-efficacy, coping skills and social support on depression of junior karate sportsmen. It is evident that various factors influence the relationship of life events and depressive symptoms among adolescents, i.e. .they can absorb or amplify the effects of stress for them. Therefore, it can be assumed that if junior karate sportsmen experience numerous negative events, have low level of self-efficacy, and do not receive suitable social support and do not apply positive successful ways of coping, they feel more depression symptoms. In addition, it can be assumed that the prediction variables of cognition, coping and perceived social support, can be transformed under the influence of stressful life events and act as a set of stress influences on depression variable of karate sportsmen in the middle adolescence. Acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis, and statistical relevance of the obtained coefficients, will be calculated with a critical value and the probability of error of less than 5 %. The above review of relevant references indicates the complexity of the problem. The fact the relationship of phenomenon of daily negative events and depression in adolescents has been investigated worldwide. Due to the fact that correlation regression relationships between everyday negative events and depression in the sports population, have not been found in previous research studies, it is extremely important to empirically investigate this phenomenon, which will lead to its complete understanding. Therefore, in order to obtain new information, i.e. a clear picture of whether the negative repeating day after day can be a predictor depression model, we need to conduct the research on the sample karate sportsmen. Accordingly, the aim of this study was: a) to examine the effects of the interaction of negative events, unconscious thoughts, self-efficacy, coping skills and social support on depression of junior karate sportsmen and b) to investigate if automatic thoughts, self-efficacy, coping skills and social support mediate in the relations of negative events and depression in the adolescent population of karate sportsmen. Finally,

we should emphasize the fact that it is still known about the relationship between the phenomena of everyday negative events and depression in sports, i.e. karate population. Investigation of these problems may have important methodological and theoretical applications. Therefore, this study is very important, since it has been one of the first empirical studies of the given topic in our country on the sample of junior karate sportsmen.

Methods The sample and survey procedures The study involved 187 junior karate sportsmen, aged 14 to 16 years (AM = 15.43 years, SD = 1.09) in the Kolubara and Mačvanski from 10 Serbian clubs KC "Shodan" Valjevo , KC "014 Valjevo" (Valjevo) , KC "Kizame" (Valjevo) , KC "Mionica" (Mionica), KK "Sveti Sava" (Mionica), KC "Železničar" (Lajkovac), KC "Kaminari" (Osečina), KC "Liig" (Ljig) , KC "Ipon" (Koceljeva) and KC "Krupanj" (Krupanj). All subjects had at least two years of systematic and organized karate training and competition. The survey was conducted in June 2014. The examinees had bee informed about the aim of the research, before the implementation of survey. They were asked to participate and explained that they have the right to give up whenever they want. Participation in the survey was voluntary. It was conducted by the authors of this paper with the permission of karate clubs. The study was conducted in groups during regular trainings. Group size varied from 20 to 30 examinees. Filling out the questionnaire, on average, took about 60 min. Prior to a survey, the examinees were informed about the research and the ay of data safety protection, after which they signed an agreement on participation in the study. Their task was to circle the appropriate number on the scales. After a review of test materials, seven questionnaires which did not conclude answers to all items were discarded, so that the monitoring of the program included the final sample of 387 karate sportsmen. Instruments The following measuring instruments were applied in the research: (a), Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (b) Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire, (c) Scale of general self-efficacy, (d) Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, (e) Social Support Apraisal Scale and (f) Children's Depression Inventory. • Adolescent Perceived Events Scale The measuring instrument is an adaptation of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale- Apes, which was made by (Kurtović, 2007). Measuring instrument is composed of 20 negative major life events occurring in adolescence, for example, divorce of parents or death of a family member, disagreements with friends etc. The examinees had answered how often above-mentioned events took place in the last 2 months on five-level Liquert’s scale (1 - never, 2 - sometimes, 3 – relatively often, 4 - often 5 – all the time). The total score is calculated by adding the individual answers, so that the range of results ranged from 20 to 100. The obtained coefficient of internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) of the total sample in this study is (α = .89). • Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire The measuring instrument (Proroković & Zelić, 2002) is a Croatian translation of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire – ČUPAM (Hollon & Kendall, 1980),


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which estimates some cognitive aspects of depression. The questionnaire is used as a unidimensional measure of the frequency of negative automatic thoughts, with a possible range of scores from 30 to 150, whereas higher results indicate a higher presence of negative automatic thoughts. The coefficient of internal consistency reliability in our study was quite high (α = .97), indicating a satisfactory homogeneity. • Scale of general self-efficacy The measuring instrument (Ivanov i Penezić, 1998) consists of 10 items for which the examinee assesses the extent to which general and stable sense of their own success in dealing with a variety of stressful situations relates to them. The examinees determined the importance of each value on five-level Liquert’s scale, ranging from 1 (absolutely untrue for me) to 5 (absolutely true for me), with the possible range of scores from 10 to 50. Reliability of the scale measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient is (α = .87). • Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations – CISS (Endler & Parker, 1990). The measuring instrument is a modified version of the questionnaire (Sorić i Proroković, 2002), which consists of 48 statements about the styles of coping as stable personality characteristics. The questionnaire consists of three subscales (each consisting of 16 statements), relating to three- dimensions of coping. Coping is focused on feelings, problem and avoidance. The examinees were asked to assess the extent to which they apply some form of behavior when they encounter a difficult, stressful or troubling situation on five-level Liquert’s scale (1 - not at all, to 5 - completely). Conducted factor analysis – applying main components analysis (Varimax rotation and the Kaiser-Guttman criterion for factor extraction), confirmed the tri-factor structure, which describes coping directed to: problem (α = .88), feelings (α = .84) and avoidance α = .87). • Social Support Apraisal Scale The measuring instrument (Hudek–Knežević, 1994) is an adapted version of the Social Support Apraisal Scale - SS, by Vaux and associates, which measures three aspects of social support: the support of family, friends and support at work. The questionnaire consists of 24 items, the answers are given at the five-level scale from 1 – absolutely untrue for me to 5 – absolutely true for me, with the possible range of results from 24 to 120. Applying main components analysis (Varimax rotation and Kaiser-Guttman criterion for factor extraction), three latent dimensions were isolated: support of the family, friends and coaches. The coefficients of internal consistency, Cronbach alpha, for individual subscales are ( α = .89 , α = .92 and α = .87 ), and it can be concluded that certain statements reliably represent overall result of the subscales . • Children's Depression Inventory Croatian version of this measuring instrument (Vulić-Prtorić, 2003) contains 26 sets of 3 three items covering the visible symptoms of depression (sadness, sleep disorders, appetite loss, suicidal ideas, etc. The strength of a symptom is changed within each set of items, and the examinee selects one of the proposed sentences that describe how he felt in the last two days. Answers are scored with 0, 1 or 2 points, and the results ranges from 0 to 54

points, whereas a higher score indicates greater depression. Total result is calculated as a linear combination of all answers. Cronbach reliability coefficient (Cronbach alpha) was (α = .88). Results Obtained results are shown in four tables, with the explanations above each table. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, KS (Max ) was applied for variable distribution testing. The result of this test in Table 1 indicates the fact that the distribution of the results in this test does not deviate significantly from a normal Gaussian distribution ( p > .20 ) . Table 1 - Kolmogorov-smirnov test of variable distribution

ITEMS Max D K‐S p

Negative events .07 p > .20Automatic thoughts .08 p > .20

Self‐efficacy .07 p > .20Coping directed to a problem .06 p > .20Coping focused on emotions .05 p > .20

Coping by avoidance .08 p > .20Family support .09 p > .20Friend support .10 p > .20

Support of a coach .03 p > .20Depression .07 p > .20

Descriptive data on the measured variables in the survey sample are presented in Table 2a, 2b. Based on the distribution of values of arithmetic means and standard deviations, it is evident that the majority of junior karate sportsmen exhibit lower levels of depression, negative events and negative subconscious thoughts without volition. Table 2a - Descriptive parametres on the subscales of

measuring instruments

Items Minimum Maximum AS SD Negative events 19.00 75.00 37.98 ruj.28

Automatic thoughts 29.00 145.00 60.02 24.sij

Self-efficacy 9.00 49.00 37.00 svi.99

Coping directed to a problem 15.00 80.00 54.97 kol.72

Coping directed to a problem 15.00 80.00 54.97 kol.72

Coping focused on emotions 17.00 84.00 52.03 11.00

Coping by avoidance 14.00 66.00 44.05 9.stu

Table 2b. Descriptive parametres on the subscales of

measuring instruments

Items Minimum Maximum AS SD

Family support 10.00 75.00 36.00 svi.97

Friend support 9.00 39.00 32.96 svi.44

Support of a coach 7.00 38.00 24.95 svi.99

Depression .01 49.00 13.vlj srp.22


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Table 3 - Pearson’s correlation coefficients between examined variables

Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Negative events -

Automatic thoughts .52 - Self-efficacy -.05 -38 Self-efficacy -.05 -38

Coping directed to a problem -.05 -.17 .59 - Coping focused on emotions .40 .57 -21 .13

Coping by avoidance .05 -.05 .29 .41 .20 - Family support -40 -.29 .31 .19 .05 .17 - Friend support -.14 -.19 .29 .30 -.05 .38 .40 -

Support of a coach -.29 -.24 .25 .24 .05 .13 .27 .19 - Depression .50 .69 -41 -.25 .45 .12 -25 -.26 -28

Table 3, shows positive and negative intercorrelations of the measured variables. By examining the table, it was observed that all the tested variables showed a significant linear correlation with depression in the assumed directions. Low and moderate nonzero values of Pearson’s correlation coefficients were in range of (r = - .17) for Coping by avoidance, to ( r = .67 ) for negative automatic thoughts. Taking into account the obtained values of the variables, prediction of an examined variable according to the test results of the second variable, with estimation error of ( p > .95 ), can be expected. In order to test the interaction of predictor variables (negative events with negative unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, self-efficacy, problem focused coping, emotion and avoidance, as well as the support of family, the karate sportsmen from the club and the coach), and the criterion of depression, in addition to correlation aspect, a series of hierarchical regression analysis was conducted. In the first step of each analysis, the predictors are categorized (Negative events and one of the possible moderators), and in the 2nd step, their mutual influence, in order to check whether it predicts the interaction of criterion variable of depression after controlling the effect of predictor in the first step (Table 4). After examining the significant nonzero beta coefficients beta in the cells of the matrix, at the level of significance (p <.05), it is obvious that none mutual effect showed significant effects on the criterion variable depression, except marginally significant effect of mutual influence of negative events, family support, and karate sportsmen from the club. It did not confirm the hypothesis that these factors adjust effects of negative events on depression criteria. In order to define if the individual variable represents a mediator between the predictor and criterion, (Baron & Kenny, 1986) consider it is necessary to fulfill three conditions: (1) a predictor must predict the mediator, (2), the mediator must predict the criterion variable after the verification of the predictor, and (3) the mediator must be introduced in the final step of the hierarchical regression analysis. The effect of the independent variables in the interpretation of the variance of criterion variable should not be statistically significant. Thus, if the impact of the predictor is greater than zero, but not statistically significant, then it comes to a complete mediator, and if the effect of predictors fell to a lower level, but it is still statistically significant, then it comes to a partial mediator.

Table 5 shows the results of the regression analyses used to investigate the first precondition, i.e. whether the predictor - negative events - predicts criterion variables: unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, self-efficacy, the occurrence of observance and support of the family, karate sportsmen from club and the coach.

Table 4 - Hierarchical regression analysis for depression criterion variable

7 R R² ß

Automatic thoughts 1. step Negative events .69 .57 .19

Automatic thoughts .59 2. step Negative events x Аutomatic thoughts

.69 .57 .03 Self-efficacy

1. step Negative events .60 .36 .52 Self-efficacy -.29

2. step Negative events x Self-efficacy .60 .36 .01

Coping focused on a problem 1. step Negative events .49 .29 .51

Coping focused on a problem -.192. step Negative events x Coping focused on a problem .49 .29 .02

Coping focused on emotions 1. step Negative events .60 .29 .28

Coping focused on emotions .29 2. step Negative events x Coping focused on emotions .60 .29 .05

Coping by avoidance 1. step Negative events .52 .26 .50

Coping by avoidance -.152. step Negative events x Coping by avoidance .52 .26 .05

Family support 1. step Negative events .56 .31 .39

Family support -.192. step Negative events x Family support .56 .31 .05

Friend support 1. step Negative events .53 .26 .47

Friend support -.202. step Negative events x Friend support

.53 .26 .05 Support of a coach

1. step Negative events .49 .30 .41 Support of a coach .30

2. step Negative events x Support of a coach .49 .07 .05

(R = Coefficient of multiple correlation, R2 = Coefficient of determination (total contribution to explained variable), ß = value

of standardized partial beta-coefficient. ***p < .05) Bearing in mind the established fact that negative events predicted unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, coping focused on emotions and social support, further analysis in the second step was carried out at the level of significance (p <.05) only with the unconscious thoughts, coping directed to feelings, family support, support of karate sportsmen from the club and the coach.


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Table 5 - Contribution of a predictor (unconscious thought without concsious volition) to the criterion

(unconscious thought without concsious volition, self-efficacy, the occurence of observance, family support,

support of sportsmen from the club and the coach)

items R R² ß p

Automatic thoughts .51 .19 .50 .05

Self-efficacy .05 .01 -7 .17

Coping focused on a problem .03 .01 -.03 .12

Coping focused on emotions .40 .12 .41 .-

05 Coping by avoidance .08 .03 .07 .13

Family support .43 .16 -.40 .05

Friend support .15 .00 -.15 .05

Support of a coach .35 .09 -0,36 .05

Table 6 - Contribution of unconscious thoughts, confrontations that target feelings, family support, of karate athletes from the team and coach on negative events and depression

Predictors R R² ß p

1. step Negative events .50 .26 .50*** .50***

2. step Negative events .03 .08

Automatic thoughts .48*** .41***

Coping focused on emotions

.80 .08 -20*** .19**

Family support

-.18***

-.16***

Friend support -09* -.07*

Support of a coach

-.22***

-.20***

(*p < .05, ***p < .01) In order to control the second and the third step, (Baron & Kenny, 1986) claim that applied hierarchical regression analysis represents the precondition for defining if a certain variable represents a mediator in relation to a predictor and criterion, whereas negative events belong to the first step and Coping focused on emotions, and social support belong to the second step in order to control if relations of negative events and depression are completely caused by these variables. Depression is actually caused by multiple agents, whereas it is assumed that incomplete agents for particular mediators would be obtained. In addition, due to the mutual dependency between the mediators, there is greater possibility of false mutual relationships between variables. Thus, in the second step of hierarchical regression analysis partial variables that represent important predictors of depression are noticed, which draws attention to their intermediate effects (Table 6). A review of statistically significant nonzero beta coefficients, in the second step of hierarchical regression analysis of

predictor variables (the unconscious mind without conscious volition, coping focused on feelings, family support, support of karate sportsmen from the club and the coach) indicated a significant partial effects in the interpretation of the variance of depression. At the same time, the impact of negative events in explaining the variance of depression after the introduction of additional independent variables (unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, coping directed to feelings and social support) in the analysis, is not statistically significant for the whole karate players population. From the point of view of the regression analysis, the results are reliable suggested that the linear correlation between the variables of negative events and depression, on the examined sample, was mediated by independent variables (unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, coping focused on feelings, family support, support of karate sportsmen from the club and the coach). Discussion These findings do not confirm the hypothesis that the unconscious thoughts, a sense of general self-efficacy, coping skills and support of family, karate sportsmen from the club and the coach, coordinate relations between daily negative events and depression of karate sportsmen in middle adolescence. On the contrary, the results hypothetically draw attention to the fact that the dependence of negative events and depression that occur every day is achieved by negative thoughts, coping focused on feelings, family support, support from the karate sportsmen from the club and the coach. However, we could be cautious in the interpretation of this new information, since we investigated frequency of everyday psychological discomfort which is typical for the middle period of adolescence in a population of athletes. Having considered that experienced verification of such events was not investigated, it cane be complex to come to a conclusion whether the amount and frequency of negative events predict depression in junior karate sportsmen and whether these relations can be interpreted by the main characteristics of the analyzed events. Therefore, the hypothesis in this study that the negative automatic thoughts and inactive forms of coping with stress will be intensified, and that self-efficacy, active forms of coping and social support will alleviate the negative effects of the depression on karate sportsmen, is not confirmed, since there were no significant effects of mutual effects, although it turned out that the aforementioned factors predict depressive marks. Fraizer et al., (2004) point out the fact that the intermediate effects are best manifested when the agent is not significantly associated with the predictor and criterion. Given the fact that all possible mediators are in a significant correlation with the depression and automatic thoughts, coping focused on emotions and social support with negative events, it is likely that this can explain the lack of expected related effects.


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These authors consider it is likely that the unconscious mind without conscious volition, self-efficacy, coping strategies and social support, directly affect the depression, regardless of the level of negative events. Therefore, it is assumed that in the adolescent period of learning, coping and social support are not yet developed enough in order to stimulate the effects of stress, although to a certain extent they influence the development of depression. The first important finding relates to the fact that the relations of negative events and depression are mostly caused by negative thoughts, feelings caused by coping and insufficient support of family, karate sportsmen from the club and the coach. According to a study (Rose & Abramson, 1992), when negative events occur (disappointment, loss, failure, etc.) people are trying to understand the causes and consequences, and by reproducing the thoughts that are specific to these events, general cognitive style is formed. In their research (Garber & Flynn, 2001), argue that particularly unpleasant events can cause a comprehensive sense of hopelessness and despair, and individuals who believe they are subjects to these events, presumably develop the sense of hopelessness and lack of self-esteem. In a study (Parker et al., 2000), it was found that chronic negative experiences in adolescence contribute to the formation of negative cognition and depression in later life. In their study (Wadsworth et al., 2005) state that: a) adolescents form abilities to apply coping skills during the period of maturing, b) under the influence of experience, their style of coping is subject to transformations, c) responds to stress mediate between stress and psychopathological symptoms and, therefore, later in life, they mitigate the effects of chronic stress conditioned by unfavorable socio-economic situation. However, these findings did not determine whether the greater amount of everyday psychological discomfort increases an individual's susceptibility to depression in the way it influences their coping skills. Therefore, if adolescent often experiences negative arousal, he will apply the skills that would reduce it, and not the skills that would adequately affect these negative events, particularly if there is not enough control over these events. To some extent it explains the interdependence between large amounts of stress and higher levels of depression. These findings have made clearer the fact that the mutual relationship of negative events and depression is caused by of lower perceived social support of parents, the karate sportsmen from the club and the coach. Interpersonal stressful events have the most intense effects on mental health and emotional reactions, as it is proved in the research (Scott et al., 2008). Results that were obtained in this study allude that negative events are one of the factors that contribute to defects in perception of social support among karate juniors. The scale of perceived events for adolescents, made by author Kurtovic (2007), is measured by frequency of experiencing unpleasant everyday events, such as problems with friends and in school, conflicts

with parents, etc., and it can be concluded that most events are interpersonal in nature. Since results from certain research, for ex Beljc (Бельц, 2007) and Rybakova (Рыбакова, 2007), point out the fact that the most intensive effect on mental well being and the emotional response of a karate athlete organism are regarding interpersonal stress events, and it seems that these events contribute to minimizing the amount of support noticed by the karate athlete, which is given by the environment. It is important to note the fact that the support of parents and coaches were stronger than those of friends, and it is in correlation to the results which show that the wellbeing of karate athletes is more closely linked to parents than with fellow athletes in practice. The influence of parents on their children is not declining when athletes reach junior category, according to research by Rybakov, Veshchikov, and Golovihin (Рыбакова, 2013; Вещиков, 2013; Головихин, 2013). Some authors, for ex. Demchenko, but also Popova (Демченко, 2013; Попова, 2010), turn the attention to the disproportion of support by parents and friends in terms of quality. They believe that support given by friends encompasses mainly social skills and that it is more intensely connected to social competence than parent support. They consider that sparring partners are second-hand generators of support, and that karate athletes ask for support from them only in situations when the most important generators fail (parents). Regardless of the relatively small number of research that have examined the support of coaches and its success, there are results indicating that for the emotional well-being of junior karate athletes, the support of the people that handle their training process is very important, such as the results that were obtained in research by Portnyagin, Gloria et al, and Szark-Eckard et al (Портнягин, 2012; Gloria et al., 2013; Szark-Eckardt et al., 2013).. Considering the fact that karate is a fighting sport where young athletes are faced with a large number of invites for competition, and can experience both victory and defeat, it is clear that support of a coach can have a protective effect on depression. Identical findings were obtained by Koskan et al (Coşkun et al., 2014), and they proved that lack of social support, and especially emotional, is a dangerous factor of depression among karate athletes. A particular role of coaches as keepers of mental health at a younger age is expressed by these authors. The results of correlation and hierarchical regression analysis in this study emphasize the fact that in the mid-adolescence of karate sportsmen, direct and indirect relationships of negative events and depression should be analyzed. Although there are many findings that draw attention to the fact that depression may be the answer to major negative events, it is assumed that the dependence of everyday psychological discomfort with depression is caused by negative experience, inactive coping and insufficient social support. In fact, our findings especially emphasize the fact that daily negative


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life events in youthful age of karate sportsmen can lead to depression. Obtained results on the predictive function of negative events, automatic thoughts, coping and social support may contribute to the assessment of risk for development of depressive symptoms, as well as in the planning of therapeutic and preventive procedures for junior karate sportsmen. At the same time, the hypothetical findings about the possible ways in which negative events affect depression, give valuable information about the latent dimensions that should be taken into account with karate sportsmen who are under the stress. However, it is important to draw attention to the fact that the negative events variable in our research is only one of the factors that can help in the prediction of negative experience, coping and the perception of social support with karate sportsmen in the middle adolescence. The main limitation of our study is the investigation of exclusively male examinees and the impossibility of comparing the relations of analyzed variables and depression in female adolescent karate players. Also, intersection draft of our study does not allow drawing conclusions on cause-and-effect relationships, as well as the comparison of the levels of depression and negative events with the senior karate sportsmen population. From theoretical point of view, this correlation- regression study enabled initial insight into the complex interrelationships of different predictor variables (as the cause), which may affect various components of depression (as a result). In addition to scientific testing of theoretical models, this work made possible a reliable comparison with the results obtained in other European countries, because a unique methodology that provides a starting point for further quantitative analysis and prediction of everyday negative events and depressive symptoms in the population of athletes, was applied. From a practical point of view, findings of the conducted research could be particularly important in the diagnosis of depressive symptoms in junior karate sportsmen. It is important to emphasize the fact that our transversal study had several methodological limitations (relatively homogeneous sample, the lack of a theoretical frame of reference and research in this area, the collection of data in a very short period of time, the demographic characteristics of the samples, specific sample of junior sportsmen). Therefore, the possibility of interpretation and generalization of the obtained results is partly limited, which reduces its validity. Limitation is also applied to the sample selection

and the cooperation with them. Additional limitation was related to the use of only questionnaires and self-assessment scales, so that in future studies it would be necessary to include other measuring instruments, with different types of stimuli, as well as techniques such as assessment by peers and karate coach. Despite the methodological limitations of this study and the impossibility of explaining and generalization to the entire population of karate sportsmen in Serbia, the obtained results are indicative and indicate the need for more extensive research in this area for a unique insight into this issue. Conclusion The present study investigated the relationship of predictor variables (negative events with the unconscious thoughts without conscious volition, self-efficacy, coping skills and social support) on depression of junior karate sportsmen (as criterion). The analysis of the obtained values of Cronbach alpha coefficients of internal consistency, it was concluded that the applied questionnaires and scales in this study showed satisfactory homogeneity, and can be considered a valid measuring instruments for further use and standardization in future theoretical and practical research of athletes in our environment. Applied correlation and regression models showed with certainty level of 95% that on the one hand, the predictors (automatic thoughts, feelings of general self-efficacy, coping strategies, and support of parents, peers and the coach) affect the variability of the relations of daily negative events and depression of junior karate sportsmen. On the other hand, the results emphasize, with a probability of error (p <0.05), that linear mutual dependence of everyday negative events and depression of karate sportsmen, aged 16-18 years, are generated by independent variables of automatic thoughts, emotion-oriented coping, family support, support of karate sportsmen from the club and the coach. Summarizing basic facts, it can be concluded that the following longitudinal researches should conducted on a larger and more representative sample of examinees of different gender and ages, and in other sports, with additional statistical procedures, with the increasing number of questionnaires and scales, which would, by including new variables examine indicative correlations between daily negative events and depression, which would lay the foundation for new research of athletes population.

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RELACIJE SVAKIDAŠNJIH NEGATIVNIH DOGAĐAJA I DEPRESIVNOSTI KARATISTA JUNIORA

Sažetak Osnovni cilj u ovom radu bio je ispitivanje predikcija svakodnevnih negativnih događaja (nesvjesne misli bez učešća volje, osjećaj opće samoučinkovitosti, vještine sučeljavanja i opažena potpora porodice, vršnjaka iz kluba i trenera) i depresivnih simptoma kod karatista juniora. Ovo istraživanje, provedeno je na odgovarajućem uzorku od 187 karatista iz Kolubarskog i Mačvanskog okruga, uzrasta 14 do 16 godina. Primjenjeni mjerni instrumenti: Skala percipiranih događaja za adolescente, Upitnik automatskih misli, Skala opće samoučinkovitosti, Upitnik sučeljavanja sa stresnim situacijama, Skala procjene socijalne potpore i Skala depresivnosti za djecu i adolescente, pokazali su zadovoljavajuću pouzdanost. Obrada podataka izvršena pomoću deskriptivnih parametara, Pirsonovog koeficijenta korelacije i hijerarhijske regresijske analize. Dobiveni rezultati nisu pokazali da su prediktorske varijable (svakidašnje automatske misli, osjećaj opće samoučinkovitosti, strategije sučeljavanja i percipirana potpora roditelja, karatista iz kluba i trenera) uzročnik u relacijama svakidašnjih negativnih događaja i depresivnosti karatista u srednjem razdoblju adolescencije. Naprotiv, rezultati, na razini značajnosti (p < .05), naglasili su činjenicu da se uzajamna veza svakidašnjih negativnih događaja i depresivnosti kod karatista u mlađoj kategoriji može objasniti nezavisnim varijablama (negativnim nesvjesnim mislima bez učešća volje, sučeljavanjem usredotočenim na osjećaje, kao i potporom porodice, vršnjaka iz kluba i trenera). O rezultatima i njihovom značaju za dalje analize, raspravljano je u okvirima koje postavljaju suvremena shvaćanja i istraživanja empirijske i teorijske građe u populaciji sportaša. Ključne riječi: negativni događaji, samoučinkovitost, stres, društvena potpora, karate

Received: March22, 2014 Accepted: December 15, 2014 Correspondence to: Prof. Miroljub Ivanović, PhD Colege for Nursery Teachers and Computer Scientific Education 22000 Sremska Mitrovica, Zmaј Jovina 29, Serbia Tel.: +381 (0)22 621 864 E-mail: [email protected]

Vlašić, J. et al.: Metric properties of an attitudes‐towards‐dance inventory Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 20‐24

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METRIC PROPERTIES OF AN ATTITUDES-TOWARDS-DANCE INVENTORY

Jadranka Vlašić, Goran Oreb and Ksenija Bosnar

Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia


Abstract Attitudes are relevant for understanding and predicting human behaviour whenever it is not automatic or habitual. Information about attitudes towards dance should help to understand why some people like to dance and consequently do it regularly, and why some other ones avoid this activity. Therefore, two forms of an inventory for the assessment of attitudes towards dance were created. The first form consisted of 42 items, and the subjects denoted the level of their agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Metric properties of this inventory were examined on the sample of 201 students of kinesiology. The first eigenvalue of the matrix of item correlations explained almost 40% of common variance, showing that the scale clearly defined the first object of measurement. The average inter-item correlation was .356. The scale showed high reliability, and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .955. The lowest value of an item on the standardized first principal component was .18, and 39 items had values higher than .30. Excellent properties of this 42-item version of the inventory allowed the construction of a shortened form. The second version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) was shortened to 20 items and had almost the same reliability as the longer version, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value being .942. It could be concluded that both forms of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory had very good metric properties and were appropriate for application. Keywords: Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory, metric properties, students Introduction Dance consists of rhythmical movements of the body, in other words, of a series of rhythmical steps and body movements of a particular tempo that are executed according to the musical measure – dance is one of artistic expressions. Dance can also be regarded as a joy of life, as body language either in rhythm, in music or in silence, as a part of cultural education of every individual as well as a part of a nation's culture, but also as a sporting activity, the most beautiful court sport, as 'mother of all arts', as the way towards one's inner self (Zagorc, 2000). The list of dance definitions as postulated by various authors is long, however, it should be emphasized that most authors consider dance simultaneously as sport and as art (Laban, 1948; Krameršek, 1961; Maletić, 1986). As a sporting activity, i.e. from the kinesiological point of view, dance is defined as a conventional-aesthetic motion. It is characterized by a wide possible range of motor abilities, of abilities connected with oxygen-transport system, as well as with morphological features upon which dance efficiency depends in other words, the wide variability of demands in terms of abilities and skills of a dancer. Various types of dance have different specific demands regarding the abilities of dancers in particular dances. A claim seems logical that endurance, coordination and realization of rhythmical structures are abilities specific for success in most dance structures. As for sports and folk dancers, they need to have some additional abilities.

Success in folk dance depends on the level of balance and explosive strength of dancers (Oreb, 1984; Srhoj, Katić & Kaliterna, 2006), but also on the level of speed and frequency of simple movements performed in particular rhythm (Miletić, 1999). Top-level dancers of standard and Latino-American dances have, apart from coordination (Kostić, Zagorc & Uzunović, 2004; Kostić, Uzunović, Oreb, Zagorc & Jocić, 2006), a high level of flexibility, explosive strength and muscular endurance of dynamic type (Zagorc, Zaletel, 1997). The high level of abilities connected with the oxygen-transport system is also a prerequisite of success in sports dance (Zagorc, Karpljuk & Friedl, 1999; Kostić, Zagorc & Uzunović, 2004). Morphological characteristics likewise determine, to a certain extent, the success of dancers. In the research into body type of top-level ballet and modern ballet female dancers Dolgner and associates (1980) found that, when compared to female athletes and inactive women, the female dancers had lower body weight and a lower percentage of body fat, and that they had, on average, smaller bodily proportions. Similar results were also obtained for male dancers by several authors (Zagorc, Zaletel, 1997; Kostić, Zagorc & Uzunović, 2004). There are numerous reasons why more people should engage in dance. Firstly, dance is a suitable operator for people of very different status types. Children, young people, old people, people who are obese, people who are sick, persons with disabilities, children with learning difficulties, etc. can all dance, so that


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it would be desirable for dance to be an activity more frequently participated in by more people. In primary and secondary school curricula dance exists as a unique sporting activity by means of which specific goals can be realized. Thus it can be said that dance has pedagogical, educational and transformational values regardless of whether we are talking about folk dances, social dances or any other type of dance. The importance of the presence of dance in school curricula also relates to the development of aesthetics and artistic creativity, as well as to the regulation of body weight and increase of aerobic endurance which nowadays significantly decreases in children and in young people (Prosen, Zagorc & Bizjak, 2008). It should be mentioned that Prosen, Zagorc and Bizjak (2008) found that dance in physical education classes motivates children for class attendance in general. Designing dance choreography is a dimension of dance activity which may be used to influence creativity, individuality and originality in students, as well as the sense of rhythm and aesthetic perception of movements, thus ultimately creating a positive physical and emotional effect which constitutes the basis of healthy growth and development of children (Miletić, Dundić, T. & Dundić, M., 2008). International folk dance participation on recreational basis represents a more 'gentle' type of recreation for people of various age groups, so that it can be used as work therapy, which satisfies the need for social engagement, it is a physical challenge, and it can be regarded as creativity, as well as a cultural and mental activity (Connor, 2000). Dance can also be applied for therapeutic purposes. Dance as a therapeutic means helps to overcome the feeling of inferiority, it helps to develop communication and re-socialization, and it stimulates people for being active.

Methods

First a set of 42 items was created. The items were selected in compliance with an opinion that they will activate the subjects' attitude towards dance. The items were constructed in such a way as to encompass, to the largest possible extent, the concept of dance, so that they related to social and folk dances, to dances executed with and without a partner, as well as to wheel dancing. The construction of items was aimed at covering affective, cognitive and action aspects of attitudes, as well as to reflect, in a similar number of items, both the positive and the negative attitude towards dance. Each item was assigned a five-point Likert scale, which contained levels of agreement with the given statements, these levels ranging from completely incorrect to completely correct. Ultimately, the first version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) was created. The first version of the inventory was circulated to 201 male students with the Faculty of Kinesiology in Zagreb. The measurements were done by the same person during regular sophomore classes.

The sample was comprised of students who have not yet attended the classes in the subject Dance. Participation in measurements was voluntary and anonymous. Metric characteristics of 42 items were identified by the Reliability option of the statistical package Statistica for Windows, version 8.0. The obtained results served to select 20 items with the best metric characteristics, and eventually the metric characteristics for the total scale in the proposed final version of the inventory were determined. Results Tables 1 and 2 contain the values regarding the measurement characteristics of the 42-item Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI). Table 1.: Metric characteristics of the results of the 42-item version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) – 201 subjects.

AM SD Min Max AVR Cronbach's Alpha 147.07 26.325 56 201 .356 .955

Almost all items on the first principal component displayed medium to high values (Table 2). The lowest result was obtained for item 14 – I do not like it when I cannot follow (recognize) a dance rhythm. Obviously, this item is the one that is least connected with the attitudes towards dance, so that it could be assumed that it relates to the self-assessment of one's own abilities. Lower values were also obtained for items 8 and 18. The item Men who dance are homosexuals probably more provokes homophobia than it actually measures the attitudes towards dance. The item If my friends go out to a discotheque, I stay at home might be obsolete since discotheques are no longer the only places for socializing and dancing. The correlations of items with the sum scale also displayed lower values for the same three items. The reliability of the sum scale computed without a respective item (Table 2) shows that the exclusion of any item would not change the value of the Cronbach's alpha coefficient. On the basis of the data in Table 1 it could be concluded that the shortened version of the inventory should not contain the items 8, 14 and 18. Inter-item correlations (Table 3) showed that the inventory may be significantly shortened without losing relevant information. The .6 inter-item correlation indicates that large proportion of variance of the measurement object is common for items, so that one of them could be omitted. The contents of items served to retain all items that cover the range of the concept of dance, also retaining the three attitudes components (Katz, Stotland, 1959). Twenty items were retained in the final version of the inventory (items No. 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 17, 19, 20, 24-30, 35, 40 and 41). The total result for the 20-item version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory was calculated, and the metric characteristics of the overall scale for this shortened version of the inventory are presented in Table 4.


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Table 2. :Metric characteristics of 42 items of the first version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) (AM – arithmetic mean; SD – standard deviation; X1 – the result of an item on the first principal component; R – item-total correlation; A – reliability of the sum scale computed without a respective item)

Statement X1 AM SD R A 1. I like to dance. -.860 3.736 1.134 .833 .952 2. Dancing is healthy. -.461 4.269 0.705 .428 .955 3. When I go to a discotheque with my friends, I spend time talking to -.480 3.378 1.037 .454 .955 4. I like to dance alone. -.377 2.403 1.137 .348 .955 5. I do not visit dance productions. -.313 2.353 1.311 .310 .956 6. I do not like weddings because most people present there dance. -.472 4.443 0.841 .446 .955 7. I am embarrassed when somebody watches me when I dance. -.609 3.353 1.225 .579 .954 8. Men who dance are homosexuals. -.250 4.522 0.872 .246 .956 9. I enjoy when I see a harmonious dancing couple. -.531 4.035 0.977 .518 .954 10. Dancing with a female partner motivates me to dance even better. -.650 4.000 0.866 .625 .954 11. I feel comfortable when I dance. -.715 3.876 1.113 .678 .953 12. I have been dancing since the moment I started to go out alone. -.499 3.040 1.131 .468 .955 13. I am happy when I dance. -.771 3.841 0.914 .736 .953 14. I do not like it when I cannot follow (recognize) a dance rhythm. -.184 3.363 1.141 .168 .956 15. I love to move to good music. -.728 4.085 0.859 .698 .953 16. It is nice to dance with a partner. -.358 3.965 1.644 .337 .956 17. I avoid dancing. -.826 3.766 1.183 .804 .952 18. If my friends go out to a discotheque, I stay at home. -.264 4.483 0.884 .234 .956 19. I dance whenever I have a chance to do so. -.826 3.338 1.107 .807 .953 20. Dance creates unease in me. -.737 4.015 0.930 .709 .953 21. Every getting together with my friends is necessarily accompanied by -.478 2.433 0.988 .463 .955 22. I feel anxious when I dance in a pair. -.475 3.975 0.946 .447 .955 23. Wheel dancing is always merry. -.431 3.975 0.790 .417 .955 24. I like dance productions. -.591 2.985 1.116 .577 .954 25. I am uneasy when wheel dancing. -.500 3.876 1.015 .477 .954 26. It is difficult for me to lead a dance partner. -.618 3.652 0.942 .592 .954 27. I would like to dance day and night. -.779 2.866 1.156 .761 .953 28. I feel stupid when I dance. -.561 3.448 1.195 .534 .954 29. I dance whenever I have a moment free. -.665 2.308 1.017 .645 .954 30. I like pair dancing. -.777 3.900 1.020 .742 .953 31. When we wheel dance, I feel good. -.475 3.448 0.937 .452 .955 32. Pair dancing is very creative. -.476 4.030 0.754 .446 .955 33. I do not like to dance. -.833 4.065 1.167 .808 .952 34. I go to see all dance productions. -.496 1.876 0.900 .482 .954 35. I cannot imagine going out and not dance. -.755 2.915 1.244 .730 .953 36. I can express my feelings by dancing. -.739 3.085 1.135 .714 .953 37. I do not like it when my partner cannot dance. -.488 3.124 1.191 .465 .955 38. Dance creates the feeling of comfort. -.836 3.662 1.012 .805 .953 39. I use any opportunity to dance. -.785 2.776 1.181 .764 .953 40. I start dancing whenever I hear the music. -.733 2.826 1.084 .711 .953 41. I feel good when I dance. -.864 3.776 0.992 .833 .953 42. I do not feel comfortable when I dance. -.776 3.811 1.036 .751 .953

Table 3. The excerpt from the correlation matrix of items from the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) – 201 subjects.

ITEM SPP1 SPP10 SPP19 SPP27 SPP30 SPP33 SPP35 SPP36 SPP11 .63 .43 .55 .53 .60 .09 .53 .53 SPP14 .13 .02 .16 .28 .04 .62 .05 .15 SPP38 .73 .58 .58 .63 .62 .72 .63 .64 SPP42 .67 .64 .62 .56 .62 .68. .05 .51

Table 4. Measurement characteristics of sum scales of the 20-item version of the Attitudes-Towards-Dance Inventory (ATDI) – 201 subjects.

AM SD Min Max AVR Cronbach's Alpha 71.856 14.215 26 100 .440 .937


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Conclusion To identify the attitudes towards dance in male students with the Faculty of Kinesiology, a 42-item inventory was created containing the 5-point Likert type scale for the expression of the subjects' agreement with the listed statements. The items were constructed in such a way as to encompass, to the largest possible extent, the range of the concept of dance, so that they related to social and folk dances, dancing with and without a partner, as well as to wheel dancing. Metric characteristics of the inventory were determined on the sample of 201 male students of kinesiology. The measurement characteristics of

the 42-item inventory proved to be excellent. Further analysis showed that it was possible to shorten the inventory without distorting its metric characteristics to a larger extent. The final version of the inventory contained 20 items. While reducing the inventory, attention was paid to retaining affective, cognitive and action aspects of attitudes, for the items to ultimately reflect both the positive and the negative attitudes towards dancing. The final 20-item inventory is an efficient measurement tool, and regardless of the significant shortening of the initial version, it kept high reliability (Alpha 937).

References Connor, M. (2000). Recreational folk dance: A multicultural exercise component in healthy ageing. Australian

Occupational Therapy Journal, 47, 69-76. Dolgener, F.A., Spasoff, T.C., & St-John, W.E. (1980). Body build and body composition of high ability female

dancers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 51(4), 599-607. Kostić, R., Zagorc, M., & Uzunović, S. (2004). Prediction of success in sports dancing based on morphological

characteristics and functional capabilities. Acta Univ. Palcki. Olomuc., Gymn., 34(1), 59-64. Kostić, R., Uzunović, S., Oreb, G., Zagorc, M., & Jocić, D. (2006). Relations of success in latino-american

dances with coordination abilities. Book of abstracts of the 12th FIS communications of the national scientific conference with international participation (pp. 33). Niš: Fakultet fizičke kulture,

Katz, D., & Stotland, E. (1959). Preliminary statement to a theory of attitude structure and change. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: a Study of a Science, 3, (pp. 423-475). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Krameršek, J. (1961). Ritam i kretnja u vježbanju i igri. Zagreb: Sportska stručna biblioteka. Laban, R. (1948). Modern educational dance. MacDonald & Evans. Maletić, A. (1986). Pokret i ples. Zagreb: Kulturno-prosvjetni sabor Hrvatske. Miletić, Đ. (1999). Factors of successfulness with folk dances. In P. Parisi, F. Pigozzi & G. Prinzi (Eds.),

Proceedings of the 4th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Rome, 1999 (pp. 374). Rome: University Institute of Motor Sciences.

Miletić, Đ., Dundić, T., & Dundić, M. (2008). Različitosti u plesnom izvođenju kod natjecateljki u Pom-pon i Double dance disciplinama. In B. Maleš (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference "Contemporary Kinesiology", Mostar, 2008 (pp. 174-177). Split: Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split; Mostar: Faculty of Natural Science, Mathematics and Education, University of Mostar; Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana.

Oreb, G. (1984). Relacije između primarnih motoričkih sposobnosti i efikasnosti izvođenja plesnih struktura kod selekcioniranog uzorka ispitanika. (Master’s thesis). Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.

Prosen, J., Zagorc, M., & Bizjak, K. (2008). Physical work-rate at salsa in school programmes. In G. Starc, M. Kovač & K. Bizjak (Eds.), Book of Abstracts – 4th International Symposium Youth Sport 2008 "The Heart of Europe", Ljubljana, 2008 (pp.112-113). Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.

Srhoj, Lj., Katić, R., & Kaliterna, A. (2006). Motor abilities in dance structure performance in female students. Collegium Antropologicum, 30(2), 335-341.

Zagorc, M., & Zaletel, P. (1997). Comparison of some morphologic and motor characteristics of top dancers in Latin-American, standard dances and in rock 'n' roll dance. In: Milanović D. (Ed.) Proceedings book of the 1st International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology – "Kinesiology- the present and the future", Dubrovnik. (pp. 174-176). Zagreb: Faculty of Physical Education, University of Zagreb.

Zagorc, M., Karpljuk, M., & Friedl, M. (1999). Anlysis of functional loads of top sport dancers. In: Milanović D. (Ed.) Proceedings Book of 2nd International Scientific Conference "Kinesiology for 21st century", Dubrovnik. (pp. 240–243). Zagreb: Faculty of Physical Education, University of Zagreb.

Zagorc, M. (2000). Družabni in športni ples. Ljubljana: Združenje plesnih vaditeljev, učiteljev in trenerjev Slovenije.


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METRIJSKE KARAKTERISTIKE SKALE STAVA PREMA PLESU

Sažetak Stavovi su relevantni za razumijevanje i predviđanje ljudskog ponašanja, kad god ono nije automatsko ili uobičajeno. Informacije o stavovima prema plesu trebale bi pomoći razumijevanju zašto neki ljudi vole plesati, i plešu redovito, dok drugi izbjegavaju ovu aktivnost. Osmišljena su dva oblika skale za procjenu stavova prema plesu. Prvi oblik sastojao se od 42 čestice, s odgovorima na pet stupanjskoj Likertovoj ljestvici Metrijske karakteristike skale u ovom obliku su provjerene na uzorku od 201 studenata kineziologije. Prva svojstvena vrijednost matrice korelacija objašnjavala je gotovo 40% zajedničke varijance, što pokazuje da je skala jasno definirala prvi predmet mjerenja. Prosječna korelacija među česticama bila je 0,356. Skala je pokazala visoku pouzdanost, a koeficijent Cronbachove alfe bio je 0,955. Najniža vrijednost čestice na standardiziranoj prvoj glavnoj komponenti je 0,18, a 39 čestica je imalo vrijednosti veće od 0,30. Izvrsne metrijske karakteristike skale sa 42 čestice omogućile su formiranje skraćenog oblika skale. Druga verzija skale stava prema plesu (SPP) je skraćena na 20 čestica i imala je gotovo istu pouzdanost kao i duža verzija, koeficijent Cronbachove alfe iznosio je 0,942. Moglo bi se zaključiti da su oba oblika skale stava prema plesu imala vrlo dobre metrijske karakteristike te su prikladni za primjenu . Ključne riječi: Skala stava prema plesu, metrijske karakteristike, studenti

Received: June 28, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assist.Prof.Jadranka Vlašić, Ph.D. University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology Horvaćanski zavoj 15, Zagreb, Croatia Phone: +385 (1) 3658 666 E-mail: [email protected]

Perrpta, F. and Pannelli, A.: Sport for the formation of the person: "Sport as an... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 25‐27

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SPORT FOR THE FORMATION OF THE PERSON: "SPORT AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL,

TRAINING OF ADULTS AND CHILDREN: A RESOURCE FOR SCHOOL AND STRATEGY FOR THE JOB"

Francesco Perrotta and Angelo Pannelli

Department of Education, University of Macerata, Italy

Review paper

Abstract The Sport is synonymous with competition, conflict, rivalry, self-promotion and challenge to the last breath with the dominance of its competitive, crucial to enhance their values more related more to the fight and the contrast between the contenders that all ' meeting, by comparison and the discovery of self and other . Meet, debate and discovery that underlie the growth and formation of the person, a pedagogy capable of driving the subject for the construction and sharing of basic rules for its social life, to discover and experience the values of tolerance, loyalty, solidarity, fraternity and belonging .A purpose and an educational, two concepts that travel in harmony with each other, lead us to understand how body - movement -sport promotes awareness of self, environment and possibilities of movement and also contribute to the formation of personality pupil through knowledge and awareness of one's bodily identity. Key words: sports, educa tional, healthy competition, comparison and performance, solidarity, school Introduction The Sport is synonymous with competition, conflict, rivalry, self-promotion and challenge to the last breath with the dominance of its competitive, crucial to enhance their values more related more to the fight and the contrast between the contenders that all ' meeting, by comparison and the discovery of self and other . Meet, debate and discovery that underlie the growth and formation of the person, a pedagogy capable of driving the subject for the construction and sharing of basic rules for its social life, to discover and experience the values of tolerance, loyalty, solidarity, fraternity and belonging A purpose and an educational, two concepts that travel in harmony with each other, lead us to understand how body - movement -sport promotes awareness of self, environment and possibilities of movement and also contribute to the formation of personality pupil through knowledge and awareness of one's bodily identity. Investigation data collection In the common meaning today we intend to sport a physical activity that is carried out on at least three different levels of emotional investment : for competition, for fun, as a healthful activity . These levels are anthropologically and psychologically acceptable if they occur together and integrated with one another, without the prevalence of a design on the other .In particular, we intend to do for the speech, a redefinition is necessary just because we want marcarne the meanings of education and training, being men, that sport still can express even though, in my opinion these meanings are covered and masked modified by many influences pollutants. The sport, for us, is as a vehicle for growth. The use of sports metaphors for the svuluppo of a team and of the person. The sport as a metaphor of shared challenge and

tension to success. The shared objective, the importance of the role, the respect and the ability 'to manage the skills that are here now alongside the training of a sports team and a team that make it unique. Success is not only given dale technical skills, but the ability to use such competenzde for his own good and his own team, such as: Sense of belonging to a group; Discovery of values; Development of problem solving skills and proactivity; Acceptance of the challenges and the opportunity to learn from mistakes; Management of emotion (fear, shyness, aggressiveness) and expansion of self-esteem. Sporting activity well as conduct training in childhood can get some results. Starting from the basic concept that sport is an activity specifically psychomotor activity, that is, that necessarily combines physical condition, psychological skills with cognitive and emotional elements that do bind to experiences that are then conditioning on subsequent behaviors. Model construction set The purpose of a sport training in childhood can be summarized as follows: build a harmonious development of the individual through the expression of personal skills both physical and mental, through compensatory mechanisms of deficiencies and hardships; establish a habit to finalize a healthy competitiveness in a complementary relationship with the cooperation and sharing; increase self-esteem as a basic element of personal safety starting from the concrete bodily ego involved and built in attachment dynamics contain, finalize in a constructive way relational aggression both physiological and reactive; enable the ability to ask, understand and respect the rules of the game. All this can be achieved through an educational relationship that tends not only to train both the body and the mind in that specific


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discipline, but also to facilitate an awareness of what you do and what happens, but also of bodily sensations and emotions. This element of awareness is essential for the formation because it is the essential basis to develop that sense of limits and possibilities that builds the critical sense which is the more correct expression of a mature and balanced. Critical to conclude this speech is to try to define what is meant by the educational relationship, given that a report of this kind is needed to bring and return the formative significance of sport in children. The concept of education has had in the history of thought, different and diverse definitions, always in tune with the ideologies historically and culturally determined. With the rise of psychology and pedagogy that although human sciences, have agreed to also be based on an epistemological status of science, things have changed in the sense that the measure of the method and often also of the content of education are no longer ideologically arbitrary. This ultimately means that a good education should take into account the developmental level of the student and the quality of the relationship between educator and educating. And ' now clear that children, and those in children in general show a sensitivity and a chance to learn different depending on age, in close relationship to the level of cognitive and emotional maturation and in relation to meaningful relationships on which they depend in much of the motivation to learn. In the school teachers should educate children and teenagers to the sport. I personally think that educating means helping each other to come out, to manifest, to be realized according to its potential. Children need to play, as a top priority in their lives. through the game to learn how to live . the other is not required, they are not adults. it is important to give to the children's experiences of movement, tied to the gameplay fun. In addition, today's children live in the house paradoxically, where you created a fake reality that makes up the real one, they move, for example, in front of a tool called wii fit that simulates reality. The boy thinks of walking, because the video before he throws a tree-lined avenue, a meadow, clouds, obstacles, but in reality it has not moved really, did not breathe the air outside, has not run out, nor has come really a way. It is therefore necessary to return to the street game, but where this is not possible, the experience of the sport played out, as a group, makes up beautifully to it, I remember from our childhood. The European Union and the World Health Organization have identified promotion of education " LIFE SKILLS " one of the priority objectives of educational policies and actions to promote among the younger

generations and adults, such as: Problem Solving, address and solve everyday problems in a constructive way, Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking, analyze the situation in an analytical way, exploring alternatives and finding original solutions, Effective communication, express yourself in a manner appropriate to the situation and the interlocutor, both verbal and non-verbally Empathy, recognize, discriminate, share the emotions of others Emotional management and stress management, recognize and regulate their emotions and states of tension Personal effectiveness, to effectively organize a series of actions needed to cope with new situations, tests and challenges Collective efficacy, system of values and beliefs shared by a group about the ability to achieve common goals. Considerations For us, educate, it means, basically, propose a target and accompany him to his pursuit, train, educate, fatigue, perspiration. With regard to propose a target and accompany him to his pursuit, we must help young people to appreciate their diversity to overcome the fear of becoming, to have courage, to conceive the game as inner wellbeing besides physical, to stand well in a group, appreciating the contribution of everyone, without exception, to not give up when faced difficulties. With regard to the objective dell'allenare, you must train the children to be able to face the difficulties, so that they can solve them, because you can risk in life and you can go ahead: fall because of them, get up and get going again . The error must not be seen in a negative way, but positive, as it is the cornerstone of all progress and all improvements, therefore, wrong means progress, life such as sports, proceeds to problems and errors, and only at the end, passing through the mistakes, you can improve its performance. Train children and adolescents to overcome the errors mean strengthen them inwardly, so as to give them always a good motivation to deal with the inevitable difficult situations that arise in their lives. Goal of any sound education is to ensure that children acquire the inner strength to get back into play, not to give in to despair. With regard to the education effort and sweat, we must educate and modulate the experiences that require waiting, the realization of its objectives, in order to bring the kids to build their own becoming, or rather, to grow and not be afraid because children and adolescents the capture and adapt accordingly. Our task will be to help the children to form their own future, in order to raise teenagers ready to compete in adult society.

References Agostinetto, L. (2006). Sport, Identity and Integration. Milano: Panathlon International. Aledda, A., Fabbris, L., & Spallino, A. (2006). Multiculturalism and Sport. Milano: Franco Angeli. Ambrosini M., & Molina S, (2004). Second generations, Turin: Giovanni Agnelli Foundation. Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M.A, (2005). A reconceptualization of pshysical education : the intersection of

gender/race/social class. Sport Education and Society.


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Berry, J.W., Phinney, J.S., Sam, D.L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant Youth: Acculturation, Identity and Adaptation. Applied Psychology.

Green, M. (2006). ‘From sports to all’ to not about ‘sport at all’. European Sport Management Quarterly. Moro, M.R. (2000). The principles of transcultural clinic. The first and second generation. Introductory

seminar to Transcultural Clinic, Opedali S. Charles S. Paolo in Milan. Portera, A., & Dusi, P. (eds.) (2005). Conflict Management and intercultural mediation. Milano: Franco

Angeli. Pretceille-Abdallah, M. (2006). Interculturalism as a paradigm for thinking about diversity, Intercultural

Education, 17(5). Sam, M.P., & Jackson, S.J. (2004). Sport Policy Development in New Zealand. Paradoxe of an Integrative

Paradigm, International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Snape, R. (2005). Steeps to Health: an evaluation of a project to promote exercise and physical activity

amongst Asian women in a post-industrial town in England, Managing Leisure. Walseth, K. (2006). Young Muslim Women and Sport: the impact of identity work. Leisure Studies.

SPORT ZA OBLIKOVANJE OSOBE: “SPORT KAO EDUKACIJSKI ALAT, TRENING ZA ODRASLE I DJECU: ŠKOLSKI RESURS I POSLOVNA STRATEGIJA”

Sažetak Sport znači i poezuje se sa natjecanjem, sukobom, suparništvom, samo-izražavanjem i izazovom do poslijednjeg daha s prevlasti njegove konkurentnosti, kako bi se ključno poboljšale vrijednosti pojedinaca povezane s više ogleda i naglasile razlike između pristupnika. To vrijedi na svim susretima u smislu otkrivanja sebe i drugih. Treba upoznati, raspraviti i otkriti da je temelj za rast i formiranje osobe u pedagogiji sposobnost za razvoj i izgradnju osobe, kao i za dijeljenje temeljnih pravila društvenog života i otkrivanje vrijednosti doživljaja tolerancije, odanosti, solidarnosti, bratstva i pripadnosti. Svrha i obrazovanje, dva su pojma koja putuju u harmoniji jedan s drugim, vode nas razumijevanju, tijela i pokreta. Sport promiče svijest o sebi, okolišu i mogućnostima gibanja, te doprinosi oblikovanju osobnosti učenika kroz znanje i svijest o nečijem tjelesnom identitetu. Ključne riječi: sport, obrazovanje, competition, usporedba i izvedba, solidarnost, škola

Received: April 25, 2013 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc.Prof.Francesco Perrotta, PhD. University of Macerata Department of Education, Piaggia della Torre, 8 MC, Italy P.I - C.F. 00177050432 Phone: +39 0733 6040 E-mail: [email protected]

Adabi, H. et al.: Presenting the regression model of the relationship between... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 28‐34

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PRESENTING THE REGRESSION MODEL OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND ORGANIZATIONAL TRUST WITH THE PARTICIPATION

LEVEL IN THE DECISION-MAKING OF THE MANAGERS

Hasan Adabi1, Mozafar Yektayar2 and Sardar Mohammadi3

1 Dep. of Sport Management, Sanandaj Research Science Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kurdistan, Iran

2 Department of Sport Science, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kurdistan, Iran. 3 Sport Management, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran


Abstract Purpose: This study examines the relationship between the organizational climate and organizational trust with the participation level in the decision-making of the managers of the Youth and Sports offices in Ardabil Province. Design: The research methods descriptive-correlative and the research objectives are applied ones. The statistical population of the study included all the managers of the offices of youth and sports of the organization of physical education in Ardebil province, which consisted of 70 individuals. In order to collect the information about organizational climate, standardized Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) by Halpin and Croft (1963), to assess the level of organizational trust, Organizational Trust Questionnaire by Allal (2008) and to evaluate the participation in decision-making, researcher made questionnaire were used. Findings: Results of this study indicate that there is a significant and positive relationship between the dimensions of organizational trust (lateral trust, vertical trust, institutional trust) and the employee participation in decision making, that is, as the institutional trust increases, the employee involvement in decision making increases significantly. Value: These results help the managers to decrease or increase the employees’ participation in organizational decision-makings, and sodoing, enhance organizational climate and organizational trust toward the organization and its management. Key words: Organization, climate, trust, participation, decision-making, Off Youth and Sports Introduction Trust-based management is a new expression of an ancient idea whose place is evident and obvious in the current relationships and its mechanisms can be effective in achieving personal and organizational effectiveness. (Ahmadi & Mehrabani, 2002). Rotter defines trust as the general expectations that we can have, relying on others’ speech, promises, and oral and written statements (Baird & Amand, 1995).Employees in the organizations with low levels of trust work at high levels of stress. Employees in such organizations are not involved in the decision makings, or when the decisions turn out to be wrong, the employees are considered guilty and this disturbs their concentration which consequently weakens the decision-making process and finally, decreases the quality of the decisions (Baird & Amand, 1995). Zarei and Hassanzadeh (2005) concluded that we should generally consider that, although observing the official regulations, organizational structure and official relationships are important in the organization, trust between the individuals seems to be significant and remarkable. Fadavi and Goudarzi (2005) believe that when in an organization contribution is valued and implemented, all the employees feel respected, valued, and efficient and they feel involved in the fate of their organization. Thus, participation of the employees in the organization’s decision-making and applying their ideas in practice, increases their sense of responsibility for the decisions which have been made.

The importance of the issue of organizational trust and employees’ participation in decision-making is to the extent that many researchers have been done on it. Zarei and Hassanzadeh (2005) in a research revealed that the level of trust in the organizations was below the average point. Also Jacob and Tingle(2011) in their research concluded that there is a significant relationship between the components of organizational trust and the decision-making of the employees and managers of these organizations one of the basic needs of human beings and the organizations’ employees is the existence of a favorable climate, and one of the factors which is problematic to human space is humans’ inability to communicate with one another. Hoy and Miskel (1996) assert that organizational climate is such a comprehensive term in management, which refers to the employees’ perceptions of the public workplaces in the organizations, and it is influenced by the official and unofficial organizations, personality of the individuals, and organizational management. For the better understanding of organizational climate, Halpin, (1963) compares it with human character and states that “character for individuals is like organizational climate for the organization. ”Cooper (1997) in his study concluded that increased employee participation in decision-making affects the employees’ conception of commitment, culture and organizational climate and their work, and that there is a significant relationship between these variables.


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Decision-making has always been an indispensable part of management whether by the manager and an employee or by the manager and a group of employees. Rezaeian (2008) believes that participation strengthens the power of decision-making, analysis and thinking about the organization’s issues and social environment, and no organization can be successful in the long run without the satisfaction and support of its employees. The latest theories of management have paid considerable attention to the phenomenon of participation and studies about Japanese management techniques such as William Ouchi's theory, have given participation an outstanding place (Toosi, 2006).Unfortunately, the status of participation in institutions and organizations, particularly sports organizations, is unclear. Many scientists, including: Klein Evers, believe that educational organizations can also make certain kinds of decisions more efficient and effective, using collaborative decision-making (Short, 2005).The importance of the manager’s decisions in an organization is axiomatic since his/her decisions can direct the subordinate’s behavior in the desired way, and make it sensible, meaning that the subordinate's behavior will be more harmonious with the goals of the organization. Considering the fact that today's organizations, sports federations, Departments of Physical Education and schools play a determining role in the country’s sports, organizational trust in these organizations will be one of the most important factors of success (Tourban et al., 2008). Fulfillment of this goal necessitates that we know how the employees in the Ministry of Youth and Sport and its offices in the provinces, and sports federations benefit from the components of organizational trust, organizational climate and participation in decision-making, by analyzing the corresponding variables. Understanding and awareness of the concept of climate is very important in the analysis of the management performance. Organizational climate affects the formation of the employees’ self-perception, their attitude toward work and maintaining favorable interpersonal relations with others. Managers of the organization, by creating a suitable climate in the workplace, can help the employees to achieve their organizational and personal goals and contribute to the effectiveness of their organization. To perform his/her duties successfully, the manager should have sufficient knowledge about the atmosphere in the organization, s/he should recognize the difference between the desired atmosphere and the existing one, must think of some measures to reduce this gap and must create the suitable environmental conditions for the favorable climate; favorable climate underlies the individuals’ participation in the management decisions (Daneshfar, 2005). Therefore, the results of this study can improve Iranian sports community in two ways: it provides useful information for the managers employed in the Offices of Youth and Sports of Ardabil Province, also it can help the aforementioned managers to become familiar with the level of

organizational trust and organizational climate in Ardebil’s youth and sports offices and become aware of the relationship between the organizational climate and organizational trust of the employees with the extent of their participation. These results help the managers to decrease or increase the employees’ participation in organizational decision-makings, and sodoing, enhance organizational climate and organizational trust toward the organization and its management. Offices of Youth and Sports in the province as the main representatives of the Ministry of Youth and Sports, are considered responsible for sports throughout the province. This study intends to examine the relationship between organizational trust and the participation level of the employees in the decision-making of the managers of youth and sports offices in Ardabil Province, and assess the level of these employees’ organizational trust and their participation in the management decisions, and examine the relationship between them. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to find the answers to these questions: What is the relationship between organizational trust and organizational climate and the employees’ participation level in the decision-making of the managers of Sports and Youth Offices in Ardabil province? And what is the extent of such a relationship? Materials and methods The methodology of the present study, in terms of data collection method and the relationships between the variables, is descriptive - correlative and regarding the research objectives it is the applied method which has been implemented, using the field method. The study population included all the employees working in the Offices of Youth and Sports in Ardabil province. Based on the collected data it equaled 70 individuals which included 32 men and 38 women. All research population, as a whole number, was selected as the sample. The questionnaire of Organizational Trust by Lennon et al (2008), organizational climate questionnaire by Halpin and Croft (1963) and the researcher made questionnaire of the employees’ participation level in the decision-making of the managers were used; the face validity of the questionnaires was determined by the faculty members of sports management and management science, and factor analysis was used to confirm the construct validity of them. To calculate the internal reliability of the questionnaires alpha Cronbach method was utilized and the internal reliability coefficient for the questionnaires of organizational trust was (α = 0.89), for Halpin and Croft's organizational climate, (α =0.84), and the employees’ participation in the decision-making of the managers was (α = 0.76).In this study, for the data analysis, descriptive statistics method, and for the prediction and estimation of the parameters, inferential statistics were used.


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First, the normality of the data was checked, using normality test (Kalmogorov-Smirnov), and considering the normality of the data, parametric statistical methods such as multiple correlation and multiple regression statistical methods were utilized were used. Factor analysis was carried out to confirm the validity of the research questionnaires. For data analysis the software package of SPSS Ver20, was used. Results and discussion The descriptive analysis of the data related to the research population of the study was as follows: about the age of the subjects, results showed that the oldest among the employee was 55 years old and the youngest was 22 years old, and the average age was 32.12. Also, 45.59% of the participants were male and 54.41%were female; results about their marital status showed that 70.59% of the subjects were married, and 29.41% were single.7.3% of the participants had diploma,26.5% had an associate degree, 57.4% of them had a Bachelor’s degree, and 8.8% had a master’s or a doctorate degree. Descriptive results for the service records of the employees working at the youth and physical education offices of Ardabil province showed that 29.4% of them had the highest service records with the range of 16 to 20 years of experience and 4.4% had the lowest experience. The employment status of these employees was: 27.9% contractual, 33.4% treaty-based, 25% experimental–official and 13.2% definitive-official. Prior to the test, because of the presumption for using parametric tests or not, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used. Accordingly, the components of this study were analyzed and the results proved that all of them were normally distributed. Considering the normal distribution of the components, to determine the relationship between the organizational trust and its dimensions with the participation of the managers in decision-making, Pierson correlation test was utilized. Table 1. Results of the Pierson correlation coefficients between organizational trust and its components with the participation of the managers in decision-making

Variables Social Capital N *r Sig

Components of Organizational

Trust

Lateral Trust 68 *0.31 0.04

Vertical Trust

68 **0.49 0.00

Institutional Trust

68 **0.45 0.01

Organizational Trust 68 **0.44 0.01 * Correlation at the level of 0.05 is significant.

** Correlation at 0.01 is significant. The results of Pierson correlation coefficients in Table 1 show that there is a positive and significant relationship between organizational trust and participation of the managers in decision-making: r=0.440 andp<0.01. That is, as organizational trust increases, managers’ participation in decision making increases significantly.

Between lateral trust and managers’ participation in decision-making(r= 0.312 and p<0.05) a significant relationship is observed, as well. Also, there exists a positive and significant correlation between vertical trust and managers’ participation in decision–making: r = 0.488 and p<0.01). In addition to these, a significant and positive relationship is observed between institutional trust and managers’ participation in decision-making, r = 0.452 and p<0.01. Table 2. Results of the Pearson correlation coefficients between organizational climate and managers’ participation in decision-making

Variables

Team Spirit N *r Sig

68 **0.58 0.00 Components

of Organizational

Climate

Disturbance

68

0.11 0.32

Intimacy 68 **0.58 0.00 Interest 68 **0.49 0.01 Considerate

ness 68 0.12 0.28

Distancing 68 0.02 0.48 Influence

and Dynamics 68

*0.38 0.04

Emphasis on

Manufacturing 68

0.21 0.01

Organizational Climate 68 *0.31 0.04 * Correlation at the level of 0.05 is significant.

** Correlation at 0.01 is significant. The results of Pearson correlation coefficients in Table 2 indicate that there is a positive and significant relationship between organizational climate and managers’ participation in decision-making: r =0.312 and p< 0.05, meaning that, enhancing the organizational climate leads to a significant increase in the managers’ involvement in decision-making. Also, there exists a positive and significant relationship between the components of organizational climate, team spirit (r = 0.579 and p<0.01), intimacy (r =0.580 and p< 0.01), interest (r = 0.492 and p< 0.01) and influence and dynamics (r = 0.379 and p< 0.05) with the participation of the managers in decision-making. To answer the research hypotheses, between the components of organizational trust as independent variables (predictor), and the managers’ participation in decision-making as the dependent variable (criterion), the concurrent method of regression analysis was used. In concurrent regression, all of the independent variables are simultaneously entered in the analysis with the dependent ones. Table 3 indicates the results of the analysis of the research hypothesis. The results of Table 3 summarizes the model. The correlation coefficient(R) between the variables is 0.44, which demonstrates that there is a direct and significant correlation between the study’s set of independent variables and the dependent ones(p<0.01, R=0.44).


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Furthermore, the value of the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2) which represents the percentage of the determined change from the changes of the dependent variable (criterion) by the independent variable (predictor) shows that 19% of the variance of the managers’ participation in decision-making is related to the component of organizational trust and 81% to the factors not included in the mentioned model. Table 3. Results of the multiple correlation between the components of organizational trust and managers’ participation in decision-making (Model = Concurrent Regression)

Durbin Watson 0.17 Sig 0.01

Std. Error of the Estimate 0.59 Adjusted R square 0.31

R2 0.19 R 0.44

Table4.Results of the F-test examining the research regression model

Sig F Mean Square

Degree of

Freedom

Sum of the Squares Model

0.001 118.91 21.66 1 22.658 Regression0.18 67 14.983 Remaining

68 37.641 Total Considering the significant value of the test, F=118.907, p<0.001, we can conclude that the research regression model which consists of independent variables (components of organizational trust) and the dependent variable (managers’ participation in decision-making) is an appropriate model and the set of the independent variables is able to explain the changes in the managers’ participation in decision-making. Table (5) indicates the results of the concurrent regression analysis of the independent variable (managers’ participation in decision-making).

Table 5. Results of the regression analysis between the predictor variable of the components of organizational trust and managers’ participation in decision making

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta t value Sig Intercept 0.62 0.34 0.98 0.01

Vertical Trust 0.31 0.078 0.26 11.13 0.01Institutional

Trust 0.27 0.12 0.11 8.31 0.01

Lateral Trust 0.12 0.09 0.10 7.74 0.04 Multiple regression results in Table (5) indicates that vertical trust (sig =0.01, t =11.13), institutional trust (sig = 0.01, t =11.31) and lateral trust(sig =0.01, t =11.13) can predict the managers’ participation in decision-making. Therefore, the regression equation for predicting the managers’ participation in decision-making, regarding the predictive variables (components of organizational trust),and based on the data in Table 5,is as follows: Y = a + bx1 + cx2 + dx3 and Y =0.619 + 0.26 (x1) + 0.11 (x2) + 0.10 (x3).

To answer the research hypotheses, the concurrent regression analysis was used between organizational climate and components of independent variables (predictors) with managers’ participation in decision-making as the dependent variable (criterion). All independent variables simultaneously entered in the regression analysis with the dependent variables. Table 6 indicates the results of the analysis of the information about the research hypothesis. Table 6.Results of the multiple correlation between the components of organizational climate and managers’ participation in decision-making

Durbin Watson 2.59 Sig 0.01

Std. Error of the Estimate 0.33 Adjusted R square 0.28

R2 0.09 R 0.31

Table 7.Results of the F-test to verify the study’s regression model.

Concurrent Regression



B Std. Error Beta t value SigIntercept 0.71 0.41 2.44 0.01Intimacy 0.58 0.06 0.23 8.89 0.02

Team Spirit 0.55 0.12 0.22 8.31 0.03Interest 0.51 0.21 0.18 5.74 0.03

Influence and Dynamics 0.39 0.11 0.14 3.62 0.05

The results of Table 7 show the summary of the model. The correlation coefficient (R) between the variables is0.312, which demonstrates that there is a significant and direct correlation between the set of independent variables and the dependent variable of the study(p<0.05, R=0.31).The value of the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2), which represents the determined change percentage from the changes of the dependent variable (criterion) by the independent variable (predictor), indicates that 9% of the variance of the managers’ participation in decision-making is related to the components of organizational trust and 91% to the factors extraneous to the model. Regarding the significant amount of the F test (p< 0.05, F = 73.394) we can conclude that the research regression model, consisting of independent variables (organizational climate components) and the dependent variable (managers’ participation in decision-making), is a good model and the set of independent variables can explain the changes in the managers’ participation in decision-making. Table 8 shows the results of the concurrent regression analysis of the independent variable (managers’ participation in decision-making). Results of the multiple regression in Table 8 indicate that intimacy (sig = 0.05, t = 8.892), team spirit (sig = 0.05, t = 8.310), interest (sig = 0.05, t = 5.740) and influence and dynamics (sig = 0.05, t = 3.621) can predict them an agers’ participation in decision-making.


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Table 8.Results of the regression analysis of the predictive variable between the components of organizational climate and managers’ participation in decision-making

Concurrent Regression



B Std. Error Beta t value Sig

Intercept 0.71 0.41 2.44 0.01Intimacy 0.58 0.06 0.23 8.89 0.02

Team Spirit 0.55 0.12 0.22 8.31 0.03Interest 0.51 0.21 0.18 5.74 0.03

Influence and Dynamics 0.39 0.11 0.14 3.62 0.05

Thence, the regression equation for predicting the managers’ participation in decision-making, considering predictive variables (components of organizational trust), based on the data of Table 8, is as follows: Y = a + bx1 + cx2 + dx3+ ex4 and Y = 0.712 +0.23(x1)+ 0.22(x2)+ 0.18(x3)+ 0.14(x4) Conclusion About the first hypothesis, according to the information obtained from the results of the present study, it can be said that with he desired organizational trust, managers’ participation in decision-making significantly increases and the organizations’ management should consider this issue. These results are consistent with the findings of Tingle and Jacob(2011), Oktug (2012) and Emam, Gholi and Zadeh (2009). Furthermore, the study results also reveal that the desirability of the organizational trust in the population under study is average, and this is also true about the extent of their participation in decision-making. The second hypothesis testing indicated that there is a significant and positive relationship between the dimensions of organizational climate and the participation of the manager's of You than Sports Offices in Ardabil province. These results are in line with the results of the studies by Daneshfar (2005), Nia (2003) and Noah (2008) but they are not in line with Shoorjeh’s (2006) study results. The reason for this inconsistency may be the research population, since Shoorje’s population was chosen from the university and educational centers. Despite the criticisms about the concept of organizational climate, it is still an important subject of research in organizational management and behavior, and has a significant impact on the results of a number of empirical studies on organizations. Halpin and Croft (1995) further emphasized that organizational climate is an important concept in understanding and explaining the behavior of the organizations; according to these researchers, the organizational climate approach starts with perceptions and finally provides a complementary alternative for behavior analysis (Kermani, 2008). While organizational climate and participation rate affect decision-making, they do not belong to an identical composition. Organizational climate and the level of participation in decision-making are both important and effective organizational variables,

and organizational management should consider them in relation to different organizational variables, it is useful to refer to the related researches in this regard. About effectiveness, I. Ali and J. Ali (2005) express that some factors of organizational climate significantly predict organizational effectiveness. Many researchers have concluded that there is a positive and significant correlation between organizational climate and performance, among whom are Heidarzadegan (1996) and Nichols (2007). The third hypothesis can, based on organizational trust, predict the employees’ participation in the decision-making of the managers of Youth and Sports Offices in Ardabil. To answer the research hypotheses, concurrent regression analysis was used between the components of organizational trust as predictive variables and the employees’ participation in decision-making as the criterion variable. In the concurrent regression all of the independent variables are entered simultaneously in analysis with the dependent variable. Results of the multiple correlation between the components of organizational trust and the employee’s participation in decision-making show that there is a positive and direct correlation between the set of independent variables and the dependent variable of the research. Also, the value of the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2)which represents the percentage of the determined changes from the criterion variable changes by the predictive variable shows that 19% of the variance of the employees’ participation in decision-making is related to the components of organizational trust, and 81% is related to the factors out of the mentioned model. Results of the F-test taken to evaluate the research regression model, reveals that considering the significance of the F test value it can be concluded that the research regression model, consisting of predictive variables (components of organizational trust) and criterion variables (employee participation in decision-making), is a proper model and the set of independent variables can explain the changes in the employees’ participation in decision-making. Results of the regression analysis of the predictive variables between the components of organizational trust and the employees’ participation in decision-making suggests that vertical trust, institutional trust and lateral trust can predict the employees’ participation in decision-making. The results of the present research are in line with the results of the studies by Zarei & Zadeh (2005), Tingle & Jacob (2011) and Oktug (2012). The employees of the organizations with low levels of trust, work with high levels of stress. The employees who are not involved in the decision-making, or those who are considered guilty when the decisions proved wrong, are distracted from the work they are doing, and this ultimately weakens the decision-making process, and decreases the quality of the decisions. The forth hypothesis is that organizational climate can predict the employees’ participation level in the decision-making of the managers of Youth and Sports Offices in Ardabil.


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Given the significance of the test value, it can be concluded that the research Regression model which consists of the predictive variable (components of organizational climate) and the criterion variables (the employees’ participation in decision-making) is a good model and the set of independent variables is capable of explaining the changes in the employees’ participation in decision-making. Results of the regression analysis of the predictive variables between the components of organizational climate and the employees’ participation in decision-making demonstrates that intimacy, team spirit, interest, and influence and dynamics can predict the employees’ participation in decision-making. These results are consistent with the research results of Cooper et al (1997) and Daneshfar (2005). Daneshfar (2005)’s paper entitled “Examining the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Teachers’ Participation in the Decision-Making Process,” indicated that there is a significant relationship between the organizational climate and teachers’ participation in the decision making process, meaning that, creating a safe and open climate increases the teachers’ participation in the decision-making processes. Campbell et al (1994) state that organizational climate reveals the organization’s behavior with its members, so it can be assumed as the organization’s character. Also, on the issue of organizational environment, McKenzie (1998) states that organizational climate can generally be considered as a resource for the efficiency of the employees who work in that environment (Kermani, 2008). Considering that, nowadays, organizations, sports federations, the General Administration of Physical Education, and schools play a decisive role in the country’s sports (Tourban et al., 1387),one of the key factors of success in these organizations is organizational trust. Fulfillment of this issue requires that we know how the employees at the provinces’ Ministry and Offices of Youth and Sports federations benefit from the components such as organizational trust, organizational climate and participation in decision-making through examining the relevant variables. Understanding and awareness of the concept of climate is very important in the analysis of management

performance. Organizational climate is effective in shaping the employees’ self-perception, trust, their attitude toward work and establishing desirable interpersonal relations with others. By creating the favorable atmosphere in the organization’s workplace, managers can assist the employees in achieving organizational and personal goals and contribute to the effectiveness of their organization. In order to perform the duties successfully, the manager should have sufficient knowledge of the organization’s climate, s/he should identify the distance between the ideal climate and the existing one, s/he should think of some measures to reduce or bridge this gap, and create proper environmental conditions for a suitable climate. Appropriate organizational climate underlies the participation of the individuals in the management decision-making (Daneshfar, 2005). Therefore, using the results of this study can help improve Iranian sports community in two ways: it provides useful information for the managers working at the Offices of Youth and Sports in Ardabil province which helps these managers to become familiar with the level of the organizational trust and organizational climate of the employees and warns them to be aware of the relationship between the organizational trust and organizational climate of the employees and the extent of their participation; the results also helps the managers to see how, by reducing or increasing the employees’ participation in decision-making, they can enhance and increase organizational climate and the employees’ organizational trust towards the organization and its management. It is suggested that organizational trust, organizational climate and the employees’ participation in the decision-making of the managers from the inception of the sports section in Iran, be reviewed in a study in order to examine the relationship between them, and the relationship among the staff of the Youth and Sports Offices of the provinces. Regarding the results of this study, it is expected that managers of the Youth and Sports Offices enact some laws and policies to affect the aspects which are more important in enhancing and promoting organizational trust and organizational climate.

References Baird, A., & St-Amand, Réal. (1995). Trust Within the Organization. Monograph - Issue 1 - May 1995. BeigiNia, A. (2003). Examining the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Employee Participation.

Daneshvar Raftar, Management Papers Exclusive, 10(2), 1-20. Cooper, M.A. (1997). Impact of Participation in Decision Making on Staff Perception of Organizational

Climate/Culture, Commitment and Influence on Work. ProQuest information and learning company, /umi microform 1383926/.

Daneshfar, T. (2009). Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Teachers Participation in the Decision-Making Process of the High Schools of Amaal, Noor and Chamestan. (Master Thesis), Tehran University.

Ekrami, M., Rahbar, A., Nahid, Shir., & Nezhad, R. (2010). Evaluation of the Employee Participation in the Managers’ Decision-Making. Management Process and Development, 74, Fall-Winter 2010.

Goli, E., Borghei, S., Zarei, R., & Hassan, M. (2009). Examining the Relationship between the Levels of Employee Participation in Organizational Decisions and Empowering Them in the Telecommunication Company of Mazandaran Province. Organizational Culture Management, 19, Spring and Summer 2009.


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Keith, J., & Tingle, A. (2011). The relationship between organizational trust and mindfulness: An exploration of NCAA Division III athletic departments. Thesis of the University of Texas at San Antonio.

Goudarzi, A., Fadavi, S., Salimi, M., & Ghorban, A. (2005). Examining the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Trust level in the School Environments. Educational Sciences, Educational Studies, 3, Summer 2005.

Hoy, W.K., & Mixel, S. (1996). Theory, Research, and Practice in Educational Management. Trans. Mir Mohammad Abbas Zadeh. Second Edition. Urmia: Urmia University Press.

Halpin,R.P., & Croft, W. (1995). Stress and Job Satisfaction: A Study of English Primary School Teachers. Educational Psychology, 15(4), 473-489.

Noah, Y. (2008). A Study of Worker Participation in Management Decision Making Within Selected Establishments in Lagos, Nigeria. J. Soc. Sci. 17(1), 31-39.

Zeynep, O. (2012). The Effects of Organizational Trust on Employee Decision Making Styles. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 9, 1.

Shoorcheh, R.H. (2006). A Comparative Study of Organizational Climate and its Relationship with the Employees’ Interest in Participation in Organizational Decision-Making in Higher Education State and Non-state Institutions. (Master Thesis), Mashhad: Ferdowsi University.

Rezaeian, A. (2008). Principles of Management. Tehran: Organization of Codification and Study of the Books of Departments of Humanities.

Nichols, S.E. (2007). A Study of the Relationship between School leadership,School Climate and Student Performance. ProQuest information and learning company. /umi microform 3280218/.

Tingle, A., & Keith, J. (2011). The Relationship between Organizational Trust and Mindfulness: An Exploration of NCAA Division III Athletic Departments. Thesis of the University of Texas at San Antonio.

Toosi, M.A. (2006). Management and the Employee Participation. Tehran: MO. Kursad, Y. (2008). The Relationship between Organizational Trust and Organizational Commitment in Turkish

Primary School. Journal of Applied Sciences. 8, 2293-2299. Zahra, Z. (2007). Investigating the Relationship between the Opinions about the Motivation of the Managers’

Progress and Teachers’ Participation in the Decision-Makings of Ordinary Girl High Schools in Tehran. MS Thesis, Shahid Beheshti University.

Matin, Z.H., & Hassanzadeh, H. (2005). Intra-Organizational Trust and Examining the Current Status of the Country’s Implementing Agencies. Culture Management, 7, 79-126.

PREDSTAVLJANJE REGRESIJSKOG MODELA ODNOSA IZMEĐU ORGANIZACIJSKE KLIME I POVJERENJA SA SUDJELUJUĆOM RAZINOM ODLUČIVANJA MENADŽERA

Sažetak Svrha: Ovo istraživanje proučava odnose između organizacijske atmosphere i povjerenja sa sudjelujućom razinom odlučivanja menadžera “Youth and Sport” ureda u provinciji Ardabil. Dizajn: U uzorak su ušli svi menadžeri u tjelesnom odgoju u provinciji, s ukupno 70 entiteta. Podaci su prikupljeni standardnim Organizational Climate Description upitnikom (OCDQ) /Halpin and Croft – 1963/. Razina povjerenja Organizational Trust upitnikom /Allal – 2008/ a za procjenu sudjelovanja u odlučivanju upitni je izradio autor. Primjenjene su deskriptivne metode i korelacije. Nalazi: Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju značajnu i pozitivnu povezanost dimenzija organizacijskog povjerenja (bočno, okomito, institucijsko) i sudjelovanje zaposlenika u odlučivanju, na način da kada institucijsko povjerenje raste, uključivanje zaposlenika u odlučiyanje raste značajno. Vrijednost: Ovi rezultati pomažu menadžerima da smanje ili povećaju sudjelovanje zaposlenih u orgaizacijskom odlučivanju, poboljšaju organizacijsku atmosferu i povjerenje u pravcu organizacije i upravljanja. Ključne riječi: organizacija, atmosfera, povjerenje, odlučivanje, Youth and Sports

Received: March 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Ass.Prof.Sardar Mohammadi, Ph.D. Faculty of physical education and sport sciences University of Kurdistan Sanandaj, Kurdistan, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Pivovarniček, P. et al.: A level of tapping frequency of lower limbs of elite Slovak... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 35‐39

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A LEVEL OF TAPPING FREQUENCY OF LOWER LIMBS OF ELITE SLOVAK SOCCER PLAYERS AT DIFFERENT POSITIONS

Pavol Pivovarniček1, Martin Pupiš1, Michal Lacena2 and Roman Švantner2

1 Faculty of Arts, Matej Bel University, Slovak Republic 2 Slovak Football Association, Slovak Republic


Abstract The aim of the study was to compare a level of tapping frequency of lower limbs of elite Slovak soccer players at different playing positions (n = 48, age = 23.8 ± 4.9 years, height = 181.4 ± 6.9 cm, weight = 77.8 ± 7.2 kg; goalkeepers = 5, age = 25.9 ± 3.5 years, height = 190.4 ± 2.2 cm, weight = 85.6 ± 3.4 kg; defenders = 15, age = 25.4 ± 5.2 years, height = 181.2 ± 5.0 cm, weight = 78.0 ± 6.5 kg; midfielders = 19, age = 21.7 ± 3.7 years, height = 177.5 ± 6.3 cm, weight = 73.5 ± 5.9 kg; forwards = 9, age = 24.3 ± 4.5 years, height = 185.2 ± 6.6 cm, weight = 81.9 ± 6.7 kg). The level of tapping frequency of lower limbs was diagnosed with the device FiTROtapping, (FiTRONIC, Bratislava, Slovak Republic). The criterion of performance evaluation of every measured soccer player was total number of contacts with both legs on contact mats of mentioned device during 6 seconds in a standing position. One-way ANOVA was used for determination of difference significance (α = 0.05) between playing positions. The statistical analysis was realized by software IBM® SPSS® Statistics V19. The highest average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs in 6 seconds was observed by forwards (59.9 ± 5.9 contacts), then by defenders (58.5 ± 5.5 contacts), by midfielders (58.1 ± 6.8 contacts). The lowest average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs had goalkeepers (53.2±3.3 contacts). The statistical analysis did not show any significant differences between playing groups (F(3.44)=1.405, p>0.05, η2= 0.09). Keywords: defenders, fitness training, forwards, goalkeepers, midfielders Introduction The condition according to Bunc (1999) presents 30-40% of playing performance in soccer. According to Reilly (1997), Psotta et al. (2006), Orendurff et al. (2010), the soccer is intermittent movement activity which contains very short, usually 1 to 5 seconds continuing intervals of endurance with high to maximum intensity, which alternate with intervals of endurance with lower intensity or inaction lasting from 5 to 10 seconds. Little & Williams (2006) include the running acceleration, maximal running speed and agility, which exist constantly in the match, into movement activities at high intensity. Bangsbo, Mohr & Krustrup (2006), Bangsbo, Iaia & Krustrup (2007) state by players of the highest level 150 to 250 short intensive activities in a match. Hipp (2007) declares that in the soccer match we can observe by player around 100 to 150 sprints with different length. According to findings of Psotta et al. (2006) is 50-65% of all realized sprints shorter than 5m, 75-85% of all sprints is no longer than 10m and the average length of sprints is 9m in a single soccer game. Grasgruber & Cacek (2008) state the length of sprints is ca. 15m and usually no more than 30m, every ca. 90s, it means 0.8 to 1 km for the whole match. Mohr, Krustrup & Bangsbo (2003) found out by elite players about 28 to 58% bigger distance (p < 0.05) in runs at high intensity (> 19km.h-1) and sprints compared to players of lower level (run at high intensity = 2.43±0.14 vs. 1.90±0.12km, sprint = 0.65±0.06 vs. 0.41±0.03km).

Haugen, Tønnessen & Seiler (2013) discovered that Norwegian national soccer players and players of the Norwegian Premier league achieved higher performance from the point of view of the acceleration and running speed (p < 0.05) than players of 2nd division (difference 1.0-1.4%), 3rd – 5th division (difference 3.0-3.8%), junior national team (difference 1.7-2.2%) and junior players (difference 2.8-3.7%). Considering that this research lasted more years (1995-2010, n = 939, age = 22.1±4.3 years), the authors had the possibility to determine that players in years 2006-2010 were faster about 1-2% in 20m run and had achieved rather maximal speed in comparison with players in years 1995-1999 and 2000-2005. Within maximal intensive running of the soccer player, the tapping frequency of lower limbs is also one of partial sections of complex speed performance. We agree with the statement of Grasgruber & Cacek (2008), who say that speed of runner (soccer player) is the result of mutual interaction of frequency and stride. According to Doležajová & Lednický (2002) in evaluation of complex demonstration of speed abilities, it is mainly maximal movement speed in forward direction, acceleration and maximal frequency of circular movements. The level of speed abilities is genetically determinated and depends on neuromuscular coordination and composition of fast muscle fibres. In spite of that it is necessary to focus on diagnostics and in the case of detection of inadequate level we have to focus on stimulation of tapping frequency of individual players too.


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We agree with Zemková, Chren & Štefániková (2013), who write that there is little knowledge in literature about tapping frequency of sportsmen despite the fact that this ability presents one of important factors of sport performance in various kinds of sports. This was also the reason why we deal with the level of tapping frequency of lower limbs of elite Slovak soccer players from the point of view of playing positions in presented study. Methods The observational group consisted of players (n = 48, age = 23.8 ± 4.9 years, height = 181.4 ± 6.9 cm, weight = 77.8 ± 7.2 kg; goalkeepers = 5, age = 25.9 ± 3.5 years, height = 190.4 ± 2.2 cm, weight = 85.6 ± 3.4 kg; defenders = 15, age = 25.4 ± 5.2 years, height = 181.2 ± 5.0 cm, weight = 78.0 ± 6.5 kg; midfielders = 19, age = 21.7 ± 3.7 years, height = 177.5 ± 6.3 cm, weight = 73.5 ± 5.9 kg; forwards = 9, age = 24.3 ± 4.5 years, height = 185.2 ± 6.6 cm, weight = 81.9 ± 6.7 kg) from three Slovak elite soccer teams (MŠK Žilina, FK Dukla Banská Bystrica and AS Trenčín). In competition year 2010/2011 the players MŠK Žilina and FK Dukla played the highest Slovak soccer league and AS Trenčín was the leader of the second highest soccer league. This team won this league and promoted to the highest league too. The measurements were realised during February and March 2011 (MŠK Žilina – 8.2.2011, FK Dukla - 26.2.2011 and AS Trenčín – 23.3.2011) in morning hours when we can speak about the first daily peak of performance in accordance with Jančoková (2000). The measurements of the level of tapping frequency of lower limbs took place in training complex Fitaréna in Banská Bystrica in the same standard conditions. The research was approved by the Ethical Committee of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica. The measurements were carried out in accordance with the ethical standards of Declaration of Helsinki and ethical standards in sport and exercise science research (Harriss & Atkinson, 2011). Before measurements soccer players went through general warm-up (10 minutes) and speed warm-up (10 minutes). We had measured the tapping frequency of lower limbs with the device FiTROtapping, (FiTRONIC, Bratislava, Slovak republic) which consists of two contact mats placed and fixed on the floor, connected with interface to computer. The distance between mats was 10 cm. At the beginning of measurement the soccer player poses himself into standing position in the middle of mats. His task was to make maximally fast touches-contacts on mats alternately with left and right leg (leg tapping) during 6 seconds. The evaluation criterion of the level of tapping frequency of lower limbs was number of contacts of both legs on mats of the device FiTROtapping (FiTRONIC, Bratislava, Slovak Republic) during 6 seconds. The measurement was made two times and we chose a better trial to the evaluation.

In presented study we have used within periphrastic characteristics of descriptive statistics arithmetic average (x) from position measures and standard deviation (SD) from variability measures. We determined statistically the importance of differences of the level of tapping frequency of lower limbs between playing groups with One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The effect size coefficient was assessed using “Eta Squared – η2”, calculated as common ratio of intergroup and total amount of squares. Levene’s Statistic was used within adequacy of usage One-way ANOVA for determination of homogeneity of variances. Normal division of residuals was observed with Shapiro-Wilk test. In the study we have determined importance on standardly used α – level (alpha) = 0.05. Statistical analysis was realized with software IBM® SPSS® Statistics V19. Results We discovered the highest average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs by forwards, then by defenders and midfielders. The lowest average level of tapping frequency was determined by goalkeepers (Table 1). Table 1 The average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs in individual groups according to playing positions (n = 48)

Playing group Average number of contacts in 6 s Goalkeepers (n = 5) 53.2±3.3 Defenders (n = 15) 58.5±5.5 Midfielders (n = 19) 58.1±6.8 Forwards (n = 9) 59.9±5.9

One-way ANOVA has shown that there were no significant differences between playing positions (F(3.44) = 1.405, p > 0.05, η2 = 0.09). Upon this deduction we did not determine differences between individual playing groups with adequate post hoc test. Discussion We agree with statements of Reilly, Bangsbo & Franks (2000) that soccer players do not have to dispose with extraordinary performance in any field of physical performance but they have to have appropriate high level in all fields. The authors Bunc & Psotta (2001) mention that physiological presuppositions and norms represent necessary conditions for success at the professional level, but neither sufficient. Speed and speed-dynamic abilities are limiting factors of individual playing performance of soccer player, especially on elite professional level. In spite of high demands from the point of view of speed abilities during the match dividing at accelerating, decelerating and maximal speed and agility, it is necessary to perceive these components integrated. Integral component of complex speed performance of soccer player is his tapping frequency too.


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Fast come-backs into defense, sprint tendencies behind the defense line, offensive backup of outside players (mostly defenders) and fast “switching“ from defense to offense (or vice versa) have a complementary character from the point of view of speed presuppositions of players. In the study we have measured the tapping frequency during time interval of 6 seconds. Zemková, Chren & Štefániková (2013) state the test of tapping frequency of mainstream population usually lasting 10 seconds. According to definition of intermittent movement structure of soccer as state Reilly (1997), Psotta et al. (2006), Orendurff et al. (2010) we have changed time interval of the test on 6 seconds because speed performance of a soccer player in a match lasts longer very rarely. The problems of comparison of the level of speed presuppositions of soccer players from the point of view of playing positions can be helpful partial indicator in monitoring and evaluating of different successful playing situations, e.g. microsituations forward – defender. Forwards have achieved the highest performance from the point of view of comparison of movement performance of tapping frequency at individual playing positions. This result corresponds with finding of authors Sporiš et al. (2011) who present that the best results achieve forwards. Sporiš et al. (2009) also found out by elite Croatian soccer players (n = 270) in seasons 2005/06 and 2006/07, that forwards achieved the highest performance from the point of view of running speed in 5, 10 a 20 m. Gil et al. (2007) state the highest performance by forwards in all measured parameters of speed and agility. The authors allege that they did not work with young elite soccer players (n = 241, age = 17.31 ± 2.64 years). In our study we have not found out significant differences between playing positions because forwards have achieved higher performance in comparison with defenders 2,3 %, midfielders 3,0 % and goalkeepers 11,2 %. In studies of speed abilities Taskin (2008) came to similar results. He has not found out significant differences (p > 0.05) by professional soccer players (n = 243) between playing groups according to their playing positions, even running speed was measured for 30 m. Alike Rampinini, Sassi & Impellizzeri (2003) did not determine significant differences between the groups of defenders, midfielders, forwards and goalkeepers at professional or amateur level (n = 78, age = 21.0±4.9 years) from the point of view of running speed in 30m.

Guner, Kundaracioglu & Ulkar (2006) did not observe important differences between playing positions from the point of view of speed expectations as well. It is also necessary to mention the limits of carried research. The tapping frequency of lower limbs is just partial indicator of complex unspecific and specific speed demonstration and speed performance of a soccer player. We also have to evaluate other components as jump abilities, reaction speed, direct accelerating and running speed, but specific speed performance with the ball too, so that we can create evaluation of complex speed of soccer players. The limit presents the way of measurement too and evaluations of tapping frequency of lower limbs in our study. We recommend to focus not only on measurement of contacts with both legs in certain time interval, but especially focus on right and left leg as a result of laterality in finding of defects from the point of view of tapping frequency of individuals. It would be useful to analyze time of contact on the mat and time of contact out of mat (time of support and non-support phase) as well as we analyzed number of contacts on mats of used device. It would be useful to check correlation relationships between particular speed components too. The unrepeated testing is certain limitation too and it is joined with limitation in reliability. The unrepeated measurement can be influenced by external conditions but also by actual internal disposals of tested individual. We proceeded from time limits and organizational matters of individual teams. Conclusion The results of statistical analysis has shown that elite Slovak soccer players dispose of even performance from the point of view of tapping frequency of lower limbs (F(3.44) = 1.405, p > 0.05, η2 = 0.09). The highest average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs during 6 seconds was recorded by forwards (59.9 ± 5.9 contacts on the mat of device FiTROtapping, FiTRONIC, Bratislava, Slovak Republic), then by defenders (58.5 ± 5.5 contacts) and midfielders (58.1 ± 6.8 contacts). The lowest average level of tapping frequency of lower limbs had goalkeepers (53.2 ± 3.3 contacts). Presented data can serve as certain norm or standard of elite soccer players from the point of view of the level of tapping frequency of lower limbs. Results of this study can be a useful material for scientists, but for soccer and condition coaches, experts and people interested in soccer too.

References Bangsbo, J., Mohr, M., & Krustrup, P. (2006). Physical and metabolic demands of training and match-play

in the elite football player. Journal of sport sciences, 24(7), 665-674. Bangsbo, J., Iaia, F.M., & Krustrup, P. (2007). Metabolic response and fatigue in soccer. International

journal of sports physiology and performance, 2(2), 111-127. Bunc, V. (1999). Role kondice v přípravě hráče fotbalu. Fotbal a trénink, 5, 20-21. Bunc, V., & Psotta, R. (2001). Physiological profile of very young soccer players. The Journal of Sports

Medicine and Physical Fitness, 41(3), 337-341.


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Doležajová, L., & Lednický, A. (2002). Rozvoj koordinačných schopností. Bratislava: SVSTVŠ. Gil, S.M., Gil, J., Ruiz, F., Irazusta, A., & Irazusta, J. (2007). Physiological and anthropometric

characteristics of young soccer players according to their playing position: relevance for the selection process. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21, 438-445.

Grasgruber, P., & Cacek, J. (2008). Sportovní geny. Brno: FSS MU. Guner, R., Kundaracioglu, B., & Ulkar, B. (2006). Running velocities and heart rates at fixed blood lactate

concentrations in young. Advances in Therapy, 23, 395-403. Harriss, D.J., & Atkinson, G. (2011). Update - Ethical Standards in Sport and Exercise Science Research.

International Journal of Sports Medicine, 32(11), 819-821. Haugen, T.A., Tonnessen, E., & Seiler, S. (2013). Anaerobic Performance Testing of Professional Soccer

Players 1995-2010. Internalitonal journal of sports physiology and performance, 8(2), 148-156. Hipp, M. (2007). Futbal. Rozvoj vybraných pohybových schopností, diagnostika a strečing v družstve

vrcholového futbalu. Bratislava: SPN. Jančoková, Ľ. (2000). Biorytmy v športe (S úvodom do chronobiológie). Banská Bystrica: FHV UMB. Little, T., & Williams, A.G. (2006). Effects of differential stretching protocols during warm-ups on high-

speed motor capacities in professional soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, 203-207.

Mohr, M., Krustrup, P., & Bangsbo, J. (2003). Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. Journal of sport sciences, 21(7), 519-528.

Orendurff, M.S., Walker, J.D., Jovanovic, M., Tulchin, K.L., Levy, M., & Hoffmann, D.K. (2010). Intensity and duration of intermittent exercise and recovery during a soccer match. J Strength Cond Res., 24, 2683-2692.

Psotta, R., Bunc, V., Netscher, J., Mahrová, A., & Nováková, H. (2006). Fotbal-kondiční trénink. Praha: Grada.

Rampinini, E., Sassi, A., & Impellizzeri, F.M. (2003). Sprint and jump abilities in soccer players of different positions. Salzburg: Communication to: European College of Sport Science Congress, 2003.

Reilly, T. (1997). Energetics of high-intensity exercise (soccer) with particular reference to fatigue. Journal of sports sciences, 15(3), 257-263.

Reilly, T., Bangsbo, J., & Franks, A. (2000). Anthropometric and physiological predispositions for elite soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 18(9), 669-683.

Sporiš, G., Jukić, I., Ostojić, S.M., & Milanović, D. (2009). Fitness profiling in soccer: physical and physiologic characteristics of elite players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning research / National Strength & Conditioning Association, 23, 1947-1953.

Sporiš, G., Milanović, Z., Trajković, N., & Joksimović, A. (2011). Correlation between speed, agility and quickenss (SAQ) in elite young soccer players. Acta Kinesiologica, 5, 36-41.

Taşkin, H. (2008). Evaluating sprinting ability, density of acceleration, and speed dribbling ability of professional soccer players with respect to their positions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22, 1481-1486.

Zemková, E., Chren, M., & Štefániková, G. (2013). Rýchlosť frekvencie pohybov dolných končatín u jedincov rôzneho veku a výkonnosti. In Cepková, A., & Horvát, M. (Eds.). Od výskumu k praxi v športe 2013 (pp.347-352). Bratislava: Slovenská technická univerzita.

RAZINA TAPING FREKVENCIJE DONJIH EKSTREMITETA ELITNIH SLOVAČKIH NOGOMETAŠA RAZLIČITIH POZICIJA U IGRI

Sažetak Cilj istraživanja bio je usporedba razine taping frekvencije donjih ekstrmiteta kod elitnih slovačkih nogometaša različitih pozicija u igri, (n = 48, uzrast = 23.8 ± 4.9 g., visina = 181.4 ± 6.9 cm, težina = 77.8 ± 7.2 kg; vratari = 5, uzrast = 25.9 ± 3.5 g., visina = 190.4 ± 2.2 cm, težina = 85.6 ± 3.4 kg; obrana = 15, uzrast = 25.4 ± 5.2 g., visina = 181.2 ± 5.0 cm, težina = 78.0 ± 6.5 kg; sredina = 19, uzrast = 21.7 ± 3.7 g., visina = 177.5 ± 6.3 cm, težina = 73.5 ± 5.9 kg; napad = 9, uzrast = 24.3 ± 4.5 g., visina = 185.2 ± 6.6 cm, težina = 81.9 ± 6.7 kg). Razina taping frekvencije utvrđena je uređajem FiTROtapping, (FiTRONIC, Bratislava, Slovak Republic). Kriterij procjene izvedbe svakog mjerenja nogometađa bio je totalni broj kontakata s obje noge na kontaktnoj površini uređaja za vrijeme od 6 sekundi u stojećem položaju. Analiza One-way ANOVA je korištena za utvrđivanje razlika (α = 0.05) na igračkim pozicijama. Statistička analiza je urađena softwareom IBM® SPSS® Statistics V19. Najveća razina frekvencije tapinga je utvrđena kod napadača (59.9 ± 5.9 kontakata), zatim obrane (58.5 ± 5.5), sredine (58.1 ± 6.8). Najniža razina je utvrđena kod vratara (53.2±3.3). Statistička analiza nije pokazala značajne razlike između grupa (F(3.44) = 1.405, p > 0.05, η2 = 0.09). Ključne riječi: nogomet, frekvencija, vratari, obrana, sredina, napad, razlike


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Received: March 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Pavol Pivovarniček, PhD. Matej Bel University Faculty of Arts, Department of Physical Education and Sports 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Tajovského 40, Slovakia Phone: 00421 048 446 7530 E-mail: [email protected]

Perica, A. et al.: Differences between successful and unsuccessful Euroleage teams... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 40‐44

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL EUROLEAGUE TEAMS BASED ON NONSTANDARD SITUATIONAL EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS

Ante Perica1, Igor Jelaska2 and Slavko Trninić2

1 Basketball Club ”Kapfenberg Bulls”, Austria 2 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia


Abstract This research was conducted to investigate and explain the differences between successful and unsuccessful basketball teams in the 2009/2010 championship season of the Euroleague Top 16. Certain nonstandard situational variables in positional offence and defence are defined to explore the structure of the game in detail. The resulting discriminant function significantly differentiates successful from unsuccessful teams (p<0.01). The results indicate that the components of positional defence that most determine its success are successful individual defence of the ball on the perimeter (including proper close-outs) and successful team penetration defence. On the other hand, unsuccessful positional defence is mostly determined by unsuccessful team penetration defence, unsuccessful defence against inside cutting, and unsuccessful individual and team defence on the low-post. For successful positional offence, the most important factors we found were pick and roll/pop and handoff manoeuvres, while unsuccessful ball penetrations from the perimeter, unsuccessful pick and roll/pop and handoff manoeuvres and unsuccessful perimeter isolations characterise an unsuccessful positional offence. The results indicate the main focal points for technical and tactical preparation of professional players and teams.

Key words: basketball, nonstandard situational efficiency parameters, defence, offence, differences Introduction It is assumed that in the game of basketball, overall player quality, the quality of cooperation and opposition, appropriate tactics, and the level of teamwork and cohesion primarily determine the team's performance and competitive success (Trninić et al., 1999; Dizdar and Trninić, 2000; Trninić et al., 2000). In modern team basketball games, standard and nonstandard efficiency parameters that determine the efficiency of individual players and the team as a whole are the basis for distinguishing successful from unsuccessful teams. This is particularly important for more effective technical and tactical preparation (Trninić et al., 1997; Trninić et al., 2002). Empirical studies that have analysed the differences between winning and defeated teams were primarily focused on standard situational efficiency indicators. According to previous research on men’s senior basketball games, the differences between winning and losing teams mainly depended on defensive rebounds (Akers et al., 1991; Gómez et al., 2008; Ittenbach and Esters, 1995; Trninić et al., 2002) and field-goal percentages (Gomez et al., 2008; Sampaio and Janeira, 2003; Sampaio et al., 2010). Other game-related indicators such as offensive rebounds, successful free throws, turnovers, steals, assists and fouls have not been reported consistently as discriminators between winning and losing teams (Ittenbach and Esters, 1995; Kozar et al., 1994; Pim, 1986; Sampaio and Janeira, 2003; Melnick, 2001). More recently, the suggestion has been made that a redefined set of game-related indicators could better describe offensive and defensive performance (Kubatko et al., 2007; Oliver, 2004); these include effective field – goal percentage , offensive rebounding

percentage, turnovers per ball possession, and free throw rate. We believe that game analysis based on the standard variables of situational efficiency does not provide a sufficiently detailed description of the structure of the game. For this reason, the aim of this paper is to define nonstandard situational efficiency indicators to provide more specific insight into the differences between successful and unsuccessful teams in the Euroleague Top 16. We therefore hope to provide a more explicit interpretation of the technical and tactical actions that determine the success and/or failure of a particular team. Methods Samples Using pseudo-random sampling, 24 games from the 2009/2010 season of the Euroleague Top 16 were analysed and variables (Table 1) were observed. We avoided situations in which a particular club appeared more than four times. All matches were observed by three basketball experts, including two expert basketball coaches and one statistician, and the final data were decided on by mutual agreement. Sequences of the game states during the basketball game were identified according to operationalised constructs (Trninić, Perica & Pavičić, 1994; Perica, Trninić & Jelaska, 2011) and written into the file. The sequence of the basketball games was processed and the frequency of all the variables was gathered (Jelaska, 2011) using the software “State Analyser 1.0.” To analyse the game in positional defence/offence, we defined the following non-standard situational efficiency indicators (Table 1).


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Table 1. Non-standard situational efficiency indicators

END PHASE OF POSITIONAL DEFENCE END PHASE OF POSITIONAL OFFENCE DPICKSUC – number of successful defences vs. pick and roll, pick and pop and handoff

OPICKSUC – number of successful pick and roll, pick and pop and handoff offences

DPICKUN – number of unsuccessful defences vs. pick and roll, pick and pop and handoff

OPICKUN – number unsuccessful of pick and roll, pick and pop and handoff offences

DSCRSUC – number of successful defences vs. screens off the ball OSCRSUC – number of successful screens off the ball DSCRUN – number of unsuccessful defences vs. screens off the ball

OSCRUN – number of unsuccessful screens off the ball

DLPSUC – number of successful defences vs. low-post play OLPSUC – number of successful low-post plays DLPUN – number of unsuccessful defences vs. low-post play OLPUN – number of unsuccessful low-post plays DISOSUC – number of successful defences vs. perimeter isolations OISOSUC – number of successful perimeter isolations DISOUN – number of unsuccessful defences vs. perimeter isolations

OISOUN – number of unsuccessful perimeter isolations

DBALLSUC – number of successful individual defences on the ball on perimeter, which did not result in vertical dribble penetration toward the basket

OPENSUC – number of successful dribble penetrations from the perimeter

DBALLUN – number of unsuccessful individual defences on the ball on perimeter, which did not result in vertical dribble penetration toward the basket

OPENUN – number of unsuccessful dribble penetrations from the perimeter

DCUTSUC – number of successful defences vs. inside cutting OCUTSUC – number of successful inside cuts DCUTUN – number of unsuccessful defences vs. inside cutting OCUTUN – number of unsuccessful inside cuts DTEAMSUC – number of successful team defences against dribble penetrations from perimeter

DTEAMUN – number of unsuccessful team defences against dribble penetrations from perimeter

Successful defensive outcomes included field goals missed (2/3 points missed) and turnovers. Unsuccessful defensive outcomes included field goals made (2/3 points made) and free throw(s) assigned. Successful offensive outcomes included: field goals made (2/3 points made) and free throw(s) assigned. Unsuccessful outcomes offensive outcomes included field goals missed (2/3 points missed) and turnovers. For the purposes of this research, the action following an offensive rebound was considered a continuation of the offensive/defensive possession. Transition offence is defined from the moment of obtaining ball possession, through advancement of the ball along a vertical line, until achieving number or/and spatial advantage or early offence (5 on 5) situations in the front court. If there is no outcome in the transition phase, the position offence starts by certain initial alignment (Jelaska, 2011). Transition defence starts with a change of possession and ends no later than achievement of defensive balance and proper defensive position in a 5 on 5 situation, which is simultaneously the beginning of positional defence (Perica, 2011). The above defined variables (Table 1) are related only to the end phase of positional offence/defence. The end phase of positional offence is the completion of offensive manoeuvres that generate number/spatial advantage and produce a certain outcome in a particular possession. In the measurement procedure, we observe the flow of different game states. Usually, the end phase consists of only up to five different game states. Statistical analysis To differentiate between successful and unsuccessful teams, discriminant analysis on defensive and offensive variables was performed separately. Using a positional defence success percentage of 49.5% as the criterion limit, two relatively homogenous groups (N1=N2=24) of cases were generated. Similarly, for positional offence the criterion limit was a success rate of

55.5%. The structural coefficients (SC) were set to have absolute values above 0.20, and significance was set to 0.05. As a measure of validity of a given model, reclassification was calculated (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). A forward algorithm was used for variable selection into the model. Results

Table 2 shows the results of discriminant analysis in positional defence. We also show that the model obtained by a forward variable selection algorithm is significant (p<0.001) with a canonical correlation of 0.81 and a Wilk’s lambda of 0.34. Furthermore, the discriminant function correctly classified 91.6% of matches. Table 2. Eigenvalue (λ), Wilk’s lambda (W λ), canonical correlation (Rc), chi square test value (2א), degrees of freedom (df), significance level of discriminant function (p), and percentage of successful reclassification of cases due to the discriminant function (ReClass%)

λ 33970 W λ 0.34 Rc 0.81 2א 44.36

df 9 p 0.00

ReClass% 91.6% Table 3. Centroid projections on discriminant functions using a forward algorithm for variable selection and significance of discriminant coefficients

Variable DF1 p DBALLSUC -0.45 0.00DTEAMSUC -0.22 0.06

DCUTUN 0.23 0.01DTEAMUN 0.25 0.03

DLPUN 0.20 0.02DSCRSUC -0.15 0.11DLPSUC -0.16 0.14DPICKUN 0.13 0.10DISOSUC -0.11 0.22

Group DF1 G1_0 1.36

G1_1 -1.36


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Variables (DCUTSUC, DSCRUN, DPICKSUC, DISOUN and DBALLUN) were excluded from the model due to their insignificant contribution to the discriminant function (Table 3). Additionally, the variable DBALLSUC (SC= -0.45) had a statistically significant impact on the discriminant function and a “near” statistical significance for variables DTEAMSUC (SC= -0.22), DCUTUN (SC= 0.23), DTEAMUN (SC= 0.25) and DLPUN (SC= 0.20). From Table 4 it can be observed that the model for offensive variables, which is derived using a forward stepwise algorithm, is significant (p<0.01) with a canonical correlation of 0.67 and a Wilks lambda of 0.53. Furthermore, the discriminant function correctly classified 81.3% of matches. Table 4. Eigenvalue (λ), Wilk’s lambda (W λ), canonical correlation (Rc), chi square test value (2א), degrees of freedom (df), significance level of discriminant function (p), and percentage of successful reclassification of cases due to the discriminant function (ReClass%)

λ 0.88 W λ 0.53 Rc 0.67 42151 2א

df 5 p 0.00

ReClass% 81.3% Table 5. Centroid projections on discriminant functions using a forward algorithm for variable selection and significance of discriminant coefficients

Variable DF1 p OPENUN -0.58 0.04

OPICKSUC 0.51 0.00 OPICKUN -0.33 0.06 OISOUN -0.14 0.07

OSCRSUC 0.22 0.20 Group DF1

G1_0 -0.91G1_1 0.91

The forward algorithm excluded variables OSCRUN, OLPSUC, OLPUN, OISOSUC, OCUTSUC, and OCUTUN from the model due to their insignificant contributions to the discriminant function (Table 5). From Table 5 it can be easily observed that the variable OPICKSUC (SC= 0.51) significantly predicts successful offensive teams, while high values of the variables OPENUN (SC= -0.58), OPICKUN (SC= -0.33) and OISOUN (SC= -0.14), characterise unsuccessful offensive teams. Discussion

Table 3 demonstrates that the biggest contributions to successful positional defence are made by successful positional individual defence on the ball on the perimeter without allowing vertical penetration (DBALLSUC) and successful team defence against dribble penetration from the perimeter (DTEAMSUC). The DBALLSUC variable refers to the pressure on the ball on the perimeter in a static situation and/or close-out to the ball without allowing vertical dribble penetration to the basket.

In a basketball game, close-outs are the most frequent situations, which is a consequence of numerous defensive helping schemes (rotations after pick and roll rotations, team penetration defence, team defence on the low post, etc.). The goal of any successful defence is not to allow ball penetration into the paint area and to force opponents to take long distance three-point shots under pressure, which means correct defensive position, proper footwork and timely close-outs are of crucial importance. Therefore, quality defence consists of a constant balance between not allowing scoring in the lane (“no easy basket”) and simultaneously forcing outside shots under pressure. This task is even more difficult if we take into account the shooting range of a particular offensive player (individual defensive tactics). Variable DTEAMSUC marks winning teams because the goal of a quality team penetration defence is to minimise the opponent’s scoring under the basket. Different mechanisms of cooperation and teamwork are used to help achieve control of the paint. Variable DTEAMUN characterised unsuccessful teams because allowing “easy baskets“ characterises defeated teams (Harris, 1993). The biggest contributors to unsuccessful positional defence (along with previously mentioned DTEAMUN) are unsuccessful defence against inside cutting (DCUTUN) and unsuccessful low-post defence (DLPUN). The significance of the variable DCUTUN is most likely because if one permits inside cuts, conditions are created for the opponent to achieve high percentage shots and/or personal fouls in defence. Furthermore, allowing inside cuts permits an offensive rebound after an unsuccessful shot, and thus, a successful transition defence. To prevent inside cuts, it is essential to maintain proper defensive position and a high focus. Failure to stop inside cuts is an “unforced error“. There is no special reward when a defensive player bumps on an inside cut (insignificance of the variable DCUTSUC in table 3), but failure to do so is extremely detrimental. Finally, the variable DLPUN marks unsuccessful teams, confirming again that the number of allowed points in the area under the basket should be minimised by, for example, denying the pass into low/middle post positions. From an expert’s point of view, defensive fundamentals differentiate defensively successful and unsuccessful teams, and thus, the winners from the losers (Perica, 2011). We believe that appropriate and highly complex defensive schemes are not sufficient but, rather, proper timing in establishing a correct defensive position determines all further reactions and thus the defensive efficiency (Nikolić, 1993; Trninić, 1995). Table 5 shows that for a successful positional offence, the most important manoeuvres are pick & roll/pop and handoff actions (OPICKSUC), while unsuccessful dribble penetrations from the perimeter (OPENUN), unsuccessful pick and roll/pop and handoff actions (OPICKUN) and unsuccessful isolations from the perimeter (OISONE) determine unsuccessful positional offence.


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Because of the dominance of the containment defence style in today's European basketball (Perica, 2011), most dribble penetrations are stopped, which often ends with outside shots. Therefore, the statistical significance of the variable OPENUN points to the fact that missed outside shots characterise losing teams (Gomez et. al., 2008). Accordingly, it can be assumed that too many total long distance shots have negative effects, especially if the offence has not been based on ball flow and cooperation until an open shot is produced (shot selection); rather, it ends with only one or two passes. This may negatively affect the team confidence and team cohesion because there is no team cooperation and thus no “team shooting rhythm”. Such an offensive style does not create a balance between inside and outside games (Trninić, 2006). Expert coaches believe that the most effective attack exists when there is a balance between inside and outside shots (Nikolić, 1993; Trninić, 1995), whereby it is essential that the offence must penetrate the defence with a dribble and/or pass (Jackson and Delehanty, 1995; Winter, 1998). On the other hand, unsuccessful offensive teams are characterised not only by a greater number of unsuccessful isolations from the perimeter (OISOUN) but also by the total number of such actions (Jelaska, 2011). That means that too many perimeter isolations have a negative effect on the offensive game of Euroleague basketball teams. The reason for this is a lack of ball flow that enables easy containment of the defence, which counteracts the isolation plays by implementing zone-like principles and forcing opponents to take long distance shots under pressure. It is plausible to expect that the variables OPICKSUC and OPICKUN, which are due to the prevalence of pick and roll/pop and handoff manoeuvres in today’s European basketball, determine the success of the positional offence (Jelaska, 2011). Setting quality screens on the ball

enables quick creation of advantage as well as drawing two or more defensive players towards the ball, temporarily throwing the defence out of balance and thus producing inside or outside shots and/or the low-post game. Finally, it is of interest to discuss why the variables OLPSUC and OLPUN were excluded from the model as insignificant. The variables were most likely excluded because there are few quality offensive players at the low and/or middle post position in today's European basketball. This is reflected by a 45% success rate at the low post in positional offence (Jelaska 2011). However, we believe that, regardless of this fact, teams should frequently pass the ball to the low/middle post position (approximately 30 passes per game). In this way, opportunities arise for both inside and outside play. Such an orientation in the offence develops team cooperation through the inside-out and in-out-in play and encourages team shooting rhythm. It is assumed that the concept of balance between inside and outside play is the most important part of an organised game for offence (Newell, 1994). In conclusion, our results can help expert coaches to set priorities in the technical and tactical preparation of players and teams. We consider that both technical and tactical training programs should include the selection of exercises aimed at developing individual and team dribble penetration defence, timely and proper close-outs, individual and team defence against inside cuts and stopping an opponent’s low-post play. On the other hand, it is necessary to encourage the development of proper tactical decision making in the offence, team cooperation in creating good offensive flow, and a balance between the inside and outside game. One should also develop players to be able to play pick and roll/pop and handoff offensive manoeuvres to create successful shots (under the basket, short and long distance shots) in various offensive configurations.

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Kubatko, J., Oliver, D., Pelton, K., & Rosenbaum, D. (2007). A Starting Point for Analyzing Basketball Statistics. Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports, 3(3), 1-22.

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Oliver, D. (2004). Basketball on paper. Rules and Tools for Performance Analysis. Brassey's, Inc., Washington, D.C.

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Sampaio, J., Lago, C., & Drinkwater, E. (2010). Explanations for the United States of America's dominance in basketball at the Beijing Olympic Games (2008). Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(2), 147-152.

Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th ed. Harper Collins, New York. Trninić, S., Milanović, D., & Dizdar, D. (1997). Worin unterscheiden sich Sieger von Verlierern im Basketball.

Leistungssport, 2, 29-38. Trninić, S., Perica, A., & Dizdar, D. (1999). Set of criteria for the actual quality evaluation of the elite

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elite basketball players quality evaluation. Collegium Antropologicum, 24(2), 431-442. Trninić, S., Dizdar, D., & Lukšić, E. (2002) Differences between winning and defeated top quality basketball

teams in final tournaments of European club championship. Collegium Antropologicum, 26(2), 521-531. Winter, T. (1997). The triple post offence. Manhattan: Ag Press.

RAZLIKE IZMEĐU USPJEŠNIH I NEUSPJEŠNIH EUROPSKIH SENIORSKIH KOŠARKAŠKIH EKIPA TEMELJEM NESTANDARDNIH SITUACIJSKIH VARIJABLI

Sažetak Istraživanje je provedeno s ciljem utvrđivanja i objašnjenja razlika između uspješnih i neuspješnih ekipa Top 16 Eurolige u sezoni 2009/2010. u prostoru nestandardnih situacijskih varijabli pozicijskog napada i obrane. Dobivena diskriminacijska funkcija značajno razlikuje uspješne od neuspješnih ekipa (p<0.01). Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju kako su područja pozicijske obrane koja najviše određuju njenu uspješnost: uspješna individualna obrana na lopti na vanjskom prostoru (perimetru), pravovremeni prilazak na loptu (engl. closing out) sa nedozvoljavanjem vertikalnog prodora, uspješna timska pomaganja i rotacije u situacijama zaustavljanja prodora s loptom sa perimetra. S druge strane, u najvećoj mjeri neuspješnost pozicijske obrane određuju neuspješna timska obrana od prodora s loptom sa perimetra, neuspješna obrana od unutarnjih utrčavanja sa perimetra i ubacivanja visokih igrača u srce reketa te neuspješna pojedinačna i timska obrana na niskom postu. Za uspješan pozicijski napad najvažniji su pick and roll/pop i handoff manevri a neuspješan pozicijski napad najviše određuju neuspješni prodori sa loptom, neuspješni pick and roll/pop i handoff manevri te neuspješne izolacije sa perimetra. Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju na primarne ciljeve tehničko-taktičke pripreme kod seniorskih igrača i momčadi. Ključne riječi: košarka, nestandardni pokazatelji situacijske učinkovitosti, obrana, napad, razlike

Received: October 07, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assist.Prof.Igor Jelaska, Ph.D. University of Split Faculty of Kinesiology 21000 Split, Teslina 6, Croatia Phone: +385 (0)21 302 440 E-mail: [email protected]

Trajkovski, B. et al.: Impact of a sports program on the functional abilities... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 45‐47

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IMPACT OF A SPORTS PROGRAM ON THE FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES OF CHILDREN AGED 5 TO 6 YEARS

Biljana Trajkovski1, Zvonimir Tomac2 and Dražen Rastovski2

1 Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Croatia 2 Faculty for educational sciences, University of J.J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia


Abstract The aim of this study is to determine the differences in functional abilities among preschool children who are involved in additional exercise programs and those children who are not, and to identify the differences between boys and girls in the expression of aerobic capacity. The factor analysis of variance for the Polygon3 minutes test showed that respondents differ significantly with respect to age, gender, group, and that there is an interaction of gender and group. Thus, it can be concluded that gender and group significantly affect the development of functional skills. In doing so, the boys score better than girls, and children from the experimental group have more developed functional abilities than children attending the regular kindergarten program. These differences are more pronounced in boys, while boys in the experimental group achieve higher scores in both age categories, and girls only at the age of 6.

Key words: functional abilities, preschoolers, sports program, gender, age, differences

Introduction

Since today's preschool children satisfy the authentic need for movement to an increasingly lesser extent, the question on the decline of their kinanthropological traits and abilities is raised and whether the decline in these abilities affects their health. The conclusion follows that the consequence of non-movement in such small children undermines their harmonious growth and development, and for this reason children need to have access to daily movement (spontaneous or organized) in kindergartens and in their families and it is necessary to monitor their kinanthropological condition, especially their functional abilities which are directly related to the emergence of obesity. Research argue that children who are physically active have lower levels of blood fats, higher values of the protective lipoprotein HDL, a higher cardio-respiratory activity, better motor skills and better motor and functional abilities (Parizkova, 2008). As a result, there is a need to encourage physical activity in preschool children on a daily basis in both an organized environment (kindergarten), and during leisure time (in the family). At preschool age, from functional capacities it is desirable to develop the primarily aerobic capacity (endurance), while with the anaerobic activities the children’s capacity is sufficient for the activities in the duration of 10 to 15 seconds (Malacko, 2002, Matković, 1999). Some authors have noted that children who are not as active at preschool age have reduced functional abilities (Ferro-Luzziet al., 1979), while it was found that children who have better functional abilities have lower blood pressure already in the fifth year of life (Hofman et al., 1987). Apart from the found differences in functional capabilities between physically active and physically inactive preschool children, some studies indicate better functional abilities in boys than girls (Cardonet al., 2008).

The aim of this paper is to determine the differences in functional abilities among preschool children who are involved in additional exercise programs and those children who are not, and to identify differences between boys and girls in the expression of aerobic capacity.

Methods

The sample The sample consisted of 302 subjects of 5 and 6 years of age from five kindergartens in an urban area of Croatia and two kindergartens from a rural area. 146 subjects represented the experimental group (66 five-year olds (23 girls and 43 boys) and 80 six year-olds (26 girls and 54 boys) who attend a physical education program, "Through play to sport" 4 times a week for 45 minutes in the mornings (Pejčić, 2003). The control group consisted of 156 subjects (93 five-year olds (42 girls and 51 boy) and 63 six year-old (39 girls and 24 boys) who attend the regular program.

The sample of variables The evaluation of the functional efficiency of preschool children was conducted using the polygon barrier (Polygon 3 min) whereby the checked variable was: the distance traveled (m). The polygon barrier was constructed of obstacles of the "sliding-type" and had as the main goal running for 3 minutes with the transition across simple obstacles: running around 4 stands (slalom), running over more than 4 rings, running over the bench (height 10 cm), skipping over 4 beams (height 5 cm) and running over 2 mats. Methods of data processing For the purposes of this research, the distance in meters for a period of 3 minutes was measured. Descriptive parameters, the t-test for independent samples and the factor analysis of variance were calculated in further processing of the data.


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Results and discussion Table 1. Comparison of measurements of functional ability of the experimental and control groups in boys and girls aged 4, 5 and 6.

5 YEARS 6 YEARS GROUP XM±SD XF±SD t p XM±SD XF±SD t p DISTANCE (m)

CONTROL 373±46 368±47 0,517 0,606* 403±40 386±43 1,633 0,107 EXPERIMENT. 426±48 380±61 3,399 0,001* 439±45 423±35 1,549 0,125

t -5,418 -0,828 -3,352 -3,750 p 0,000* 0,411 0,001* 0.000*

*-p=0.05; XM - arithmetic mean boys; XF- arithmetic mean girls

Table 3. Results of the post-hoc analysis with the Bonferroni*correction for multiple comparisons for the test DISTANCE (m)

AGE GENDER GROUP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 5 1 1 1,000 1,000 0,000 1,000 0,001 0,393 0,000 2 5 1 2 1,000 1,000 0,014 1,000 0,098 1,000 0,000 3 5 2 1 1,000 1,000 0,000 1,000 0,001 0,782 0,000 4 5 2 2 0,000 0,014 0,000 0,011 1,000 1,000 1,000 5 6 1 1 1,000 1,000 1,000 0,011 0,130 1,000 0,000 6 6 1 2 0,001 0,098 0,001 1,000 0,130 1,000 1,000 7 6 2 1 0,393 1,000 0,782 1,000 1,000 1,000 0,176 8 6 2 2 0,000 0,000 0,000 1,000 0,000 1,000 0,176

The differences in functional abilities between boys and girls separately by age and belonging to a group (control, experimental) were verified by using the t-test for independent samples.The obtained results of the t-test for independent samples for boys and girls aged 5 and 6 in the control and experimental group and the statistical significance of differences between these two groups are shown in Table 1. Children aged 5 years are statistically significantly different with regard to gender in the experimental group in favor of the better results of boys (426 ±48 as opposed to 380 ± 61, p = 0.001), and the boys are significantly differ with respect to belonging to the control and experimental group in favor of the better results of boys from the experimental group (426 ± 48 to 373 ± 46, p = 0.000). Children aged 6 years in the area of functional abilities are statistically significantly different only with regard to belonging to a group. Children in the experimental group, boys (403 ± 40 to 439 ± 45, p = 0.001) and girls (386 ± 43 to 423 ± 35, p = 0.000) showed statistically significantly better results than those in the control group. Results of factor analysis of variance and the post-hoc analysis for the Polygon3 minutes test are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2. Factor analysis of variance for the polygon3 minutes test (DISTANCE (m)) for the factors age, sex and group (SS= sum of squares, MS = middle square, F= result of the F-test and p =significance level). distance (m) SS MS F P age 63493 31747 13,82 0,000* gender 26130 26130 11,38 0,000* group (e/c) 101621 101621 44,25 0,000* age*gender 1404 702 0,31 0,736 age* group (e/c) 4758 2379 1,04 0,355 gender* group (e/c) 12963 12963 5,65 0,017* age*gender* group (e/c) 10028 5014 2,18 0,113

*p= 0,05

In the polygon3 minutes test the subjects significantly differ with respect to age (F =13.82, p = 0.000), gender (F =11.38, p = 0.001) and group (F =44.25, p = 0.000), and with regard to the interaction of gender and groups (F =5.65, p = 0.018). Table 3 shows the statistical significances of mutual comparison for the polygon3 minutes test (DISTANCE (m)) by subgroups (according to age, gender and belonging to the experimental or control group) which were conducted by using the post-hoc analysis with the Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. In the area of functional abilities (Table 1) differences between boys and girls aged 5 were observed only in the experimental group where boys cross statistically significantly more meters than girls. Differences exist also among boys aged 5 between the experimental and control groups: boys from the experimental group achieve a significantly higher score in the test. In children of 6 years of age statistically significant differences between the control and experimental groups were obtained, both in boys and in girls in favor of better results in boys and girls from the experimental group. This suggests that children who regularly participate in a sports program develop better functional abilities than children who do not participate in a sports program. A factor analysis of variance for the polygon 3min (Table2) test shows that subjects differ significantly with regard to age, sex, group, and there is an interaction of gender and the group. Thus, one can say that both gender and group significantly affect the development of functional skills. Thereby boys score better than girls, and children from the experimental group have better developed functional abilities than children attending the regular kindergarten program. These differences are more pronounced in boys, whereby boys from the experimental group achieved higher scores in both age categories, and girls only at the age of 6.


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The positive effects of physical activity on the increase of aerobic endurance were confirmed by other authors (Haskell et al., 1985 Hofmanet al., 1987), as well as that boys are more active than girls and thus exhibit a better aerobic endurance (Oliver et al, 2007). Conclusion It is not necessary to train preschool children to achieve aerobic capacity because they will develop it spontaneously if they are provided with daily

space and time to play whereby running has the dominating role. With regard to the present time when preschool children sit too much and their sedentary life style supports the emergence of obesity, the role of profession is to help the emergence of this disease and to allow each child a proper growth and development so that with the progress instead of backward they would go forward, as the old famous proverb says "healthy mind in a healthy body!" For this reason, the question of develop monitoring of functional skills already from pre-school age is raised.

References Cardon, G.M., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I.M. (2008). Are preschool children active enough? Objectively measured

physical ativity levels. Res Q Exerc Sport, 79(3), 326-332. Ferro-Luzzi, A., D Amicis, A., Ferrini, A.M., & Maiale, G. (1979). Nutrition, environment and physical

performance of preschool children in Italy. Nutrition Dietary, Vol. 27, 85-106. Haskell, W.L., Montoye, H.J., & Orenstein, D. (1985). Physical Activity and Exercise To Achieve Health-

Related Physical Fitness Components. Public Health Reports, 100(2), 203-211. Hofman, A., Walter, H.J., Collelly, P.A., & Vaughan, R.D. (1987). Blood pressure and physical fitness in

children. Hypertension, 9, 188-191. Malacko, J. (2002). Effects of specific programmed training on morphological characteristics and motor

abilities in children sports school. Kinesiologia Slovenica, 2, 44-49. Oliver, M., Schofield, M.G., & Kolt, S.G. (2007). Physical Activity in Preschoolers. Understanding Prevalence

and Measurement Issues. Sports Medicine, 37(12), 1015-1070. Parizkova, J. (2008). Impact of education on food behaviour, body composition and physical fitness in

children. Br. J. Nutrition. Suppl 1, S26-32. Pejčić, A. (2003). Igrom do sporta. Rijeka: Dječji vrtić Rijeka, Grad Rijeka.

UTJECAJ SPORTSKOG PROGRAMA NA FUNKCIONALNE SPOSOBNOSTI DJECE UZRASTA 5 I 6 GODINA

Sažetak Cilj ovog rada je utvrđivanje razlika u funkcionalnim sposobnostima između djece predškolske dobi koja su uključena u dodatne tjelovježbene programe i djece koja nisu, te utvrditi razlike između dječaka i djevojčica u izražavanju aerobnog kapaciteta. Faktorska analizom varijance za test Poligon 3 minute je pokazala da se ispitanici statistički značajno razlikuju s obzirom na dob, spol, skupinu, te postoji interakcija spola i skupine. Dakle, može se reći kako i spol i skupina značajno utječu na razvoj funkcionalnih sposobnosti. Pri tome dječaci postižu bolje rezultate od djevojčica, a djeca eksperimentalne skupine imaju razvijenije funkcionalne sposobnosti od djece koja pohađaju redovni program u vrtiću. Te su razlike izraženije kod dječaka, pri čemu dječaci iz eksperimentalne skupine postižu bolje rezultate u obje dobne kategorije, a djevojčice samo u dobi od 6 godina. Ključne riječi: funkcionalne sposobnosti, predškolci, sportski program, spol, dob, razlike

Received: May 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assis.Prof.Biljana Trajkovski, Ph.D. Faculty of Teacher Education University of Rijeka 51000 Rijeka, Sveučilišna avenija 6, Croatia Phone: +385 (0)51 265 811 E-mail: [email protected]

Šifraf, T. and Zaletel, P.: The influence of motor abilities and morphological... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 48‐54

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THE INFLUENCE OF MOTOR ABILITIES AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SPORTS DANCERS

Tina Šifrar and Petra Zaletel

Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia


Abstract The purpose of the study was to examine, which morphological characteristics and motor abilities influence the success in sports dance. Testing battery, consisting of 13 morphological and 11 motor tests, was used on a sample of 12 female and 13 male dancers. Measured subjects were members of the national ballroom or acrobatic rock’n’roll dance teams, aged 14 to 23 years. Results of regression analysis showed that in female dancers the chosen model explained 77.8% of competitive success variance (F = 8.13, p <0.002). Statistical significance in success prediction has been in female dancers revealed for variables percentage of fat (ß = 0.586, p <0.004), standing long jump (ß = -0.464, p <0012) and Olympic circles test (ß = 0.408, p <0.025). In male dancers, the chosen model explained 52.3% of competitive success variance (F = 6.13, p <0.005) with standing long jump (ß = 0,753, p <0.005) being the only statistically significant variable in prediction of success. It can be concluded that the power strength of legs, coordination of movement and smaller amount of fat tissue have the largest influence on success in sports dance performance. Key words: sports dance, rock'n'roll, competitive success, test, regression analysis Introduction

Sports dance is a discipline combining the artistic and sports component. A large emphasis of the sport is on energetic and information components as well as aesthetics of the movement. Basic motor abilities and morphological characteristics form the foundation of special motor abilities in dance movement structures, which dancers present in their choreographies. Individual choreography has to display different dynamics of movement, control of body movement in space and at the same time the expression or non-verbal body communication in harmony with the dance partner. Consequently, dancers are required to possess an exceptional flexibility of various body joints in addition to dynamic and static mobility of muscles. Furthermore, dancing technique necessitates a high level of coordination in legs and arms. Dancing in couples includes many free support positions of female dancers as well as positions on one foot, rotations and swinging, which in addition to high degree of balance also require appropriate physical strength in male dancers. As a result, the present study focuses on dancers and their biological - morphological context and motor space. Due to the movement patterns, dancing requires good basic motor abilities, specific morphological disposition and appropriate body weight in order to control the body of dancers in complex motor tasks and dance choreography sequences. According to other surveys, which were carried out for various dance disciplines, it can be seen that folk dancers (Srhoj, 2002) require high control in a variety of motor skills, especially in rhythmic coordination of movements, balance, agility of feet on the dance floor and repetitive strength of torso (core stabilisation). In addition, Srhoj, Katić and Kaliterna (2006) found that regardless of the dance genre, general motor

abilities of dancers are based primarily on power strength, coordination and frequency of movements, which is expected due to the choreographic structure of movement patterns. Similarly, a study by Uzunović and Kostić (2005) on a sample of Latin American dancers has found that speed, coordination and flexibility have statistically significant impact on competitive success of dancers. As statistically significant predictors were revealed in female dancers test hand drumming and flexibility test frontal splits and in male dancers test foot drumming. A study by Kostić, Zagorc and Uzunović (2004) has on a sample of Latin American female dancers found a large statistically significant association with skin folds. Dancing in couples involves constant physical contact with the partner; therefore, it is extremely important for a female partner to have low fat percentage due to constant transfer of weight during the dance. Čoh, Jovanović-Golubović and Bratić (2004) stated that coordination is an extremely important motor skill and that the information component of the movement is dominant. Appropriate level of motor coordination in dancers will provide possibility for better realisation of energy component as well as faster adoption and improvement of new motor structures. As all movements in dance occur to the musical accompaniment and due to different rhythmical structure of each dance and dynamics of movement, it could be said that success in dance depends on motor learning ability, whole body coordination and rhythm. The purpose of present research was to examine, which morphological characteristics and motor abilities influence the success in sports dance; furthermore, to explain a proportion of total variance for each predictor variable of success.


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Methods Sample of measured subjects Sample of measured subjects included 25 sports dancers (Latin American, standard and rock 'n roll); 13 were male (average height 177.83±6.71cm, average weight 67.64±10.99kg, average age 18.92±3.79years) and 12 female (average height 164.57±5.88cm, average weight 53.38±7.71kg, average age 18.42±4.31years). Chosen subjects were all members of national teams in either junior or senior class, the finalists of the national championships and several of them also finalists in the World Championships and other important international competitions. All were members of six Slovenian dance clubs. Measurements were carried out in June 2013 at the end of the third - last competition period. None of the subjects was injured during the time of measurement. The subjects were familiar with the process and potential risks as they signed an informed consent.

Sample of variables The test battery consisted of selected parameters of anthropometric dimensions and motor tests. Predictor variables set was made of the following anthropometric variables: height (HEIGHT), weight (WEIGHT), various skin folds: triceps skin fold (SFTRIC), back skin fold (SFBACK), supraspinal skin fold (SFSUSPI) suprailiac skin fold (SFSUILI), abdominal skin fold (SFABD), thigh skin fold (SFTHI), dorsal thigh skin fold (SFTHDOR) and thoracic skin fold (SFTHOR). Measurements of anthropometric dimensions were performed with standard EUROFIT* (1983) protocol. The percentage of fat (%FAT) and the percentage of water (%WATER) were calculated from the body weight, body height and age of every individual, read on the scale CORONA Haushalttswaren, GmbH & Co. KG. 35,428 KG, Laggons (d = 100g; max = 150kg; BFA = 0.1%; BWC = 0.1%).

Motor tests were divided into two groups. The first group included tests for the speed of movement in legs and arms, explosive power, flexibility and balance. Some standard tests were used: • Standing long jump (JUMP) – motor test of explosive power. Subject was standing still on the carpet and from this position attempted to jump as far as possible. Jump had to be performed from both legs simultaneously, arm swings were allowed. Result was measured in centimetres. Each test was carried out twice, better result was recorded; • Foot drumming (LEGDRUM). Subject was seated on a chair with a T-shaped wooden board placed on the floor under the feet. Left (right) leg was placed flat on the ground next to the wooden structure; the right (left) leg was placed on the board on the left (right) side of the barrier. On the sign, a subject begun rapidly striking the board alternately on the right and left (left and right) side of the barrier with the right (left) foot. Task lasted 15 seconds and the number of correct repetitions was recorded;

• Mixed drumming (MIXDRUM). Subject was seated approximately 20-30 centimetres away from the table. Four squares (20 cm x 20 cm) were drawn on the table and numbered from 1 to 4. The same pattern of squares numbered from 5 to 8 was placed on the floor under the table. Subject tried to alternately hit the squares in the correct order, written in the squares on the table (numbers 1 to 4) and floor (numbers 5 to 8). Result was correct number of hits in 20 seconds, test was performed twice; • Frontal splits (FSPLIT). Subject was standing against the wall and then lowered himself by widening the gap between the straight legs. The result was measured as the distance from the ground up to his crotch. Test was repeated twice, smaller distance was recorded; • Forward fold (FOLD). Subject was standing on a wooden bench with straight legs, bare feet were placed together and parallel with toes touching the ruler at the edge of bench. Subject folded the body as far forward and down by pushing the sliding ruler down the scale. This position was maintained for at least 2 seconds, result was recorded in centimetres. • Hands and feet drumming (HFDRUM). Measured subject stood in the corner and alternately hit the wall in the following sequence: left foot, right hand, right foot and left hand. The result was the number of hits in a correct sequence in 20 seconds. Test was performed twice and better result was recorded. • Balance on a proprioceptive board (BALANCE). Measured subject stood on a raised balancing board. The result is a time that subject managed to keep the board in a balanced position (without touching the floor). Test was performed twice and better result was recorded. The second group included tests, which are in their motor structure similar to dance movement. These include following tests: • Olympic circles test (OLIMPC) – test of coordination in rhythm. Five standard rhythmic gymnastics circles were placed on a floor in an Olympic circle pattern. Measured subject stood facing the circles and performed certain rhythmic movement cycles. Number of correct movement sequences in 30 seconds was recorded. • Rhythm coordination (COORD1, COORD2, COORD3) – tests of motor patterns with legs. Measured subject stood behind a line and watched a demonstrator who performed samples of motor tests three times – first in slow motion and twice in normal speed. Subject then performed a sample once on his/her own and the result was recorded as the number of correctly repeated cycles in 30 seconds. Measured subject performed each of these tests, similar to dance motor structures, twice and better result was recorded. Criterion variable Criterion variable was represented with an average value of the competitive success for each individual dancer at six best dance competitions at home or abroad in the 2011/2012 season.


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Competitions were ranked from 1 to 6 according to their importance: • 6 points were awarded to dancers who qualified into the final at major international competitions (World and European Championships, Blackpool dance festival, UK Open and International Open); • 5 points were awarded to dancers who at the major international competitions qualified into semi-finals or qualified into the final at international IDSF or WRCC competitions; • 4 points were awarded to dancers who were at national championships placed in ranks 1 to 3 or were qualified into semi-finals at international IDSF or WRCC competitions; • 3 points were awarded to dancers who were at national championships placed in ranks 4 to 7;

• 2 points were awarded to dancers who at national championships qualified into semi-finals or have qualified into the final at Slovenian cup competition; • 1 point was awarded for all other results. Data analysis methods Statistical package SPSS 14.0 was used to analyse the data. Simple descriptive statistics was calculated for all variables. Normality of distribution was tested with Kolmogorov - Smirnov test. Reliability was tested with Cronbach α coefficient. Reliability limit of individual tests was set at α>0.7. Criterion for normality of distribution was set at p>0.05. Multiple regression analysis (stepwise method) was used to present the influence of independent variables onto criterion variable.

Results Table 1: Descriptive (simple) statistics for group of MALE DANCERS (M – mean value; SD – standard deviation; KS z – Kolmogorov - Smirnov test; p (KS z) – statistical importance of z-values in Kolmogorov - Smirnov test.

M SD KS z p (KS z) M SD KS z p (KS z) α HEIGHT 177.83 6.71 .524 .947 JUMP 231.23 24.41 .499 .964 .89 WEIGHT 67.64 10.99 .743 .638 FOLD 54.31 6.04 .620 .836 .97 %FAT 10.17 3.40 .919 .367 FSPLIT 40.31 12.81 .494 .968 .95 %WATER 63.23 3.09 .906 .384 LEGDRUM 29.54 5.30 .632 .819 .92 SFTRIC 7.93 3.30 .576 .894 HFDRUM 11.46 3.57 .785 .568 .87 SFBACK 7.95 2.58 1.00 .271 BALANCE 171.54 63.78 .631 .820 .91 SFSUSPI 10.82 6.00 .936 .344 MIXDRUM 8.23 2.45 .805 .537 .78 SFSUILI 7.03 3.32 .893 .403 COORD1 14.15 8.55 .383 .999 .77 SFABD 9.85 6.36 .999 .271 COORD2 6.15 2.73 .572 .899 .73 SFTHI 12.86 4.93 .642 .805 COORD3 4.69 3.14 .680 .744 .76 SFTHDOR 11.20 4.25 .702 .709 OLIMPC 6.00 1.95 .678 .748 .90 SFTHOR 5.40 1.43 .701 .709 success 4.14 1.01 .504 .962 .81*

*Value represents a coefficient of objectivity for successfulness criterion.

HEIGHT – body height, WEIGHT – body weight, %FAT – percentage of fat, %WATER – percentage of water, SFTRIC – triceps skin fold, SFBACK – back skin fold, SFSUSPI – supraspinal skin fold, SFSUILI – suprailiac skin fold, SFABD – abdominal skin fold, SFTHI – thigh skin fold (ventral), SFTHDOR – thigh skin fold (dorsal), SFTHOR – chest skin fold, JUMP – standing long jump, FOLD – forward fold , FSPLIT – frontal splits, LEGDRUM – foot drumming, HFDRUM –

hand and foot drumming, BALANCE – balancing on proprioception plate, MIXDRUM – mixed drumming, COORD1 – test 1 of leg motor patterns, COORD2 – test 2 of leg motor patterns, COORD3 - test 3 of leg motor patterns, OLIMPC – Olympic circles test, success – criterion variable

Table 2: Descriptive statistics for group – FEMALE DANCERS

M SD KS z P(KS z) M SD KS z p (KS )

α HEIGHT 164.57 5.88 .665 .768 JUMP 188.50 17.27 .431 .992 .87 WEIGHT 53.38 7.71 .453 .987 FOLD 60.42 5.33 .618 .840 .98 %FAT 19.84 2.68 .836 .487 FSPLIT 24.58 6.41 .880 .421 .97 %WATER 53.51 3.66 .907 .382 LEGDRUM 28.00 4.69 .616 .842 .89 SFTRIC 11.14 3.84 .908 .382 HFDRUM 10.17 2.25 .789 .562 .82 SFBACK 8.10 2.02 .848 .468 BALANCE 145.83 52.84 .628 .826 .92 SFSUSPI 12.46 5.28 .675 .753 MIXDRUM 8.92 2.42 .558 .914 .72 SFSUILI 8.26 4.05 .614 .845 COORD1 19.17 7.90 .548 .925 .79 SFABD 11.02 4.36 .730 .660 COORD2 4.33 2.06 .715 .686 .77 SFTHI 20.50 6.91 .807 .532 COORD3 6.92 1.62 .506 .960 .75 SFTHDOR 18.23 6.99 .715 .687 OLIMPC 6.17 1.74 .634 .816 .83 SFTHOR 5.78 1.52 .743 .640 success 3.70 1.24 .497 .966 .81*

*Value represents a coefficient of objectivity for successfulness criterion.

HEIGHT – body height, WEIGHT – body weight, %FAT – percentage of fat, %WATER – percentage of water, SFTRIC – triceps skin fold, SFBACK – back skin fold, SFSUSPI – supraspinal skin fold, SFSUILI – suprailiac skin fold, SFABD – abdominal skin fold, SFTHI – thigh

skin fold (ventral), SFTHDOR – thigh skin fold (dorsal), SFTHOR – chest skin fold, JUMP – standing long jump, FOLD – forward fold , FSPLIT – frontal splits, LEGDRUM – foot drumming, HFDRUM – hand and foot drumming, BALANCE – balancing on proprioception plate,

MIXDRUM – mixed drumming, COORD1 – test 1 of leg motor patterns, COORD2 – test 2 of leg motor patterns, COORD3 - test 3 of leg motor patterns, OLIMPC – Olympic circles test, success – criterion variable


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Table 3: Multiple regression analysis – calculation of parameters and beta ponders in male dancers. Success is criterion variable.

Predictor b SE(b) β r (partial) t p 1. step Const JUMP

-2.824 .030

1.915 .008 .753 .753

-1.475 3.614

.171

.005 Table 4: Multiple regression analysis – calculation of multiple correlation coefficient and explained variance of the model in male dancers. Success is criterion variable.

Predictors R R2 Koreg. R2 ΔR2 SNN ΔF p JUMP .753 .566 .523 .566 .6884 13.063 .005

Table 5: Multiple regression analysis – calculation of parameters and beta ponders in female dancers. Success is criterion variable.

Predictor b SE(b) β r (partial.) t p 1. step constant -2.233 2.230 -1.002 .340 %FAT .299 .111 .648 .648 2.687 .023 2. step constant 4.394 2.968 1.481 .173 %FAT .319 .087 .689 .774 3.669 .005 JUMP -.037 .014 -.517 -.676 -2.751 .022 3. step constant 2.845 2.322 1.225 .255 %FAT .271 .068 .586 .814 3.970 .004 JUMP -.033 .010 -.464 -.752 -3.226 .012 OLIMPC .290 .105 .408 .698 2.760 .025

Table 6: Multiple regression analysis – calculation of multiple correlation coefficient and explained variance of the model in female dancers. Success is criterion variable.

Predictors R R2 cor. R2 ΔR2 SNN ΔF p %FAT .648 .419 .361 .419 .9938 7.221 .023 %FAT & JUMP .827 .685 .614 .266 .7721 9.764 .006 %FAT, JUMP & OLIMPC .916 .838 .778 .153 .5862 13.833 .002

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics for the group of male dancers for all measured variables as well as the normality of distribution and reliability. Reliability has been set only for motor tests and criterion variable, as all the other variables were measured only once. All variables were normally distributed (p (KSz)>0.05). Tests COORD2 and COORD3 did not achieve high enough reliability level and as such were excluded from further analysis. Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for the group of female dancers. Similarly, in this group all the variables were also normally distributed (p (KSz)>0.05). Additionally, in the group of female dancers the tests COORD2 and COORD3 did not achieve sufficiently high reliability and were excluded from further analysis. Table 3 shows the results of regression analysis. Test standing long jump (JUMP) was revealed as the only statistically important predictor of success. Partial correlation between test JUMP and success was 0.753. Model with one important predictor (JUMP) explains 52.3% of criterion variable – success in male dancers. In female dancers (Table 5) three variables were revealed as statistically significant success predictors; namely % of fat, standing long jump and Olympic circle test. In contrast with male dancers, test JUMP had a negative partial correlation with success.

Model with three included variables explains 77.8% of success variance. The results reveal those dimensions in motor and morphological space, which are important in the success of dancers. The difference between the genders has been shown in the number of significant predictors of success and the difference in the nature of beta ponder predictor of JUMP in male (positive) and female (negative) dancers. Discussion The most important findings in the present study were following: in female dancers, percentage of body fat, standing long jump and the Olympic circles test were revealed as statistically significant predictors of competition success. In male dancers, only the standing long jump has been revealed as statistically significant predictor of competition success. It is interesting to notice a negative correlation between the standing long jump and success in female dancers, indicating that the power strength of legs in females is a negative predictor of success in dance. Previous studies on sports dancers presented quite inconsistent findings about the influence of standing long jump onto success in dancing. The study by Uzunović, Kostić (2005) has revealed statistically insignificant yet negative correlation between the success and standing long jump test in both male and female dancers. Srhoj, Katić and Kaliterna (2006) have found positive and statistically significant


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correlation between the standing long jump test and success in female sports and folk dancers. Discrepancies in the results could be explained with differently selected samples and different criterion variable. Whereas the study by Uzunović, Kostić (2005) includes a sample of active competitors in sports dance with a criterion being the number of points in national ranking, the study by Srhoj, Katić and Kaliterna (2006) includes a sample of students from Faculty of sport with a criterion being an average score for specific dance choreography awarded by five judges. It can be concluded that despite the negative connotation of power strength predictor, which could be a result of a small sample and larger proportion of younger female dancers in present study, this motor ability is nevertheless very important for fast and dynamic motion in dance choreography and movement on dance floor. A study by Miletić and Kostić (2006) has shown that sports dance technique requires constant and consistent development of strength. Similarly important phenomena are also repetitive strength of legs and arms as well as static strength for both female and male dancers. In contrast with females, male dancers lead and manage the movement in space whilst simultaneously providing their partners solid support in execution of various motor structures. Present study indicates that power strength is very important in male dancers and has a positive influence on competition success. Additional research with wider spectrum of power strength tests will be required in order to further develop technical training in sports dance. Present study has also revealed a statistically significant and positive correlation between the percentage of fat and competition success in female dancers. However, this does not indicate that dancers with higher percentage of body fat are more successful, but rather that the body weight of female dancers should be of higher quality, particularly being more muscular. In contrast, a study by Boreham (1999) has revealed that the tendency in the sample of female dancers is an average body height and below average body weight, which is also linked to the aesthetic component of dance movement and age period of younger dancers. An interesting fact has been shown in the study by Evans, Tiburzi and Norton (1985); namely, that dance has lately become a tool of general exercising programmes – social and modern dances and aerobics are a type of recreation for all age groups. As the aesthetic component in dance is highly expressed and the movements are accompanied with large and long amplitudes, it can be said that excessive body fat has a negative influence on the execution of movement in sports dance. Female sports dancers who compete regularly and train on a daily basis have lower percentage of skin fold in comparison with general population. Koutedakis and Jamurtas (2004) have in their study confirmed positive influence of dance on body weight and stated that the proportion between the lean active body mass

and body fat is a building part of optimal body performance in ballet dancers. Sports dancers in their choreographies move the entire body mass quickly and graciously. Their movement is interlinked with numerous jumps, leaps, fast spins, lifts of individual body parts and movement in space with quick changes of direction, all in harmony with the dancing partner. Dahlstrom, Jansson and Nordevang, (1990) have found that the composition of dancers is very important – the smaller the proportion of body fat, the larger the proportion of muscles and consequently the efficiency of dancer’s body in execution of complex and demanding coordination movements in choreography. Results in the present study can be attributed to a small sample and the adolescence period of the majority of measured dancers. Coordination is in sports dance one of the most important motor abilities, thus it is not surprising that in female dancers the Olympic circles test has been revealed as statistically significant predictor of success. This test (OLIMPC) includes jumps and turns. From the nature of choreographies in sports dance and the role of dancers in a couple it can be concluded that female dancers perform larger number of motor structures, which include jumps and two-leg turns, as this is required by the dynamics of choreography. Complex movements in dance mainly necessitate high degree of motor learning, which has specific characteristics and rules that have to be considered in various types of individual’s dance motor activity (Čoh, 2004). When studying motor abilities of dancers, Uzunović, Kostić, Zagorc, Oreb and Jocić (2005) have found that the ability of rhythmic interpretation of motor structures, general coordination, the speed of performance of individual motor structures and the ability of perception have the largest influence on success. In addition, Oreb (1992) has in his study emphasised that the success in dance is primarily defined with coordination, rhythm, balance and frequency of alternate movements, whilst less with power strength and endurance, which is highly expressed particularly in male dancers. As there have not been many studies carried out in sports dance, some important findings with implications for sports dance could be derived from studies on other dance disciplines, such as ballet, folk dance, jazz, modern dances, aerobic etc. A study by Ećimović-Žgajner (1984) has shown that dance is one of the mechanisms in kinesiology, which importantly influences the development of motor abilities and motor creativity with music as a part of aesthetic upbringing, accelerating harmonious and beautiful movement. Srhoj, Katić, Kaliterna (2006) have found that coordination is a conglomerate of various integrated movements, which are linked into smooth movement in a sense of execution of movement as a unity. Larger set of various motor structures and wider basis of motor knowledge allow dancers to provide better answer in motor sense. Execution of complex motor structures is strongly correlated with manifestation of all other motor abilities.


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This is true particularly for execution of movements with large amplitudes, which are correlated with flexibility and to a large extent also with inter- and intra-muscular coordination. Oreb (1992) has emphasised that the successfulness in dance is primarily defined with coordination, rhythm, balance and frequency of alternate movements and less with power strength and endurance. The degree of abilities, such as coordination, rhythm, spatial and visual discrimination and body control are not so much a result of dance training but are determined genetically or else with an early development of these abilities. Dropčova (1986) has similarly found that dance movement is not solely based on rhythm, but is also to a certain extent influenced with other elements, such as balance, motor learning, agility and strength. Čoh and Kondrič (2004) stated that there is proven correlation between coordination, agility, rhythm, coordinated movement and timing, which is manifested mostly in increased body control in space and time. For this reason, the present study included four new coordination tests, with the intention of extracting

as many components of motor space (agility, rhythm, coordinated movement and timing). These tests consisted of motor structures, which form basic motor patterns often used by dancers in their choreographies. Authors define coordination, power strength and the speed of simple movements as some of the most important abilities for general success in dance. In conclusion, it can be said that successful performance in both male and female sports dancers requires good motor learning and consequently highly developed coordination, as the pool of motor information, knowledge, experience and motor programmes is very diverse and varied. Additionally, it has been found that the execution of simple movements is very fast, which can be confirmed with the results of other standardised coordination tests, foot drumming, mixed drumming and hand drumming. Srhoj, Katić and Kaliterna (2006) in their study emphasised the importance of technique, style and tradition, whereas the present study has confirmed a high importance of motor and morphological space as important predictors in sports dance.

References Boreham, C. (1999). Children in dance. In: Koutedakis Y, Sharp NCC. (ed). The fit and healthy dancer.

Chichester: John Wiley (pp. 279-291). Čoh, M., Jovanović-Golubović, D., & Bratić, M. (2004). Motoričko učenje u sportu. Facta universitatis –

series: Physical Education, 2(1), 45-59. Čoh, M., & Kondrič, M. (2004). Development of agility. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport. Dahlstrom, M., Jansson, E., Nordevang, E. et al. (1990). Discrepancy between estimated energy intake and

requirement in female dancers. Clin Physiol, 10(1), 11-15. Dropčova, V. (1986). Razvoj pohybovych schopnosti a zručnosti na hodinach rytmickej gymnastiky a tanca

žiačok z hladiska estetickej vychovy. Teor. Praxe te. Vych, 4(2),75-83. Ećimović-Žgajner, S. (1984). Utjecaj ritma kao muzikalne komponente u ritmičkoj gimnastici i plesovima.

Kineziologija, 16(1), 53-63. Evans, B.W., Tiburzi, A., & Norton, C.J. (1985). Body composition and body type of female dance majors.

Dance research Journal, 17(1), 17-20. Kostić, R. (1996). Correlation expression motor abilities rhythmic structures and success in dance. Facta

Universitatis, 1(3), 47–53. Kostić, R., Zagorc, M., & Uzunović, S. (2004). Prediction of success in sports dancing based on morphological

characteristics and functional capabilities. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomouc. Gymn, 34(1). 59-46. Miletić, Đ., & Kostić, R. (2006). Motor and morphological conditionality for performing arabesque and passé

pivots. Facta Universitatis, 4(1), 17–25. Oreb, G. (1992). Relative efficiency of impact of dance on motor abilities of female college students. Doctoral

disertation, Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology. Srhoj, L. (2002). Effect of motor abilities on performing the Hvar folk dance cicilion in 11- year old girls. Coll

Antropol, 26(2), 539-543. Srhoj, L., Katić, R., & Kaliterna, A. (2006). Motor abilities in Dance Structure Performance in Female

Students. Coll Antropol, 30(2), 335-341. Uzunović, S., & Kostić, R. (2005). A study of success in Latin American sport dancing. Facta universitatis,

3(1), 23–35. Uzunović, S., Kostić, R., Zagorc, M., Oreb, G., & Jocić, D. (2005). The effect of coordination skills on the

success in standard sports dancing. In: 10th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, July 13-16, 2005, Belgrade, Serbia. Book of abstracts. Belgrade: Sport Medicine Association of Serbia, 2005, (pp. 270).

* * * (2006). /Council of Europe/. EUROFIT. Handbook for the EUROFIT Test of Physical Fitness. Strasbourg: CoE.


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UTJECAJ MOTORIČKIH SPOSOBNOSTI I MORFOLOŠKIH KARAKTERISTIKA

NA IZVEDBU SPORTSKIH PLESAČA

Sažetak Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati koje morfološke karakteristike i motoričke sposobnosti utječu na uspjeh u sportskom plesu. Baterija za testiranje koja se sastoji od 13 morfoloških i 11 motornih testova, korištena je na uzorku od 12 ženskih i 13 muških plesača. Izmjereni ispitanici bili su pripadnici nacionalne vrste ili akrobatskih rock'n'roll plesnih klubova, uzrasta 14 do 23 godine. Rezultati regresijske analize pokazali su da je kod plesačica Model objasnio 77,8% natjecateljskog uspjeha (F = 8,13, p <0.002). Statistička značajnost u predviđanju uspjeha je u plesačica otkrila varijable postotak masti (SS = 0.586, p <0,004), skok u dalj s mjesta (SS = -0,464, p <0012) i testa Olimpijski krugovi (SS = 0,408, p <0,025). U muških plesača, model je objasnio 52,3% varijance natjecateljskog uspjeha (F = 6,13, p <0,005), uz skok u dalj s mjesta (SS = 0.753, p <0,005) koja se jedina statistički značajna varijabla u predviđanju uspjeha. To se može zaključiti da snaga snaga nogu, koordinacija pokreta i manje količine masnog tkiva imaju najveći utjecaj na uspjeh u izveedbi sportskog plesa. Ključne riječi: sportski ples, rock'n'roll, natjecateljski uspjeh, test, regresijska analiza

Received: May 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assis.Prof. Petra Zaletel, Ph.D. Faculty of Sport University of Ljubljana 1000 Ljubljana, Gortanova 22, Slovenia Phone: + 386 51 632 031 E-mail: [email protected]

Jurišić, D. et al.: Relation between maximum oxygen uptake and anaerobic... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 55‐61

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RELATION BETWEEN MAXIMUM OXYGEN UPTAKE AND ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD, AND THE ROWING ERGOMETER RESULTS IN SENIOR ROWERS

Draško Jurišić1, Zoran Donadić2 and Mislav Lozovina1

1 Faculty of Maritime studies, University of Split, Croatia 2 Freelance Researcher


Abstract In accordance with the worldwide achievements in the area of sports physiology, Croatian rowing has established its own protocol for controlling the competing form of rowers. The developed progressive discontinuing workload test was carried out on a rowing ergometer, and it was developed for the purpose of determining the maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold, i.e. the “lactate curve”. It is the finest and the most precise laboratory test in use. It is used to control the training process with the purpose of programming, i.e. reprogramming the rowers' training. The experimental section of the paper describes a test carried out on a sample of 30 rowers of the national and international calibre which demonstrated a statisticaly significant correlation between the rowing velocity at anaerobic threshold with maximum oxygen uptake (r = -0,6139). A significant individual impact of maximum oxygen uptake and rowing velocity at anaerobic threshold on the rowing simulator result at 2000m was also identified. There is a stronger correlation between the rowing velocity at anaerobic threshold and the rowing simulator result at 2000m (r = 0,72) than between the VO2max and the rowing simulator result at 2000m (r = -0,55). Taking the production of lactic acid as an indicator of the rower’s competing form, it was expected, from the statistical point of wives, that it will be a highly significant predictor of the maximal test result. A strong and statistically significant co-reactive correlation between maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold, as well as their strong correlation with the rowing simulator test result at 2000m, confirms the assumption that the aerobic metabolism predominantly determins the success in a 2000m rowing race (on a simulator). Key words: rowing, lactates, anaerobic threshold, maximum oxygen uptake Introduction

Testing the energetic capacities in rowers Rowing is a type of water sport where boats are moved by the force of the rower and the oar. As an activity it belongs to the group of monostructural cyclic movements. The work of the locomotor apparatus is dominated by long-term, workload-type repetitive force, and the cardiovascular system is submitted to the endurance-type of activity of submaximum intensity over a longer period of time. Diagnostics in rowing refers to compiling relevant information about the initial, transitive and final state of athletes in terms of capacities and characteristics which are essential for success in competitive rowing. If supreme results want to be achieved, it is necessary to provide a scientific explanation for every phenomenon related to rowers' sports activities, by predicting its course and outcome, defining procedures and manners for implementing the changes, and by valorizing them as changes which occured under the influence of programmed training. In rower fitness diagnostics, a special attention is paid to the functional diagnostics. The anaerobic threshold and the maximum oxygen uptake are the most frequent parametres used in diagnostics, programming and control of the training process in rowing. The aerobic metabolism covers 75–80% of energetic demands in a rowing race. The first parameter for an assessment of aerobic metabolism is the maximum oxygen uptake or VO2max, which refers to the level of oxygen uptake in one minute

whereby a further increase of workload would no longer result in an increase in oxygen uptake (Medved, 1987). In top-class athletes who practice aerobic sports, the VO2max values range from about 4,5 l/min up to 6 and more l/min. Top-class rowers are reported to achieve the highest VO2max values ever measured. Those values regularly exceed 5 l/min, rather often they exceed 6 l/min, while values above 7 litres per minute have also been encountered in the professional literature. A value as high as 7,12 litres per minute has been reported (71.2 ml/kg min) in one member of the German Olympic eight from 1968 (Cunningham, 1975). The second parameter used for assessing the fitness level of rowers is the lactate anaerobic threshold, i.e. the velocity measured at the threshold. The anaerobic threshold is a metabolic response to increased exertion, i.e. the point after which energy requirements of the active musculature exceed the capacities of the aerobic metabolism, and anaerobic processes are largely activated to supply enough energy. The anaerobic lactate threshold is usually defined by means of the concentration of lactic acid in the blood in the amount of 4 mmol/l. The higher the value of workload at the anaerobic threshold, the higher the level at which the rower will be able to perform a long-term activity. The purpose of a rowing exercise is to stimulate an increased oxygen uptake, as well as to allow the rower to achieve as high a percentage of oxygen uptake as


56

possible before the concentration of lactic acid in the blood increases significantly. Rowing contests are held in accordance with the FISA Rule Book, on a 2000 metres long course, in eight rowing disciplines for men and six rowing disciplines for women. It takes 5.5 – 8 minutes to cross the race course, which makes rowing one of the endurance-type sports. Mader, 1977 (according to Marinović, 1991) indicated that in a rowing race, 82.1% of the rower's energy derives from purely aerobic sources, while 17.9% is derived from anaerobic sources, 5.9% of which is spent on the breakdown of energy-rich phosphates, and 12% on glycolysis. During the first 10-15 seconds, which corresponds to the time in which starting strokes are performed, the maximal organism exertion occurs with the tendency to propel the boat as soon as possible from standing still to the optimum moving speed. Such extremely high workloads – 90 kCal/min, i.e. 1350 Watts; (Dorchner, 1979; according to Marinović, 1991) are performed by means of the energy obtained through the breakdown of creatine phosphate and adenosine phosphate in anaerobic conditions. The starting strokes are also characterized by a very high frequency (44-48 strokes/min) and high velocity, as well as by an extreme force in hydrodynamic drag. After the starting strokes, the optimal stroke length is achieved (as opposed to the starting strokes which are shorter) and the pace becomes slower, which results in a reduced intensity of labor. In the course of the following 2-3 minutes, the glycolytic stage of labor occurs, which is characterized by the production of a high level of lactate in the muscles. During this period, the intensity of labor can amount to 750 W. Over the course of time the consumption of oxygen gradually increases, and the eneregy is largely compensated by means of aerobic processes. After three minutes, energy is compensated by means of oxidative processes. The maximum energy turnover reaches the level of 30 kCal/min, i.e. 450 W (Dorschner, 1979; according to Marinović, 1991), which can be maintained over a longer period of time. In top-class rowers, oxygen consumption in the amount of 6000 ml/min was measured, which corresponds to about 480 Watts. Labor under relatively constant workload is maintained until the finish zone (150-300 m). In the course of those final metres workload increases again, which is basically expressed through increased investment of energy in hydrodynamic drag, as well as through an increased frequency of strokes. At the same time, apart from maximally activated oxygen consumption, the glycolitic source of energy is activated again, and such a high level of organic demands also requires a high degree of the rower's will. Important characteristics which affect the rower's specific performance can, according to Körner and Schwanitz (1985), be summarized in the following way: * VO2max > 6.0 l/min; * Relative VO2 > 70 ml/min; * high ergometric performance values in the transition aerobic/anaerobic area (performance at anaerobic threshold, i.e. at lactate limit values in the amount

of 4 mmol/l) amounting to about 350-400 Watts; * a high proportion of VO2max at 4 mmol/l of lactate, amounting to about 80-90%; * in the classification of muscle fibers, the 70% proportion of STF (slow-twich fibers which are aerobic in terms of metabolic processes), the increased cross section of STF and FTF (fast-twich fibers, in which metabolic processes are aerobic, with regard to the training stimulus – oxidative or anaerobic – glycolytic) in a 1:3 ratio; a high degree of capillarization proportional to the increase in the cross section of ST fibers; * a high oxidative proportion of all fibers (70-80%); * a complete metabolic differentiation of the proportion of FT fibers towards glycolitic construction; * high enzyme activities in oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, and anaerobic carbohydrate breakdown; * 80% to 20% ratio between the aerobic and anaerobic metabolism (in rowers); * a high concentration of glycogen and neutral fats in the muscle cells; * >8% proportion of the mitochondria in the cell volume; * subsarcolemmal deposition in the mitochondria; * increased level of myoglobine; * optimum rowing technique (small energy consumption for the movement structure). Based on what was previously said, it is possible to make the following general conclusion: at the beginning of a rowing race the boat is gaining speed, and the force invested by rowers ranges between 1000 and 1500 N. During the race, the speed is maintained at a lower level by means of force not greater than 500-700 N. Trained rowers are adapted to this type of exertion by means of a considerable muscle mass and high metabolic capacities. Two basic energetic mechanisms provide energy for muscle work: - Aerobic, which provides the neccessary energy by means of oxidation processes (which occur with the presence of oxygen); and - Anaerobic, where the energy is derived by means of nonoxidative processes (which occur without the presence of oxygen). In the case of anaerobic labor, there are two ways to obtain energy: anaerobic provision of energy for muscle contraction without the production of lactic acid, where energy is derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP). This type of energy production is also called non-lactate of phosphagen. Anaerobic provision of energy for muscle contraction with the production of lactic acid, whereby energy is obtained by means of the anaerobic glycolysis process, and is also called lactate or glycolytic. The proportion and the ratio between the energy provision processes directly depends on the intensity and duration of the workload. In order to be able to perform a physical activity, it is necessary to ensure a balance between the production and consumption of energy in the musculature which is acutely active while performing the activity. How an individual will accomplish this depends on the capacity of his or her cardiorespiratory system. There is the so-called "critical intensity" of organism effort, which is the greatest intensity of exercise that an individual can carry out for an unlimited period of time without a decrease in

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59

applied workload protocol in terms of the type of activities (rowing ergometer, bicycle ergometer or treadmill), the initial workload, the amount of workload increase, the duration of each individual workload level, the duration of the break, the treadmill tilt angle, the application of continuing or discontinuing protocol, and the state of the intramuscular glycogenic depot. Ventilation threshold: It represents the intensity of exercise under which there is an increase in all ventilation parametres which become disproportionate with the increase in intensity during a progressive workload test (Svedahl and MacIntosh, 2003). Methods

The goal of this scientific paper was to establish a correlation between lactate anaerobic threshold (4 mmol/l) and maximum oxygen uptake in rowers of the national and international calibre while using the “Concept II” rowing ergometer. The sample consisted of 30 rowers of national and international calibre whose age, height and weight are shown in the Table 1. Table 1. Anthropometric characteristics of participants in

the test

Rowers (n = 30) AGE (years) 23,01 ± 3,40

HEIGHT (cm) 190,92 ± 4,28 BODY MASS (kg) 89,34 ± 5,34

Sample of physiologically functional variables: 1) LA4INT – rowing velocity at the anaerobic threshold (sec/500m), 2) LA4VOA – absolute oxygen uptake at the anaerobic threshold (l O2/min), 3) LA4VO% – percentage of VO2 at the VO2max threshold (%), 4) LA4HR – heart rate at the lactate anaerobic threshold (heart beat/min), 5) LAMAX – lactate level after the final maximal stage (mmol/l), 6) VO2MAX – absolute maximum oxygen uptake (l O2/min), 7) VO2REL – relative maximum oxygen uptake (ml O2/min/kg), 8) HRMAX – maximum heart rate (heart beat/min), 9) E2000 – time result on a rowing ergometer at 2000m (sec).

The testing was carried out on the “Concept II” rowing ergometer which offers a very faithful simulation of workload in the boat, with a continuous monitoring of workload data (expressed in Watts, m/s, or Kal/h), stroke frequency and invested labor (expressed in metres and joules) for each individual stroke, as well as for the total duration of the activity. A discontinuing progressive test on the “Concept II” rowing ergometer was used, with four-minute workload stages. The initial workload was set according to the individual capacities and level of fitness. During two-minute breaks, blood was taken from the athletes' earlaps one minute into the break, in order to determine the lactate curve and the lactate anaerobic threshold. The workload was increased linearly by 3 seconds from one level to the next having passed 500m, while the rower / participant in the test did not reach the level of 4 mmol/l of lactic acid in blood.

After detecting the lactate values which exceeded 4mmol/l, the final workload level took place, lasting 3 minutes; however, during the last 90 seconds the athletes rowed with maximum possible intensity in order to reach maximal values of aerobic capacity. The lactic acid concentration in blood was determined by means of the “Lactate analyser YSI MODEL 23L“ device developed by Yellow Springs Instr. Co., while spirometric values were recorded by means of the „MasterLab“ device developed by Jeager company. Heart rate was measured constantly by means of the Polar pulsometer. The recorded dat was processed by means of a standard computer programme for the analysis of metric properties within the internal consistency model of the Statistica for Windows statistical software. Results Table 2. Descriptive parametres of the aerobic capacity

values and the lactate anaerobic threshold

N AM MIN MAX SD AGE 30 23,01 16,29 30,83 ±

HEIGHT 30 190,92 182 200 ± MASS 30 89,34 75,5 98 ±

LA4INT 30 102,28 98 107,5 ± LA4VOA 30 5,06 4,32 6,16 ± LA4VO% 30 88,09 76,81 94,24 ± LA4HR 29 177,52 164 193 ± LAMAX 29 9,91 7,4 12,1 ±

VO2MAX 30 5,69 4,65 6,9 ± VO2REL 30 64,14 57,33 72,7 ± HRMAX 30 193,07 175 207 ± E2000 30 372,2 357 392 ±

(N – Number of participants in the test, AM – arithmetic mean, MIN – minimum, MAX – maximum, SD – standard deviation)

Table 3. Results of the regression analysis of the impact of predictors (maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold) on the criterion variable (ergometer result at 2000m)

r Beta B t(27) st LA4INT 0,70 0,58 2,31 3,40 0,002

VO2MAX -0,55 -0,20 -4,22 -1,17 0,253 R = multiple correlation, Rd2 = coefficient of determination, F = F-test value, st = significance threshold, r = correlation coefficient,

Beta = standardized regression coefficient, B = regression coefficient, t = t-test value, st = ignificance threshold, df =

degrees of freedom (n-1)

Table 3 shows the influence of the predictor variables (VO2max and anaerobic threshold velocity) with the criterion variable (test result at 2000 m on a rowing simulator). By means of a statistical analysis we have determined that a group of predictor variables VO2max and LA4INT have a statistically significant impact (p<0,00004) on the criterion variable result, i.e. on the 2000m result on a rowing simulator. Two predictor variables explain 51,4% (RD2 = 0,514) of the criteria, i.e. ergometer results at 2000m. Seen that the multiple correlation coefficient is statistically significant, it can be said that, as expected, the predictor variable of the rowing


60

velocity at the anaerobic threshold has a significant impact on the criterion variable – the 2000m result on the ergometer. The regression coefficient (B = 2,31) demonstrates a positive dependence of results, i.e. a “better score” by 1 second at 500m at the anaerobic threshold (4mmol/l), which will on average reduce the ergometer result to 2000m in 2,31 seconds.

Table 4. Correlation matrix

LA4INT LA4VOA LA4VO% LA4HR LAMAX VO2MAX VO2REL E2000LA4INT 1.00 LA4VOA -0,79 1.00 LA4VO% -0,30 0,40 1.00 LA4HR -0,08 0,02 0,2 1.00LAMAX 0,15 0,01 -0,31 -0,11 1.00

VO2MAX -0,61 0,72 -0,19 -0,08 0,14 1.00 VO2REL -0,33 0,48 -0,28 -0,19 0,21 0,60 1.00E2000 0,72 -0,73 -0,26 0,19 0,05 -0,55 -0,30 1.00

Figure 5. Relationship between VO2max and 500m score

at the lactate anaerobic threshold (4 mmol)

Conclusion In accordance with the worldwide achievements in the area of sports physiology, Croatian rowing has established its own protocol for controlling the competing form of rowers. A progressive discontinuing workload test on a rowing ergometer for the purpose of determining the maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold, i.e. the “lactate curve”, is the most common, the finest and the most precise laboratory test which is used for programming and control of the training process in rowing, while on the other hand, maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold are the most common parametres used in diagnostics, programming and control of the training process in rowing. This paper establishes a statistically significant correlation between the velocity of rowing at anaerobic threshold and maximum oxygen uptake (r = -0,6139), which is shown graphically in Figure 5. The correlation is a negative one, as the velocity of rowing is expressed by means of the score at 500 meters (sec/500m), a unit which is

Figure 6. Correlation between the E2000 and VO2max

test results

Figure 7. Correlation between the E2000 test results and

velocity at threshold most frequently used in practice and which is inversely proportional to velocity. Also, a significant individual impact of maximum oxygen uptake and rowing velocity at anaerobic threshold on the rowing simulator result at 2000m was identified. There is a more significant correlation between rowing velocity at anaerobic threshold and the rowing simulator result at 2000m (r = 0,72) than between VO2max and the rowing simulator result at 2000m (r = -0,55). Taking the production of lactic acid as an indicator of competing form of rowers, it was expected that from the statistical point of view it will be a highly significant predictor of the maximal test result. A strong correlation between the maximum oxygen uptake and lactate anaerobic threshold, as well as their strong correlation with a succesfull rowing simulator test result at 2000m confirms the assumption that the aerobic metabolism is dominant, and that it dominantly determins the success in a 2000m long rowing race (on a simulator).

References Fistanić, I., (1999). Utjecaj šestomjesečnog rada u školi veslanja na neke morfološke i motoričke parametre

kod djece uzrasta 12 – 14 godina. (diplomski rad), Split: Fakultet prirodoslovno – matematičkih znanosti i odgojnih područja.

Katić, R., & Bonacin, D. (2001). Kineziologija za sva vremena. Split: FPMZ.


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Körner, T., & P. Schwanitz, (1985). Rudern. Berlin: Sportverlag. Lozovina, V. (2001). Sportovi na vodi. Split: FPMZ. Marinović, M. (2002). Dijagnostika treniranosti: Zbornik radova Dopunski sadržaji sportske pripreme,

Zagreb: Kineziološki fakultet. Marinović, M., & Tocilj, J. (1999). Usporedba podataka anaerobnog praga dobivenih primjenom

diskontinuiranog progresivnog testa i laktatnog stabilnog stanja, Dubrovnik : Kineziologija – Sadašnjost i budućnost.

Maršić, T. (2006). Povezanost ventilacijskih i kinematičkih pokazatelja za procjenu anaerobnog praga pri trčanju na pokretnom sagu (projekt doktorske disertacije), Zagreb: Kineziološki fakultet.

Medved, R. (1987). Sportska medicina. Zagreb: JUMENA. Mikulić, P., Vučetić, V., & Šentija, D. (2002). Povezanost maksimalnog primitka kisika i anaerobnog laktatnog

praga u veslača. Zbornik radova znanstveno-stručnog skupa "Dopunski sadržaji sportske pripreme" / Milanović, D. (ur.). - Zagreb : Kineziološki Fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, (pp. 350-355).

Milanović, D. (1997). Osnove teorije treninga. U: Milanović, D. (ur.): "Priručnik za sportske trenere". Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu, Zagrebački sportski savez.

Petz, B. (1981). Osnovne statističke metode za nematematičare. Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada Liber. Žeželj, A. (1978). Veslanje. Beograd: Sportska knjiga.

ODNOS MAKSIMALNOG PRIMITKA KISIKA I ANAEROBNOG PRAGA, I REZULTATI VESLAČKOG ERGOMETRA KOD STARIJIH VESLAČA

Sažetak U skladu sa svjetskim dostignućima na području sportske fiziologije, hrvatsko veslanje je uspostavilo vlastiti protokol za kontrolu natjecanja veslača. Razvijen je progresivni test radnog opterećenja obavljen na veslačkom ergometru, a bio je razvijen u svrhu utvrđivanja maksimalnog primitka kisika i laktata anaerobnog praga, odnosno "laktatne krivulje". To je najbolji i najprecizniji laboratorijski test u uporabi. Koristi se za kontrolu trenažnog procesa s ciljem programiranja, odnosno reprogramiranja treninga veslača. Eksperimentalni dio ovog rada opisuje ispitivanje provedeno na uzorku od 30 veslača na nacionalnoj i međunarodnoj razini gdje je dobivnea statistički značajna korelacija između brzine veslanja na anaerobnom pragu s maksimalnim primitkom kisika (r = -0,6139). Značajan pojedinačni utjecaj maksimalnog primitka kisika i brzina veslanje na anaerobni prag na rezultat u veslanju simulatora na 2000m također je identificiran. Tu je jača korelacija između brzine veslanje na anaerobnom pragu i rezultatu veslanja simulatora na 2000m (r = 0,72), nego između VO2max i rezultata veslanja simulatora na 2000m (r = -0,55). Uzimajući proizvodnju mliječne kiseline kao pokazatelj natjecateljskog oblika veslanja, što se i očekivalo, iz statističke točke žene, da će to biti vrlo značajan prediktor maksimalnog testa. Jaka i statistički značajna korektivna korelacija između maksimalnog primitka kisika i laktata anaerobnog praga, kao i njihove jaka povezanost s veslačkim simulatorom rezultata testa na 2000m, potvrđuje pretpostavku da aerobni metabolizam pretežno utvrđuje uspjeh u veslanju 2000m utrke (na simulatoru). Ključne riječi: veslanje, laktati, anaerobni prag, maksimalni primitak kisika

Received: May 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assist.Prof.Mislav Lozovina, Ph.D. University of Split Faculty for Maritime studies 21000 Split, Domovinskog rata 8, Croatia Phone: +985 (0)21 393 500 E-mail: [email protected]

Kraydjikova, L. et al.: Adaptive physical activity and sport in 15‐years old... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 62‐64

62

ADAPTIVE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORT IN 15-YEARS OLD STUDENTS WITH THORACIC DEFORMATION

Leyla Kraydjikova1, Tatyana Andonova1, Andreas Matzuridis1,

Anastasios Matzuridis1 and Lenče Nikolovska2

1 National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria 2 University “Goce Delchev” – Štip, Macedonia

Review paper

Abstract In the conditions of modern life, the problems of improvement of the health of pupils by means of physical education are extremely important. The low motor activity together with bad body position and gait are among the most important etiological factors for the appearance of abnormal spinal curvatures. In that sense, the purpose of the study is to develop and test a specialized motor program for treatment of spine deformations in the frontal plane, which will be applied in the work with 15-years-old pupils beyond school hours. The APAS program resulted in more significant growth in the values of the main anthropometric indicators characterizing physical development as body height and weight. The correct performance of exercises, the improved muscle balance and the education of patients for proper body position resulted in corrective action on the static and dynamic position of the body. Key words: children, thoracic deformation, physical activity Introduction

In the conditions of modern life, the problems of improvement of the health of pupils by means of physical education are extremely important. The low motor activity together with bad body position and gait are among the most important etiological factors for the appearance of abnormal spinal curvatures. For many decades, different authors have tried to uncover the secrets of spinal abnormalities and to find the best methods and tools for their early and secondary prevention. A unified set of methods for treatment of abnormal spinal curvatures in its conservative, orthopedic or surgical modalities is still nonexistent at the world scale. Many authors admit that asymmetrical load, weakness and easy fatigue of the neuromuscular system are the reason for the formation of flawed posture, which can serve as an unlocking mechanism for structural scoliosis [5,6]. Others consider heredity to be an etiological factor [8,9]. According to them, the predisposition to the disease is congenital, but the deformations appear as a result of excessive load. Good prevention of abnormal spinal curvatures requires a whole set of measures, applied in both home and school environments [3]. One of the main tasks of adapted physical activity and sports (APAS) is achieving a more intense regime of children and adolescents with special needs in order to improve their functional and physical status. According to W. Bunnel (1979), an indication for conservative treatment is a deformity up to 20˚ [4]. A lot of authors [7,2] communicate their experience in applying regulated swimming in the complex therapy of children with scoliosis and flawed posture (kyphosis). The purpose of the study is to develop and test a specialized motor program for treatment of spine deformations in the frontal plane, which will be applied in the work with 15-years-old pupils beyond school hours.

Methods

The study sample consisted of sixteen 15-years-old pupils having C-shape thoracal scoliosis, evenly distributed according to gender (TG – test group). The control group (CG) included 12 pupils (6 girls and 6 boys), who took part only in physical education and sports classes 3 times a week at Secondary School. The monitoring included observation, body height in erect position (cm), length of lower extremities (cm), Hirtz II (difference in the rib cage circumference at the level of the mamilla at maximal inspiration and expiration in cm), Ott test for mobility of the thoracic spine in cm, body weight (kg), tests for dynamic strength endurance of back, abdominal, and pelvic muscles until failure [1], ischiocrural muscles tone and shortening (score) and X-rays examination to determine the top of the deformity curve and the degree of back deformation – Cobb method. Pupils in the both groups took classes of physical education and sports at school 3 times a week. For experimental group APAS program completed with a selective therapeutic massage of the back, gluteal and abdominal muscles, correction exercise program (active exercises from different initial positions; stretching and postisometric relaxation for shortened muscles; exercises using specialized gymnastic tools and equipment; isometric exercises; breathing and relaxation exercises – Table 1) – three times per week and swimiing – two times per week. Results The final study of Hirtz II (difference in chest circumference at max. inspiration and expiration in cm) shows an average increase 1,46 cm for control group and of 1,95 cm for test group.


63

Table 1. Procedure structure

Parts Content Timing Instructions Tasks Intro-

ductory part

Selective therapeutic massage of the back, pelvic and abdominal regions,

combined with manual mobilisation of the thoracic segment.

10 – 15

min

For parts with high muscle tone, the massage is relaxing and for regions with low muscle tone -

stimulating.

To regulate the muscle tone and to prepare the body for

the upcoming effort.

Main part

Exercises for the vertebral column and adjacent joints – with, without specialized

equipment and on such equipment; isometric exercises; PIR and stretching of

the shortened muscles; general strengthening exercises, breathing

and relaxation exercises.

35-40 min

The exercises are performed from different initial positions

(mainly supine, knees bent, feet placed on the floor; kneeling;

sitting, etc.). They are performed at maximum range of motion and

are combined with breathing.

To improve blood circulation, trophism and mobility of the

vertebral column in its thoracic section. Relaxing static and

strengthening dynamic muscles, increasing vital

capacity.

Conclu-ding part

Exercises for correct body position, good

walking posture and autorelaxation.

5 - 6 min

Exercises are performed slowly. Participants are advised to make pauses and to stay in horizontal

position after the procedure.

Recovery and calming children emotionally.

The better results of the test group show that APAS practice three times a week improves the functional capacity of chest muscles, which also has favorable influence on lungs volume. The mobility of the thoracic part of the vertebral column is indicative of the functional state of the spine. The increase for this indicator is 0,93 cm for the test group and 0,50 cm for the others. APAS practice improves spine mobility to a greater extent than the routine workload in physical education classes. Data from this test show the advantages of regular and targeted correction exercieses. The balance between their tone of static and dynamic muscles ensures good stabilization of the pelvis, providing the support for the spine and being a precondition of good body position. The test positions for measurement of dynamic power endurance are also initial positions in the performance of exercises improving the tone of the respective muscle group. This test measures the capacity of performing a certain number of repetitions of movements done by different muscles. The movements are performed at a rate of 1 second for the movement and 1 second – return to initial position. The results for dynamic power endurance of abdominal, back, pelvic and hip muscles are presented in Table 2. The better power endurance of abdominal muscles of pupils in the test group contributes to a higher degree to decreasing the dorsal rotation of pelvis. This results in lower hypertone of muscles in the lumbar spine and better body position of pupils. The application of manual soft-tissue mobilisation techniques in combination with isometric and general exercises improve dynamic power endurance to a greater extent than exercises during physical education classes. The progress for the test group is 13,79 repetitions more at the end of the monitored period, and for the children of the same age in the control group – an increase by 10,71 repeated movements. Stronger back and abdominal muscles improve the static position of the vertebral column, regulate the load during motion and rest, and contribute to the decrease of deformations in the frontal plane.

Testing pelvic and hip muscles uncovered the same trend as for abdominal and back muscles. The initial tests exhibit similar values for both groups. On both the homolateral and the contralateral side of the convexity, the increase is lower in the control group. On the deformation side, the difference is 4,36 repetitions in favor of the test group, and on the opposite side – 10,52 repetitions more. Discussion The control group started with an average deformation of 13,17° in the frontal plane, while test group had 13,51° scoliosis. After the performed APAS practice in the test group, the deformation was reduced by 8,87° reaching the value of 4,64°. There is also a reduction in scoliosis for the control group, but it is 3,50° and the reached value is 9,67°. Participation in physical education classes results in overcoming hypodynamy and increases the functional capacities of pupils, influencing favourably the degree of spine deformation. The better results of the test group (the difference in spine deformation reduction between the two groups is 5,03° in favour of test group) prove the necessity of involving pupils with spine deformations in specialized APAS session out of school. Conclusion The APAS program resulted in more significant growth in the values of the main anthropometric indicators characterizing physical development as body height and weight. The improvement of the locomotor system function and the restored vertebrae joint play increase the possibilities for correction of the spine deformation, which was higher by 5,03° on average for the test group during the 7-months period monitored by us. The application of static and pelvic/back stabilization exercises increases the strength of the weakened muscles and their dynamic power endurance. The correct performance of exercises, the improved muscle balance and the education of patients for proper body position resulted in corrective action on the static and dynamic position of the body.


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References Beka, A., Dermitzaki, I., Christodoulou, A., Kapetanos, G., Markovitis, M., & Pournaras, J. (2006). Children

and adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis: emotional reactions, coping mechanisms, and self-esteem. J. Psychological Reports, 98(2), 477-485.

Bennett, B., Bradford, C., Mark, F., & Kevin, P. (2004). Seated Postural Control in Adolescents With Idiopathic Scoliosis. Spine, 29(20), 449-454.

Bunnel, W. (1979). Treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Orthop. Clin North Am. 813-827. Hermus, J., & Lodewijk, R., & Andr, O. (2007). Non-genetic expression of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a

case report and review of the literature. European spine journal, 16(3) 338-341. Karski, T. (2004). Biomechanical factors in the etiology of idiopathic scoliosis: two etiopathological groups of

spinal deformities. Ortopedia, traumatologia, rehabilitacja, 6(6), 800-808. Kraydjikova, L. (2011). Manual methods of mobilization for musculoskeletal dysfunction in the spine. Štip: Аvangard Prima.

Magnusson, R., & Willner, S. (1972). Scoliosis in children and school children-a preliminary report. Lakartidningen, 69, 2044-2048.

Miller, М., & Nancy, H. (2001). Characterization of Idiopathic Scoliosis in a Clinically Well-Defined. Clinical orthopaedics and related research, 349-357.

van Rhijn, L., Jansen, E., Plasmans, C., & Veraart, B. (2001). Changing curve pattern in infantile idiopathic scoliosis family report with a follow-up of 15 years. Spine, 26(16), 373-376.

ADAPTIVNE TJELESNE AKTIVNOSTI I SPORT ZA 15-GODIŠNJIH STUDENATA S TORAKALNOM DEFORMACIJOM

Sažetak U uvjetima suvremenog života, problemi poboljšanja zdravlja učenika pomoću tjelesnog odgoja su izuzetno važni.Niska motoričke aktivnosti, zajedno sa lošim položajem tijela i hod su među najvažnijim etiološkim čimbenicima za pojavu abnormalnih zakrivljenosti kralježnice. U tom smislu, svrha ovog istraživanja je razviti i testirati specijalizirani motorički program za liječenje kralježnice deformacija u prednjoj oblasti, koji će se primjenjivati u radu s 15-godišnjeg učenika izvan školskih sati.Apas program rezultirao je značajnijim rastom vrijednosti glavnih morfoloških pokazatelja koji karakteriziraju fizički razvoj kao visina i težina tijela.Točna izvedba vježbi, poboljšana ravnoteža mišića i obrazovanje pacijenata za pravilan položaj tijela rezultiralo je korektivnim akcijama na statičke i dinamičke položaje tijela. Ključne riječi: djeca, torakalne deformacije, tjelesna aktivnost

Received: May 15, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Lenče Nikolovska, PhD Faculty of Medical Science University “Goce Delchev” 2000 Štip, Krste Misirkov 10, Macedonia Tel.: +389 32 550 093 E-mail: [email protected]

Pavlović, R. et al.: Differences in morphological status and result success of... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 65‐71

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DIFFERENCES IN MORPHOLOGICAL STATUS AND RESULT SUCCESS OF SHOT-PUT BETWEEN STUDENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FR0M DIFFERENT

BACKGROUNDS

Ratko Pavlović¹, Kemal Idrizović², Aleksandar Raković³, Daniel Stanković³, Aleksandar Simeonov4 and Mensur Vrcić5

¹ Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ² Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Niksic, Montenegro

³ Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Nis, Serbia 4 Faculty Physical Education, Sport and Health, University in Skopje, Macedonia

5 Faculty Physical Education and Sport, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina


Abstract Very common research in physical culture aim to discover some new facts that would be a realistic basis to confirm or reject some of the previous laws. Depending on current problem will depend the direction and action of research. In track and field throwing events are manifested motor skills that are usually dominant in their structure of technical performance, and from which participation depends the result of a particular discipline, and as such are often the subject of scientific research. Sometimes it's influence, relations and often differences within a particular discipline within the same or different populations. The results are all the more interesting for science if we take into account a transverse cross-section of the population in order to examine possible differences of specific motor skills, morphological dimension, specific disciplines, etc. It may be a cross-section by gender, by result, and so on. This research analyzes the space of specific motor abilities and anthropometric parameters of the population of students of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports. The main objective of this study was to determine possible differences in the result success of ball throwing as one of the four throwing events, as well as differences in some anthropometric characteristics of students. The survey was conducted on a population of 265 students from several universities (East Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Nikšić, Niš, Skopje). In analyzing the data, by the module T-test the results obtained statistically significantly explain the differences the result success of shot put in 90% of cases of the level of significance (p <0.001) and a 40% difference in the morphological status (Body Height, Body Mass, p <0.01, p <0.05). Key words: differences, throwing disciplines, morphological status, students Introduction

Management of complex system, such as human, in the training process, is not possible without the knowledge of his anthropological characteristics for which we can assume a high prediction of the formation of competitive athletics results (Tončev et al., 1996). For that reason, and for the application of those methods and forms of work which contribute to increasing the efficiency of training process according to the individual characteristics of training practice, increasingly are present the studies of different age groups or differences in the scope of different generations of the same population. What is important is that the factors of success in athletics specify hierarchically, which means that in the sequence at the beginning, are the most important factors or dimensions and in the end less important (Tončev, 2001). In regard to this, in front of the researchers who work in athletics is set the task that by the scientific methods allocate hypothetical factors (skills and abilities) that determine promising athlete and participation of each factor in achieving high scores in a particular athletic discipline. Athletics as a sport cyclic and acyclic type is a broad field of manifestation of motor skills, which are characterized by motor movements and can be successfully applied in the

course of the educational process or through other forms of exercise, by means of which there is a significant impact on raising the general mental and physical abilities of the individual. Also, if you take into account its utilitarianism in the growth and development of the young organism, when directed through the process and accurately dosed exercise acts on the subject of modification in a positive direction, gives a true picture of the relevance of athletics in the sports hierarchy. Usually it is a carefully selected, planned and programmed process of exercise that can allow any positive transformation, regardless of the age of the respondents. Athletic disciplines through an ongoing process of training and development have a direct impact on the development of basic motor skills exhibiting a reversible process on the relation motor ability-discipline- athlete (Pavlović, 2010). From another point of view we have a situation where from the participation and influence of motor abilities depend the results of athletic disciplines. For these reasons, are important the researches that seek to identify and examine the impact and relationship of athletic discipline of specific population.


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Often they are relations in specific athletic disciplines (Milanović, 1980; Stojiljković et al., 2003; Markota et al. 2009), and there are also some studies which analyze the chronological age of participants and its impact on results performance in athletic events (Mihajlović, 1996; Tončev and Mihajlović, 1999, Maleš et al., 2003; Bresauler et al. 2006; Stanković et al. 2010). Similarly to this also in earlier athletic practices have been significant researchings (Milanović, 1976), and more recently these researches have been intensified examining the relationship of motor skills with the result success in the athletic events (Schneider, 1994; Stojanović and Radić, 2002; Pavlović, 2005; Stojiljković and al. 2006; Mihajlović and Tončev, 2008; Žuvela et al., 2009; Bošnjak and sar. 2009). Some researchers (Bresauler, Delija and Mesarić, 2006) are by studying the differences in athletic events of the same population and chronological age performed significant findings that support the views about the existence of generational differences among the same population in result performance of athletic events. Very often as a problem of research are defined the differences in morphological and motor dimensions of different populations of the same age. Interests in these studies are based on knowledge of the existence of possible differences if certain groups are engaged in a particular form of physical activity within the same sport, discipline when it comes to the implementation of the training process and the effects of this process on possible modifications of the subject. Also a very important role is played by certain activities which through a training transfer reflect and enable successful perception of some new activities in the training process (Idrizović, Nićin, Pavlović and Raković, 2013). It is the athletic disciplines which represent one field in which can be applied positive transfer of training, and the effects of exercises on results success of a specified discipline. On the basis of this interpretation this investigation has been conducted. Included is the population of the same age of the respondents, to which the physical activity is primary. Namely, it is about the students of physical education and sport, which in the scope of athletics trained and implemented activities of shot put, in order to achieve a result norm. It is important to note that some of the curriculum at the faculty students achieve through the practical teaching of athletics in which are represented the athletic throwing disciplines. Also there have been no similar studies based on which to perform a specific comparison of the results. Given this fact, the research problem has been defined. The problem of research present the possible differences in the result success score of shot put among students of the Faculty of Physical Education, East Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Nikšić, Niš and Skopje and their morphological status. The study was conducted with the aim of analyzing and determining the possible differences between students.

Methods The sample The population from which the sample of the entities was drawn accounted for male students, the third year of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports. The sample included students from East Sarajevo (n=42), Sarajevo (n=60), Nikšić (n=47), Niš (n=50) and Skopje (n=66), for a total of 265 students. All of them at the faculty had practical examination of athletic throwing in 2010/11. On the basis of the results relevant information have been obtained. A sample of measuring instruments A sample of measuring instruments included only one throwing discipline: shot put. Also, as indicators of the morphological status of students were measured: 1) Body Height, 2) Body Weight. At the time of testing, all subjects were healthy without any injury that could adversely affect the final result of the measurement. In order to obtain relevant results based on which we will get answers, basic statistical parameters were applied, and in terms of determining the differences the analysis by using the t-test for large independent samples have been applied. Results and discussion Table 1. Descriptive statistics dependent variables Shot Put (cm) The Sample Mean Min Max Rang SD Skew Kurt CV %E Sarajevo (n=42) 950 780 1320 540 2,34 1,11 1,75 24,63Sarajevo (n=60) 857 663 1225 562 11,29 ,672 1,78 12,98Nikšić (n=47) 885 720 1180 460 ,84 1,01 3,04 9,49Niš (n=50) 840 700 1020 320 ,87 ,219 ,75 10,39Skoplje (n=66) 1073 864 1410 546 1,55 ,10 -,78 14,44Total (N=265) 921 745 1231 486 3,38 ,62 1,62 14,39

Mean-the arithmetic mean, Min-minimum results; Max-maximum result; Range-range results; Std.Dev-standard deviation, Skew-

Skewnes, Kurt-kurtosis; CV%- Table 1. gives the basic statistical parameters of results in the shot put. Mean values range from a minimum of 840cm to subsample from Nis to the maximum 1073cm for subsample from Skopje. The difference between these two faculties of 233cm is the largest in the analyzed sample of all students. Analyzing the homogeneity of the results of shot put, it can be concluded that students from East Sarajevo were the least homogeneous (CV = 24.63%). The average score is (Mean = 950cm) with minimum 780cm and maximum 1320cm. The highest homogeneity of results was observed in students from Nikšić (CV% = 9.49%), with an average score of 885cm and a range of 460cm. Minimum score subsample of students was 720cm and the maximum 1180cm. Of the total sample, students from Skopje have achieved the highest minimum score (Min = 864cm) and the highest maximum score (Max=1410cm) with a range of 546cm and (CV = 14.44%). In contrast, students from Niš recorded the lowest mean score (Mean = 840cm) and the minimum value of the maximum result (Max = 1020cm).


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Although this is about, to a large extent, the selected sample, that is about the students of physical education and sport from different faculties, different geographical regions, differences in result success of shot put are evident, both within the same and between different subsamples. The range of results for the entire sample, on average, is about 570cm.

Table 2 Differences between students (E.Sarajevo –

Sarajevo)

Mean (cm) SD t-value p-levelBody

Height E.Sarajevo 184 6,22 2,31 0,034*Sarajevo 181,18 6,75

Body Mass

E.Sarajevo 81 9,08 2,78 0,080Sarajevo 77,76 9,13 * Sig. (p <0,05)

Table 3 Differences between students (E. Sarajevo-

Nikšić)


Height E.Sarajevo 184 6,22 0,12 0,415Nikšić 183 5,31

Body Mass

E.Sarajevo 81 9,08 -0,42 0,584Nikšić 82 8,11

Table 4 Differences between students (E. Sarajevo-Niš)


Height E.Sarajevo 184 6,22 1,11 0,923Niš 183,87 6,57

Body Mass

E.Sarajevo 81 9,08 1,96 0,458Niš 79,72 7,42

Table 5 Differences between students (E. Sarajevo –Skoplje)

Mean (cm) SD t-value p-level

Body Height

E.Sarajevo 184 6,22 2,12 0,010*Skoplje 180,58 6,90 Body Mass

E.Sarajevo 81 9,08 2,91 0,030*Skoplje 77 9,33 * Sig. (p <0,05)

Table 6 Differences between students (Sarajevo- Nikšić)


Body Height

Sarajevo 181,18 6,75 -2,39 0,132Nikšić 183 5,31 Body Mass

Sarajevo 77,76 9,13 -3,16 0,013*Nikšić 82 8,11 * Sig. (p <0,05)

Table 7 Differences between students ( Sarajevo–Niš)


Body Height

Sarajevo 181,18 6,75 -2,24 0,037*Niš 183,87 6,57 Body Mass

Sarajevo 77,76 9,13 -2,12 0,225Niš 79,72 7,42 *Sig. (p<0.05)

In tables 2-11 are analyzed differences in anthropometric parameters (Body Height, Body Weight) among students. T-Test results have shown differences in the anthropometric indices, but they were in most cases not statistically significant. Statistically significant differences in Body Height were recorded between students of East Sarajevo Sarajevo (t=2.31*), East Sarajevo-Skopje (t=2.12*), Sarajevo-Niš (t=-2.24*), Nikšić-Skopje (t=2.38*) and Niš-Skopje (t=3.21).

Table 8 Differences between students (Sarajevo– Skoplje)


Body Height

Sarajevo 181,18 6,75 0,35 0,623 Skoplje 180,58 6,90 Body Mass

Sarajevo 77,76 9,13 0,18 0,645 Skoplje 77 9,33

Table 9 Differences between students (Nikšić– Niš)


HeightNikšić 183 5,31 -2,33 0,476Niš 183,87 6,57

Body Mass

Nikšić 82 8,11 2,36 0,151Niš 79,72 7,42

Table 10 Differences between students (Nikšić–Skoplje)


HeightNikšić 183 5,31 2,38 0,046*Skoplje 180,58 6,90

Body Mass

Nikšić 82 8,11 3,01 0,003**Skoplje 77 9,33 * Sig. (p <0,05); ** Sig. (p <0,01)

Table 11 Differences between students (Niš–Skoplje)


BodyHeight

Niš 183,87 6,57 3,21 0,010*Skoplje 180,58 6,90 BodyMass

Niš 79,72 7,42 2,91 0,092 Skoplje 77 9,33 * Sig. (p <0,05

Quantitatively it is 50% statistically significant differences. Differences of students were recorded also in Body Mass between students of East Sarajevo-Skopje (t=2.91*), Sarajevo-Nikšić (t=-3.16*) and Nikšić-Skopje (t=3.01**) which is quantitatively 30%. Generally speaking, the students of East Sarajevo, on average, are the tallest 184cm with an average body weight of 81kg, and as the lowest were students from Skopje 180.58 cm with a mass of 77 kg (Figure 1). Distribution of mean values of shot put (Shot Put) showed the dominance of students from Skopje with the result (1073cm), then East Sarajevo (950cm), Niksic (885cm) and Sarajevo (857cm). As the weakest in this throwing discipline were students from Nis, with an average score of 840cm. (Figure 2). By the analysis of mean differences in the result performance of shot put have been achieved statistically significant differences at the level (p <0.001) in 90% of cases. The results differences in shot put have not been confirmed only among students of Sarajevo and Niksic (Table 12). Shot put is one of the derived forms of movement, a dominant influence on the result performance have certain morphological dimensions, primarily body weight, voluminosity of the body as well as longitudinality of skeleton. Also in shot put certain parameters, ie. motor skills achieve significant influence on the result success in the shot, above all, the strength and speed (Bale, 1980). More authors (Ropret 1969; Schpenke, 1973 by Milanović, 1976, 1979; Čalija, 1977; Milanović 1982; Zagorac et al. 1988; Idrizović 1991; Stojanović and Radić, 2003) have studied the impact of the motor and morphological parameters on the result performance of shot put in different populations.


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Table 12 Differences in the shot put between students (T-test)

SH

OT

PU

T (c

m)

Mean SD t-value p-level East Sarajevo 950 2,34 3,06 0,000**Sarajevo 857 111,29 East Sarajevo 950 2,34 2,94 0,000**Nikšić 885 0,84 East Sarajevo 950 2,34 3,33 0,000**Niš 840 ,87 East Sarajevo 950 2,34 -4,02

0,000**

Skoplje 1073 1,55 Sarajevo 857 11,29 -1,61 0,087

Nikšić 885 0,84 Sarajevo 857 11,29 1,29 0,000**Niš 840 ,87 Sarajevo 857 11,29 -5,23 0,000**Skoplje 1073 1,55 Nikšić 885 0,84 2,11 0,000**Niš 840 ,87 Nikšić 885 0,84 -4,95 0,000**Skoplje 1073 1,55 Niš 840 ,87 -3,93 0,000**Skoplje 1073 1,55

Mean-arithmetic mean, SD-standard deviation; t-value-test; p-

level of significance **Sig. (p<0,001)

Figure 1. Mean values of anthropometric

parameters of students

Some authors have researched the influence of the mentioned dimensions on the student population. They obtained the results in favor of the direct impact of the morphological status (Vrcić, 2010) and primarily strength as motor skill (Pavlović, Branković and Živković, 2012). The structure of other dynamic parameters constitute the size of the muscle forces the pitcher develops and manifests in the course of performing motor activity and the size of the achieved forces that occur during the throw, and they are a result of the inertia of the mass, and reactive action of the base and the momentum (Tončev, 2000; Jovović, 2006). Based on the presented results of this study can be confirmed that the actual difference in the shot put among students which are an indication of the heterogeneity of the student population of physical education and sport. By analyzing the indicators, body height and body mass it can be seen less heterogeneity of the results of students. The range of body height is about 4cm, from the minimum 180.68 cm for subsample of students of Sarajevo and the 184cm for subsample of East Sarajevo.

Figure 2. Mean values of the results in shot put

Also a range in body mass on average is about 5kg, 77kg for the subsample of Skopje and the 82kg for subsample of students from Niksic. In general it can be concluded that the average height of the population of students of Physical Education and Sport is 182,19 cm, Body Mass 79.44 kg. Comparing these values of the morphological status with predispositions of top throwers, it can be concluded that the students are not so destined for throwing disciplines. This can be seen if we analyze the top shot throwers, their relationship of height and body mass. They are of great body height and correspondingly of large amount of body weight. They possess absolute power that manifests itself during ejection of device when the greater mass of thrower acts on less weigh of the ball (Idrizović, 2011; Pavlovic, 2010). By the eight and body weight lead shot put throwers , while for the hammer throwers can be said that they are of less body height, and larger body mass. It was observed that body weight is greater in those throwers in which the throwing device is of larger weight and it is positively correlated with the result success (Stefanović, 1992). Limbs are in most pitchers long and with strong muscles. Athletic throwing belong to the group of ballistic motion in which in the space are catapulted throwing athletic equipment in order to achieve the as much as possible long-range shots. Throws are initiated by explosive activation of muscle agonists (Stojanović and Radić, 2003), followed by their relaxation period and end with the period of deceleration due to the action of the antagonist muscles or passive stretching of the connective tissue. Most researchers (Zagorac, 1988; Tončev 1988; Idrizović, 1991) engaged in research in the area of morphological characteristics agree that pitchers have over other athletes a greater amount of muscle mass, and that by the Sheldon classification they are closest to mesomorphic type. Weight ranges from 110-120 kg for men, and 85-95 kg for females. The average height is between 187-194 cm in males and in females 178-183 cm. In the javelin throw discipline in addition to quantities of subcutaneous adipose tissue, which limits the success, as significant predictors are not occurring variables in morphological space (Milanović 1982, Pavlović, 2010).


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Significant impact on the variability of athletics throws have some indicators of factors of balance, which is determined by the characteristic onesupportive positions in which is important absolute equilibrium composition of the pitcher-device. In the shot put is about complex rotational movement around the vertical axis and overtaking of device in the horizontal plane and much more is important body weight with which shot putter acts on the lower weight of the ball and height of ejection from which the ball is ejected as opposed to, for example, in hammer throw. In hammer, the hammer height ejection is not as crucial (altitude ejections Y.Sedykha was 166cm), as much as speed of turn that seeks to convey the greater effect of centrifugal force which will manifest itself in hammer ejection. Also on result success in the shot put in addition to morphological characteristics (Kyriazis, Terzis, Karampatsos, et al. 2010) takes strength, with all its forms of manifestation as well as speed of preforming technique (Bale, 1980; Kyriazis et al., 2009). In some studies as an important factor of success in the shot put is the level of activation of certain muscle groups, primarily m.quadriceps vastus lateralis, m.gastrocnemius internus, m.pectoralis major and triceps brachii (Tesch and Karlsson, 1985; Terzis, Karampatsos, & Georgiadis, 2007), also a casting speed, angular displacement and momentum during ejection (Harasin, Milanović and Čoh, 2010 ). Conclusion The study analyzed the space of specific motor abilities and anthropometric parameters of the population of students of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports. The main objective of this study was to determine possible differences in

result success in shot put as one of the four throwing events, as well as differences in height and body mass of students. The survey was conducted on a population of 265 students from five universities (East Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Niksic, Niš, Skopje). In analyzing the data, using the T-test, results are obtained that significantly explain differences in the result success of shot put in 90% of cases on the level of significance (p<0.001) and 40% of the differences in anthropometric parameters (p<0.01; p<0,05). The results confirmed significant heterogeneity when it comes to performance results in the shot put. Statistically significant differences were not achieved only among a sample of students of Sarajevo and Niksic (p<0.087). In the space of anthropometric characteristics (AVIS) differences were observed between students of East Sarajevo Sarajevo (p<0.034*), East Sarajevo-Skopje (p<0.010 *), Sarajevo-Niš (p<0.037 *), Niksic-Skopje (p<0,046*), Niš-Skopje (p<0.010*), which amounts to 50% of statistically significant differences. In the space of body mass (AMAS) differences were confirmed in 30% of cases between students Sarajevo-Niksic (p<0.013*), East Sarajevo-Skopje (p<0.030*), Niksic-Skopje (p<0.003**). Although it is the case of students of different regions (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Macedonia), based on the results of the morphological space it can be concluded that the student population of the four faculties is still somewhat homogeneous. This homogeneity is probably a consequence of similar morphological and motor requirements placed on students during their studies, and also certain selection that takes place in the entrance exam. Also the process of conducting practical classes in faculty enables, significantly, some positive transformation of subjects.

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RAZLIKE U MORFOLOŠKOM STATUSU I REZULTATU USPJEHA BACANJA KUGLE MEĐU STUDENTIMA TJELESNOG ODGOJA I SPORTA

IZ RAZLIČITIH SREDINA

Sažetak Vrlo često istraživanja u fizičkoj kulturi ciljaju otkrivanje nekih novih činjenica koje bi bile realne osnove da se potvrdi ili odbaci neke od prijašnjih zakona. Ovisno o trenutnom problemu ovisit će smjer i djelovanje istraživanja. U atletskim bacanjima događaje manifestiraju motoričke sposobnosti koje su obično dominantne u strukturi tehničke izvedbe, a o čijem sudjelovanju ovisi ishod određene discipline, te kao takve su često predmet znanstvenog istraživanja. Ponekad je to utjecaj, odnosi i često razlike unutar određene discipline unutar iste ili različitih populacija. Rezultati su zanimljiviji za znanost, ako uzmemo u obzir poprečni presjek stanovništva kako bi se ispitalo moguće razlike pojedinih motoričkih sposobnosti, morfoloških dimenzija, posebnih disciplina, itd, pa to može biti presjek po spolu po rezultatu, i td. Ovo istraživanje analizira prostor specifičnih motoričkih sposobnosti i morfoloških parametara populacije studenata Fakulteta za fizičku kulturu i šport. Glavni cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrditi postoje li razlike u uspješnosti rezultata bacanja kugle, kao jednog od četiri atletska bacačka događaja, kao i razlike u nekim antropometrijskim karakteristikama studenata. Istraživanje je provedeno na populaciji od 265 učenika iz više sveučilišta (Istočno Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Nikšić, Niš, Skopje). U analizi podataka, od modula T-testa dobiveni rezultati statistički značajno objašnjavaju razlike uspjeha rezultata bacanju kugle u 90% slučajeva na razini značajnosti (p <0,001) i 40% razlika u morfološkom statusu (tijelesna visina, Body Mass, p <0,01, p <0,05). Ključne riječi: razlike, bacanje discipline, morfološki status, studenti

Received: August 11, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc. Prof. Ratko Pavlovic, PhD Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of East Sarajevo Serbian Republic-Bosnia and Herzegovina Phone: +387 65 934 131 E-mail: [email protected]

Radulović, N. et al.: The influence of voluminosity and skin folds on functional... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 72‐75

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THE INFLUENCE OF VOLUMINOSITY AND SKIN FOLDS ON FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES OF FIFTH GRADE PUPILS

Nikola Radulović¹, Ilona Mihajlović¹ and Ratko Pavlović²

¹ Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia

² Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of East Sarajevo, B&H


Abstract The survey was conducted on a sample of 30 male subjects aged 11-12 years who attend the Elementary School "Prva vojvođanska brigada" in Novi Sad. The aim of this study was to analyze the existence of the influence of the anthropometric characteristics on the manifestation of the aerobic abilities of boys of elementary school age. It has been conducted the measuring of anthropometric characteristics (weight, scope of the abdomen, scope of upper arm, skin fold of upper arm, skin fold of abdomen) and functional ability by modified Harvard step test according to Bergman. By applying regression analysis it has been determined that the system of predictor variables is not significant in relation to the criterion of P index for assessment of functional ability, and that none of the predictor variable has no statistically significant effect on the expression of functional ability of boys of the mentioned age, but all predictor variables were in negatively significant relation with the same criteria. Key words: aerobic ability, Harvard step test, relations, voluminosity Introduction

Functional capabilities indicate the efficiency of energy processes in the body, and are related to the development of aerobic and anaerobic functional mechanisms. They have been in the so far research investigated with different methods and on the different populations. However, in the area of functional ability still there is no valid theoretical model about the latent structure of these capabilities because they are very complex and complicated (Coen, Schwary, Urhausen, & Kindermann, 1991). Obesity during childhood and physical inactivity are dramatically increased worldwide in recent years. Children of low socioeconomic status are particularly at risk. In general, the overall effectiveness of the school curriculum in the outcomes of children's health state is negative, that is it is worrying. In obese children, children with high levels of subcutaneous fat, aerobic capacity (maximal oxygen uptake) is significantly lower than in children of normal nutritional status (Maciejczyk, Szymura, Cempla, & Gradek, 2012). Physical activities in which dominates aerobic component maintain energy balance in the body, thus preventing the occurrence of excess weight (Hill, & Wyatt, 2005). Functional skills are associated with the ability of the system to transport oxygen (aerobic capacity) and with the efficiency of the anaerobic energy mechanisms that enable high-intensity athletic activity and when oxygen consumption is less than the need for oxygen, so the difference of the energy required is taken from glycolytic or phosphagene compounds (Milanović, 1997). Hill & Wyatt (2005) suggest that physical activities in which dominates aerobic component serve to reduce excess body weight and are considered the most natural way to waste energy. From these statements it appears that higher values of skin folds have negative correlation with aerobic components.

By its actions physical activity affects the reduction of subcutaneous adipose tissue and to speed up the metabolism and also significantly affects the hormonal composition which again with its action prevents excess weight. Condition of subcutaneous fat is negatively correlated with the manifestation of greater aerobic ability in all ages (Hackney, 2006 by Cheng & Ng, 2007). Medved et al (1989), Petric and Novak (2007) in their research suggest on significantly greater aerobic capacity of students from rural areas and conclude that to this certainly partly contribute the favorable weather conditions and a longer stay in the outdoors, and much more use of outdoor sports fields by students of urban areas. These data show that the way of life and place of residence, may have an impact on the manifestation of the aerobic component of children. The study Jabbour, Lambert, O'Loughlin, et al. (2012) demonstrated that there was no statistically significant correlation between maximal oxygen consumption and individual anthropometric dimensions in children aged 8-10 years. These results point out that pre pubertal children are equally effective, because they are able to perform physical work such as cycling using the same amount of energy, regardless of their weight status. Čule, Petric and Petkovic (2013) suggest that the effect of body weight on aerobic endurance is negative, which confirms the known fact that increased body weight is an important limiting factor for the overall functional abilities of students in higher grades of primary school. Guided by previous studies, conflicting results, both domestic and foreign authors, this study aims to investigate the influence of anthropometric characteristics on the aerobic capacity of urban children male gender from Novi Sad.


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The problem of research was the establishment of relations of anthropometric characteristics and aerobic abilities of students in fifth grade, while the subject of the research were anthropometric characteristics (body height, body weight, the abdomen volume, the upper arm volume, upper arm skinfold, abdominal skinfold) and aerobic ability. The aim of the study was to analyze the existence of possible influence of the anthropometric characteristics on the manifestation of the aerobic abilities of boys aged 11-12 years. Set up research hypothesis was: H1- relations of anthropometric dimensions and aerobic ability among students aged 11-12 years, from Novi Sad, will be positive and statistically significant. Methods

The sample of respondents consisted of 30 students, boys from the Elementary School "Prva vojvođanska brigada" from Novi Sad, aged 11-12 years (± 6 months) who were at the time of research, attending the fifth grades, and were healthy persons without disabilities from families of different social conditions and lifestyle. Of the anthropometric characteristics were selected following variables: 1) Body weight (0,1 kg), 2) Scope of the abdomen (mm), 3) Scope of upper arm (mm), 4) Skin fold of upper arm (0,1mm), 5) Skin fold of abdomen (0,1 mm). Anthropometric characteristics were a system of predictor variables in the study. Measurement of anthropometric characteristics was conducted with the help of anthropometric instruments: medical decimal scale that provides accurate measurement of results of 100 g, in which there is the possibility of regulating the pointer to the zero position. Scale was calibrated after measured fifteen to twenty participants. Portable scale used for field conditions measures with an accuracy of 500 g, because the mechanism of balance is directly under the influence of atmospheric factors and with heavy use over 5000 measurements is completely excluded from use; Measuring the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue was done by the instrument calipers. The most suitable type of caliper is John Bull with a measuring range from 0 to 40 mm (minute hand describes two laps around the scale calibrated from 0 to 20 mm). Prior to the measurement it was necessary to check the instrument calibration. Pressure with which grips of the instrument compress the skin and subcutaneous tissue is standard and is 10 g/mm². The reading accuracy: 0.2 mm (interpolated - the accuracy of 0.1 mm). The measurement result is read for about 2 seconds after the grip affected skin folds, in this interval overcomes the elasticity of the tissues, so the readings are closer to the real. The longer hold of grips may require them to move and slide, which would reduce the accuracy of the results. Due to the high variability of the measurement of thickness of a skin fold in the same person, it is necessary to repeat the measurement consecutively at least three times.

As a final result of the measurement is taken the mean value of the measured thickness of a fold; Centimeter tape measures the perimeters of the body. Centimeter tape measured with an accuracy of 0.5 cm. Length of measuring tape was 150 cm, and after 100 measurements was needed to calibrate the tape according to anthropometer because of the possibility of its streching. Favorable effects of influence on functional abilities are reflected in a person's medical, psychological and economic area. There are a number of tests that can assess the level of aerobic endurance (Cooper's test, running at 2400 meters, Harvard step test and its modifications). For the assessment of aerobic ability in this study will be applied the motor test which will be the criterion variable in the study: Bergman modification Harvard step test, on the basis of which will be the index of the functional capabilities I.

The formula for calculating the index

I = test duration in seconds (s) x 100

2 x (P1 + P2 + P3)

where P1, P2, P3 is pulse measured in the recovery,, first after 1.5 min,, the second 2.5 min,, and the third 3.5 min.

One of the most popular modifications of Harvard step test is Bergman, with a step ergometer height of 40 cm. This test is used to examine women of all ages and men younger than 18 years, and given that the sample of respondents will be boys 11-12 years old, it is a logical choice of method for the assessment of aerobic ability. Test and index calculation is performed the same as in the original Harvard step test, only the scale for ranking capabilities changed and ranges from 30 to 40 points for the poor (lack of) and more than 60 points for excellent functional capacity. Total duration of the test is 3 minutes, a rate of climb and descent is 24/min. The test was interrupted earlier because of the subjective problems and objective symptoms. In mathematical statistical analysis was first realized calculating of descriptive statistics of anthropometric and motor variables: arithmetic mean (Mean), standard deviation (SD), minimum (Min) and maximum value of the measurement (Max), skewness - inclination (Skew.) and kurtosis - elongation (Kurt) of distribution. In order to determine the relationship between predictor and criterion variables the regression analysis has been used. Results Values of descriptive statistics in Table 1 indicate at increased variability of results among a given sample of respondents. Remarkable variability is caused by individual characteristics in morphological terms in boys of pubertal age (their body composition), which can be linked to socio-economic factors, environmental influences, cultural opportunities and the genetic heritage of their body.


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Table 1 Descriptive statistics of variables

Variables Mean SD Мin Мax Skew Kurt Body weight

(0,1 kg) 447,23 95,44 325 730 1,01 1,09

Scope of the abdomen (mm) 683,80 96,60 578 992 1,37 2,12

Scope of upper arm (mm) 222,70 29,07 183 283 0,62 -0,55

Skin fold of upper arm (0,1mm) 140,30 69,50 54 318 0,80 -0,19

Skin fold of abdomen (0,1 mm) 114,13 78,98 36 312 1,11 0,09

P index 54,60 7,71 43 78 1,36 2,78

Mean-arithmetic mean of the measurement results; SD-standard

deviation;Min-minimum values of measurement results; Max-maximum values of measured results, Skew (inclination

distribution), Kurt (elongation distribution)

There can be observed large differences between individual subjects in body structure, which is directly reflected in functional ability. Average values of P index (54,60) indicate at good state of aerobic ability of this group of boys from Novi Sad. It should be noted that there are subjects with extremely high values of P Index, indicating a very good functional ability (the maximum recorded value of 78). Values obtained of skewness and kurtosis, from the same table, indicate that the distribution of the all analyzed variables are approximately of normal distribution. Further, in Table 2, is shown the result of regression analysis, the criterion variable of P index in the system of predictor (variables for assessing of voluminosity of skeleton and subcutaneous fat) variables.

Table 2 Regression analysis of the P index

Variables r p Rpart Ppart Beta Pbete Body weight -0,33 0,04 0,02 0,91 0,07 0,91 Scope of the

abdomen -0,41 0,01 -0,18 0,37 -0,59 0,37

Scope of upper arm -0,31 0,05 0,16 0,42 0,49 0,42

Skin fold of upper arm -0,40 0,02 -0,17 0,41 -0,47 0,41

Skin fold of abdomen -0,41 0,01 0,03 0,89 0,08 0,89

R=0,47, R2=0,22, p index=0,29

r-Pearson correlation coefficient; p-level of statistical significance for r; Rpart-coefficient of partial correlation; Ppart-level of statistical

significance for R-part; Beta-regression coefficient; Pbete-the level of significance of the regression coefficient; R-coefficient of

multiple correlation; R²-coefficient of determination; p-significance of the coefficient of multiple correlation

Analyzing the results in Table 2, it can be concluded that there is no statistically significant influence of the system of predictor variables on tested criterion for assessing functional capabilities of P index (P = 0,29), the coefficient of multiple correlation from R = 0,47. Described common variance was only 22%, while the remaining percentage can be attributed to the influence of other characteristics (other anthropometric dimensions, primarily a measure for assessing the

longitudinal dimensionality of the skeleton because of the test, raising the center of gravity of the body up on the bench) and conative ability on manifestation of this functional ability (super ego and ego). None of the predictor variable did not show a statistically significant influence on the criterion (P bete> 0.05). All predictor variables were in the negative statistically significant (p≤0,05) correlation with the criterion, but this significance can be considered as coincidental since the system was not statistically significant, and the fact that a sample of subjects was relatively small from one hand. But on the other hand, also confirm that the connection of greater voluminosity of skeleton and the state of greater subcutaneous fat in the abdomen and on upper arm significantly reduces functional ability of boys aged 11-12 years.

Discussion

In accordance with the results of research, it can be completely ruled out the set up research hypotheses h1. Predictor system consisting of variables for assessing the voluminosity of skeleton and variables for assessing subcutaneous adipose tissue was not significantly influencing on the level of functional abilities of boys in pubertal age. However it has been stated significant correlation of all tested predictor variables with the variable for assessing functional ability (P index), so we can conclude, though, the research sample was relatively small, that greater body mass, with greater the volume of the upper arm and the higher values of subcutaneous fat (balast) tissue reduce aerobic ability in boys. These results confirm the so far results of the research of Čule et al. (2013) who pointed to the fact that increased body weight is an important limiting factor for the overall functional abilities of students in higher grades of primary school. Also confirmed are the results of research by foreign authors Hill & Wyatt (2005), which suggest a negative effect of subcutaneous fat on the functional abilities of elementary school children. Generally observed through average values of P index, it can be stated a good level of functional ability of a given sample of respondents (54,60), which is very close to excellent functional ability obtained by Bergman modified step test. Recommendations for further research of a similar type is the realization of research on a much larger sample of subjects, in order to get more credible information. In the predictor variables should be included other anthropometric characteristics (height, condition of subcutaneous fat on the other's reference points on the body: the forearm, scapula, upper thigh and lower leg). This group of respondents is necessary to monitor over a long period of time in order to, after a certain period, by longitudinal research, stated changes in functional abilities that occur with changes in morphology structure of boys during and after puberty.


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Plotnikoff, R., Mayhew, A., Birkett, N, Loucaides, C., & Fodor, G. (2004). Age, gender, and urban-rural differences in the correlates of physical activity. Preventive Medicine, 39, 1115-1125.

UTJECAJ VOLUMINOZNOSTI I KOŽNIH NABORA NA FUNKCIONALNE SPOSOBNOSTI UČENIKA PETOG RAZREDA

Sažetak Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 30 muških ispitanika u dobi od 11 do 12 godina koji pohađaju OŠ "Prva Vojvođanska brigada" u Novom Sadu. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je analizirati postojanje utjecaja morfoloških karakteristika na manifestaciju aerobnih sposobnosti dječaka osnovne škole. To je provedeno mjerenjem antropometrijskih karakteristika (težina, opseg trbuha, opsega nadlaktice, kožni nabor nadlaktice, kožni nabor trbuha) i funkcionalne sposobnosti po izmijenjenom Harvard testa prema Bergmanu. Primjenom regresijske analize utvrđeno je da sustav prediktorskih varijabli nema značajnu predikciju kriterija P indeksa za procjenu funkcionalne sposobnosti, te da ni jedna od prediktorskih varijabli nema statistički značajan učinak na iskazivanje funkcionalne sposobnosti djece spomenutog uzrasta, ali sve prediktorske varijable su u negativno značajnom odnosu s kriterijem. Ključne riječi: aerobne sposobnosti, Harvard test, odnosi, voluminoznost

Received: September 5, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc. Prof. Ratko Pavlović, PhD Faculty of Physical Education and Sport University of East Sarajevo Serbian Republic-Bosnia and Herzegovina Phone: +387 65 934 131 E-mail: [email protected]

Arazi, H. et al.: Prevalence of supplements use and knowledge regard to doping... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 76‐81

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PREVALENCE OF SUPPLEMENTS USE AND KNOWLEDGE REGARD TO DOPING AND ITS SIDE EFFECTS IN IRANIAN ATHLETE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS PARTICIPATED IN SPORTS

OLYMPIAD COMPETITIONS AT SUMMER 2012

Hamid Arazi, Tahmineh Saeedi, Manije Mansour Sadeghi, Morteza Nastaran and Mojdeh Mohammadi

Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran


Abstract The prevalence of supplements use has increased progressively in athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate Prevalence of supplements use and knowledge regard to doping and its side effects in Iranian athlete university students participated in sports Olympiad competitions at summer 2012.The statistical sample included 253 male athlete university students from different events (wrestling, football, handball, volleyball, basketball and track and field). Researcher- build questionnaire which was developed to determine prevalence of supplement use and knowledge about doping and its side effects were distributed between athletes. The reliability analysis yielded cronbach alpha values of 0.81. The collected data of this study was analyzed by descriptive and deductive (spearman test) in significant level (P≤ 0.05).The results showed that 70.7% of student athletes want to use supplements. The consumption of supplements and drugs by wrestling (82.5%) and track and field (76%) athletes were more than other fields. 45% of athletes estimated that their knowledge of doping and supplement was average, 15.4% without, 13.4% low and 13.3% good knowledge. Also, wrestling (53.3%) and track and field (57.7%) had more knowledge than other fields. With regard to providing drug and supplement, athletes reported that they got them more from pharmacy (29.8%), friends (26.3%) and coach (21.1%).They received the most consultation from their friends (29.8%) and coach (28.1%).Based on the result of this study, it seems that the degree of student knowledge and information was low and they had a strong willingness to consume supplements. Therefore, there must be some instructional programs and courses for student athletes to modify their understanding and knowledge about side effects of doping and supplements. Keywords: doping, knowledge, supplements prevalence, sport competitions Introduction

Today, using external substances along with professional and non-professional growth of sports and significant improvements in athletes' social position but the abuse of such drugs leads sports and athletes toward serious troubles (Halabchi, 2007; Rahnama, 2009). During recent decades, excess attention paid by sport authorities, coaches and athletes to sports and economic events and sport materialism has led to an increase in immoral behaviors expressed by athletes. One of these behaviors is doping and some athletes believe that they can overcome their sport capabilities by using these drugs (Rahnama et al, 2009; Halabchi et al, 2006; Kargarfard et al, 2009). Extensive media advertising on men's ideal body shape lead teenagers and adolescents to think boys with bigger muscles are more attractive. Dissatisfaction with body shape and tendency to change it is a main factor affecting the use of some drugs such as anabolic steroids the main objective of use of which is to enhance muscle mass and improve body shape (Kargarfard et al, 2009). The first users of these drugs were mainly body builders, weight lifters, football players, cyclists and athletes in difficult sports but consumption of such substances gradually prevailed among all sportsmen (Pavlović et al, 2013). Death of Danish cyclist in Rome's Olympics in 1960 (caused by Amphetamine abuse) forced world sport authorities to develop specific drug tests (Juhn et al, 2001& 2003).

However, despite these tests and identifying over 240 forbidden drugs by the WADA (World's Anti-Doping Agency), the last scandal of London Olympics revealed that 12 athletes used the drugs the most well-known of whom was the cyclist Lance Armstrong(champion of Tour de France). The agency reported deprival of 107 athletes during the first half of 2012. The considerable statistics indicate increasing prevalence of and lack of knowledge on these drugs among sportsmen (Pavlovic et al, 2013). Pavlovich et al (2013) examined viewpoints and knowledge of 100 PE students on consumption of supplements and doping drugs. Results showed that 57% of students lack enough knowledge on forbidden drugs and 32% have direct access to such substances (Pavlovic et al, 2013). In another research in France 4% of participants stated that have used forbidden supplements at least once in their life and 21% believed no one can become a popular champion without doping (Laure et al, 2004). Results of the two studies reveal lack of knowledge and tendency toward addiction to these supplements among athletes. Halabchiet al (2009) investigated knowledge of wrestler in Tehran's clubs on doping and its estimation and 35.4% 12.5% of wrestlers estimated supplement abuse prevalence in the league over 50%. Besides, most athletes receive more consultations from their friends (40.8%) and coach (13%) than from physicians (5.2%).


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Doping is increasingly advancing in Iran and this leads to serious problems for country's sports. Some of these problems include positive doping test of 9 national team wrestlers (Dominican's world cup in 2006), 1-year deprival of Iranian Federation of Wrestling as a result of positive cases in Workers and Ringmasters competitions and among athletes of national boxing team (Sydney Olympics, 2000), numerous positive cases among wresters participating in world cups, etc. Unofficial reports indicate that relative abundance of positive doping cases of Iranian athletes is even higher than that of sport-owning countries (Halabchi, 2009; Kargarfard, 2007). With regard to recent studies, athlete university students (whether professional or not) are increasingly using supplements. Besides, wrong beliefs and lack of knowledge among athletes may threaten their health seriously so that they may be followed by dangerous consequences (Halabchi et al, 2007; Kargarfard et al, 2009). In Iran, numerous studies have investigated doping among national and adult athletes. But, considering enhancements in competition levels and increase of doping among university students and transfer of this issue to lower age groups, knowledge on doping and its side effects is less investigated and most studies have focused on a certain sport or some sports in a specific city. Accordingly, the present paper aims to investigate prevalence of supplement use and knowledge of athlete university students participating in national sport Olympiad competitions on doping in football, volleyball, handball, basketball, wrestling and track and field. Moreover, it tries to present strategies to prevent and reduce doping to focus more on health of young athletes. Methodology A total number of 253 male athlete university students (average age: 22.45 ± 2.86 years, average height: 178.18 ± 6.22 cm, average weight: 71.81 ± 10.03 kg) participating in different sports (wrestling, football, basketball, handball, volleyball and track and field) in national sport Olympiad competitions of male students took part in this descriptive – survey research. First, 300 questionnaires were distributed among students of which 253 were responded and returned and, hence, were selected as research sample. In order to measure supplement use and knowledge on doping and its side effects the self-reporting, nameless, realized questionnaire was employed. Validity and reliability of the questionnaire were determined through viewpoints of PE professors and pharmacologists and Cronbach's Alpha of 0.81, respectively. The first section of questionnaire included personal information (age, education, marital status, height and weight). Next questions concerned period of national team membership, the highest rank achieved, rate of prevalence, knowledge on (and approach to) doping, supplements and their side effects.

Furthermore, questions pertaining place of supplement purchase and the way of getting information on them were included in the questionnaire. The last item in the questionnaire had 8 choices. Athletes were asked to prioritize and rank strategies of enhancing information on supplements from 1 to 8. Having questionnaires distributed, researchers provided athletes with a short description of the research and its methodology. Then, they were asked to answer all questions accurately. Data were analyzed in descriptive and deductive levels. In the former level indexes such as mean, standard deviation, tables and charts were employed. Deductive statistics used Spearman's correlation test and SPSS 16 in significance level of P ≤ 0.05. Results Among all participants, 7.3% were married and 92.7% were single of which only 25.4 had an experience of national team membership. Table 1 shows the number and abundance distribution of tested subjects in different sports. Table 1 Number and abundance distribution of tested subjects

sports number of tested bj t

frequency Football 63 24/9 handball 46 18/1 volleyball 45 17/7 basketball 45 17/7 wrestling 29 11/1

track and field 25 9/8 Results indicate that 72.3% and 64.4% of athlete students are satisfied with their body shape and body weight, respectively. Moreover, 37.9% of athletes are tended to lose weight and 51.3% to gain weight. Since 94.8% of athlete students opposepermitting use of doping drugs, 68.3% recognize drugs and supplements as requirements for their performance improvement and 37.8% of them believe most records are changed because of doping. In athlete students' viewpoint, reasons of consuming supplements include enhancing power (30%), strength (27.2%), speed (22.1%), preventing injuries (9.8%) and improving health (7%). Besides, the tested population included students of Associate's Degree (6.41%), Bachelor's Degree (69.63%), Master's Degree (22.53%) and PhD (2.37%). Most of them (70.7%) tended to use supplements (unless they are harmful) and 10.3% of athlete students consumed them despite being aware of their side effects. Among all individuals, 66% tried to collect scientific and accurate data on doping drugs and their side effects of which 34.4% succeeded. 68.4% of athletes had used such drugs at least once during their career and wrestlers (82.5%) and track and field athletes (76%) had the most contributions (Figure1).


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The highest rates of knowledge deficiency on harms and benefits of 18 supplements (mentioned in the questionnaire) were related to Oxandrolon (86.4%), Dianabol (83.7%), Oxymetholone (83.7%), Amphetamines (76.7%), Methane (76.7%), Ephedrines (74.9%) and Beta Blockers (69.6%), respectively. In addition, some classifiedTestosterone (67.8%), growth hormone (63.6%) and Marijuana (53.3%) as harmful supplements.

Figure 1: relative abundance of supplement consumption in each

sport

On the other hand, percentages of athletes estimating their knowledge on doping drugs as average, deficient, low, and highwere 45%, 15.4%, 13.4% and 13%, respectively. Most wrestlers (53.3%) and track and field athletes (57.7%) estimated their knowledge on doping drugs higher than other sports (Figure2 and 3). In response to the item concerning place of drug and supplement purchase athlete students identified pharmacy (29.8%), friends (26.3%), coach (21.1%), club (12.3%), the Internet (5.3%) and other items (5.3%) as the most common ones.

Figure2: abundance of athletes' knowledge in different sports

According to reports, most students obtain required data on drugs from their friends or teammates (29.8%), coach (28.1%), the Internet (19.3%), physician (10.5%) and media (5.3%). They also recognize obligatory instructional courses, dissipating information through media such as newspaper and TV and developing an information website on supplements and doping as the best ways of data collection.

Discussion and conclusion The present paper aimed to investigate prevalence of supplement consumption and knowledge of athlete students on doping and its side effects. Results demonstrated that 68.4% of students have consumed drugs and supplements at least once during their career and some identify themselves needing to consume them for their improvement and success.

Moreover, 70.7% of athletes are willing to consume supplements unless they are harmful. The results indicate prevalence of doping and ideas of athlete students and teenagers on doping drugs. One of factors affecting this is pressures on athletes exerted by coaches, authorities, sponsors and sport clubs. These usually encourage athletes to consume doping drugs and supplements in order to achieve physiological, biomechanical, nutritional and mental advantages (Minasiyan et al, 2009).

Figure3: prevalence of consumption of some supplements among athlete students

Another factor affecting consumption of anabolic steroids and supplements is the tendency to gain ideal weight, increase muscle mass and improve body shape in athletes and amateurs (Laber, 2002; Scofield, 2006) .Zawila et al showed negative tendency of runner university athletes to supplement consumption which is opposed to results of the present research (Zawila et al, 2003). This may result from enough information on correct consumption of nutrients to improve body performance. The present paper revealed that 66% of athlete students try to collect scientific and correct data on supplements and their side effects and only 34% succeeded in gathering their required information. In addition, athletes in different sports (except for wrestling and track and field) reported their knowledge on doping drugs and supplements as average-to-low. Based on findings, more information available among wrestlers (53.3%) and track and field athletes (57.7%) may be a result of their higher rate of supplement consumption. An effective factor is the physical and mental pressure in most individual sports from coaches, authorities and people's expectations (Halabchi et al, 2007; Minasiyan et al, 2009). Wanjek et al studied knowledge of athletes in several sport and non-sport schools of Germany on doping supplements. Their results indicated that 60% of students (whether athlete or not) have weak knowledge on doping drugs and supplements and a plan must be conducted to enhance information level on the subject among lower age groups (Wanjek et al, 2007). Many studies reported average or low level of athletes' information on supplements which are used by most sportsmen regardless of their destructive physical and behavioral effects (Wanjek et al, 2007; Ziegler, 2003; Van Eenoo, 2003).


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Some athletes believe that supplement consumption is associated with no consequences. Although short-term use of vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc. poses no danger and side effect, the supplements are approved and confirmed by no organizations and producers can sell forbidden and harmful drugs in the form of such supplements. In addition to side effects on athletes' health this can lead to their positive doping test in international competitions (Kargarfard et al, 2009). With regard to advances in Iranian sports and increased competition among adolescents and teenagers, lower age groups (Pavlovic et al, 2013; Scofield et al, 2006) are progressively consuming supplements so that, consistent with literature, athlete students used supplements to enhance power (30%), strength (27.2%) and speed (22.1%), to prevent injuries (9.8%) and to improve their health (7%). Moreover, the present paper demonstrated that 37.9% and 51.3% athletes are willing to lose and gain weight, respectively to meet their ideal body weight. The dissatisfaction with body shape and appearance may be a significant factor in consuming some drugs such as anabolic steroids (Kargarfard et al, 2007). Therefore, the dissatisfaction in amateurs and non-athletes may lead to drug consumption and pose serious threats on their health. Correlation results indicated a significant, reverse relationship between education level and supplement consumption and knowledge on doping and its side effects so that an enhance in education level and consequently in knowledge level leads to a reduction in supplement consumption rate. But, it must be noticed that most athletes are of lower education levels and must be provided with opportunities to enhance their education. Most athlete students selected obligatory instructional courses, dissipating information through media such as newspaper and TV and developing an information website on supplements and doping as the best ways of data collection. Hence, sport experts are suggested to conduct plans for different sports starting from lower ages and emphasizing reduction of danger factors of supplements. Besides, instructional courses can be held in schools and universities on ways of fighting doping. As doping is prevailed among amateurs and non-athletes, media are expected to inform people on dangerous factors and effects of such substances in the form of targeted and instruction-based programs. According to Chart 3, Creatine is the most widely used supplement among athlete students of different sports. Literature has also reported consumption of Creatine, sport drinks and vitamins among athletes (Tian et al, 2009). Creatine keeps body water, gives muscles more access to ATP and makes energy system, especially that of Phosphagen. This postpones fatigue and is considerably effective on sport events (Robert et al, 2000). Furthermore, because of their anti-oxidant role, vitamins preserve cell membrane against free radicals with oxidizing role

during activities and this may be a strong reason why athletes consume them (Tian et al, 2009). Athletes, however, consume supplements based on their own experiences and friends' suggestions, hence needing more scientific knowledge. Findings of the present paper revealed that most students gain their required information on supplements from their teammates (friends) (29.8%), coach (28.1%), the Internet (19.3%), physician (10.5%) and media (5.3%). Friends or coaches usually lack correct information on side effects of such drugs or ascribe numerous unreal benefits to gain higher financial profits of drug sell (Halabchi et al, 2007). Although physician is the best one to consult on supplements and their side effects, most athletes prefer their friends or coaches probable because of close relationships and rapid progress. Therefore, practicing with knowledgeable coaches and promoting their scientific level (and that of athletes) is a necessary task. Athletes consult physician less probably since doctors are not permanently accessible and some lack up-to-date and new information fitting requirements of modern sports. In response to the item concerning place of drug and supplement purchase athlete students identified pharmacy (29.8%), friends (26.3%), coach (21.1%), club (12.3%), the Internet (5.3%) and other items (5.3%) as the most common ones and 41.7% of them suggested other students to consume supplements. This indicates increasing prevalence of supplements and their easy provision among athlete students. Thus, authorities should closely monitor certified and uncertified places selling such substances (such as clubs and pharmacies). Besides, athletes and coaches have to learn more about drugs and supplement because of their important role in country's sports. According to literature and findings of the present paper, the speed of supplement consumption prevalence among professional and amateur athletes is observable. The prevalence is not only limited to professional and national-level athletes but they are current in lower age groups among students and university students. Thus, low age of consumers along with their low information on side effects of these supplements is considered a serious hazard for athlete teenagers and adolescents. Improved competition among age groups, increased ads on body fitness and muscled body and increased number of body building clubs lacking coaches informed and knowledgeable on correct nutritional issuesmay be significant elements influencing prevalence of supplements and drugs among the youth. Therefore, it seems necessary to regularly monitor sport clubs along with holding instructional programs for coaches and PE authorities. Also, providing athletes in lower age groups with explanations on side effects and immorality on supplements and doping drugs enhances their information on the subject so that no one consumes supplements without information and knowledge and no Iranian athlete is omitted from international competitions.


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References van Eenoo, P., & Delbeke, F.T. (2003). The prevalence of doping in Flanders in comparisonto the prevalence

of doping in international sports. Int J Sport Med, 24(8), 565-570. Halabchi, F. (2009). The knowledge of club wrestlers of Tehran about doping and their assessment of the

current prevalence in the country. Journal of sport biosciences, 1, 105-121. Juhn, M.S. (2003). Popular sport supplement and ergogenic aids. (review). Sport Med, 33(12): 921-939. Juhn, M.S. (2001). Ergogenic aids in student athletes. Clin J Sport Med, 11(1), 51-56. Kargarfard, M., & Kashi, A. (2007). Prevalence of use anabolic androgenic steroid andawareness of Isfahan

University students about their side effect. Quarterly j of fundamentals of mental health. 8(1-2), 73-82. Kargarfard, M. (2009). The prevalence of ergogenic uses and awareness of the effects and side effects in

athletes of Lorestan. Journal of Fundamentals of mental health, 2, 123-134. Laber, M.P. (2002). Adolescent boys and the muscular male body ideal. J Adolesc Health, 30(4), 233-342. Laure, P., Lecerf, T., Friser, A., & Binsinger, C. (2004). Drug recreational drug use and attitudes toward

doping ofhigh school athletes. Int J Sport Med, 25(2), 133-138. Minasiyan, V., & Sarlak, M. (2009). Prevalence, attitudes and awareness of the side effects of doping in elite

athletes of national teams and clubs in Tehran. Research in Sports Science. 25, 119-130. Nader, R., & Bambaeichi, E. (2009). Statistics prevalence of doping and doping substances in international

sports, J M Sport, 39, 145-160. Pavlović, R., & Idrizović K. (2013). Attitudes of students of physical education and sports about doping in

sport. Facta Unhversitatis, 11, 103-113. Robergs, R.A., & Roberts, S.O. (2000). Fundamental principles of exercise physiology for fitness,

performance, and health. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Scofield, D.E., & Unruh, S. (2006). Dietary supplement use amongadolescent athletes incentral Nebraska and

their sources of information. Journal of Strength and ConditioningResearch. 20(2),452-455. Tian, H., Ong, W.S., & Tan, C.L. (2009). Nutritional supplement use among university athlete in Singapore.

Singapore medicine journal. 50(2), 165-172. Wanjek, J.B., Rosendahl, B., Strauss, H., & Gabriel, H. (2007). Doping, drugs and drug abuse among

adolescentsin the state of Thuringia (Germany): Prevalence, knowledge and attitudes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(4), 346-353.

Zawila, L., Stebib, C.M., & Hoogenboom, B. (2003). The female collegiate cross-countryrunner: nutrition knowledge and attitute. Journal of athletic training, 38, 67-74.

Ziegler, P.J., Nelson, J.A., & Jonnalagadda, S.S. (2003). Use of dietarysupplements byelite figure skaters. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13, 266-276.

UČESTALOST KORIŠTENIH DODATAKA I ZNANJE OBZIROM NA DOPING I POPRATNE POJAVE KOD STUDENATA IRANSKOG SPORTSKOG UNIVERZITETA KOJI SU SUDJELOVALI

U LJETNJIM OLIMPIJSKIM IGRAMA 2012.

Sažetak Prevalencija dodataka korištenja povećala se progresivno u sportaša. Dakle, svrha ovog istraživanja bila je ispitati prevalenciju korištenja dodataka i obzirom na znanje o dopingu i njegovim nuspojavama kod iranskih sportaša studenata koji su sudjelovali u sportskim natjecanjima na Olimpijadi ljeta 2012.Statistički uzorak uključuje 253 muška sportaša studenta iz različitih događanja (hrvanje, nogomet, rukomet, odbojka, košarka i atletika). Upitnik građen istraživanjem koji je razvijen kako bi se utvrdilo prevalenciju uporabe dodataka i znanja o dopingu i njegove nuspojave je raspoređen između sportaša.Analiza pouzdanosti Cronbach alfa je dala vrijednosti 0,81. Prikupljeni podaci ovog istraživanja analizirani su opisno i deduktivno (Spearman test) u značajnoj razini (P≤ 0,05) Raspravljani rezultati su pokazali da je 70,7% od studenata sportaša htjelo koristiti dodataka.Potrošnja dodataka i lijekova u hrvanju (82,5%) i atletici (76%), sportaši su više od drugih područja. 45% sportaša procjenjuje da je njihovo poznavanje dopinga i dopuna je prosječno 15,4% bez, 13,4% niska i 13,3% dobro znanje. Također, hrvanje (53,3%) i atletika (57,7%) su imali više znanja od drugih područja. S obzirom na pružanje lijeka i dodataka, sportaši su izvijestili da su ih dobili više od ljekarne (29,8%), prijateljima (26,3%) i trenera (21,1%). Oni su dobili najviše konzultacije sa svojim prijateljima (29,8%) i trenera (28,1 %). na temelju rezultata ovog istraživanja, čini se da je stupanj studentskog znanja i informacija bila je niska, a imali su jaku želju za konzumiranje dodataka. Dakle, mora postojati neki nastavni programi i tečajevi za studentske sportaša modificirati svoje razumijevanje i znanje o nuspojavama dopinga i dodataka. Ključne riječi: doping, znanje, učestali dodaci, sportska natjecanja


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Received: June 22, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Prof. Hamid Arazi, PhD Department of Exercise Physiology Faculty of Sport Sciences University of Guilan Rasht, Iran. P.O. Box: 41635-1438. Phone: +98 911 1399207 E-mail: [email protected]

Dragosavljević, P. et al.: Psychological and social factors of estimates of effects... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 82‐87

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PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS OF ESTIMATES OF EFFECTS OF RECREATION

Predrag Dragosavljević1, Žarko Bilić2 and Gorana Tešanović1

1 Faculty of physical education and sport, University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

2 Faculty of sciences, University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina


Abstract For a proper understanding of the contents of recreation in the everyday lives of people in general, as well as in certain social groups within which the certain recreational activities are carried out, it is necessary to consider the most important factors that influence and determine directly or indirectly man in relation to recreation. Since it is likely that a number of factors determines commitment of individual to engage in recreational activities, it is expected that the very evaluation recreation effects will be different, both in scope and intensity, because people differ in a number of social - experiental and personal characteristics. Given that in our society tremendous changes occurred, it is very interesting to correlate psychological and sociological factors as drivers of certain recreational facilities and activities. Performing of these activities the specific needs of individuals are satisfied as well as society at all. This research was conducted with the aim to review the assessments of the effects of recreation in the interconnectedness of psychological and social factors. The research was conducted on a sample of 553 participants, residents of the western part of the Republic of Srpska, of which 132 participants did not engage in recreation, 169 of them are engaged in recreation occasionally, and 252 subjects engaged in recreational activities regularly. This study used questionnaire for assessing the effects of recreation and scale for testing the general attitude towards recreation. The survey showed that participants estimate that for them the greatest effect recreation "in health", and the smallest effect "in fashion and contemporary trends", that is half the participants significant source of differences in the assessment of the effects of recreation, and that, regardless of place of residence, is dominated by an assessment of the significance of recreation for health. Global overview of the results shows that among the participants prevailed moderately positive and vacillating attitude toward recreation. Key words: psychological and social factors, sports, recreation, sex, place of residence, the effects Introduction

For a proper understanding of the contents of recreation in the everyday lives of people in general, as well as certain social groups within which the certain recreational activities are carried out, it is necessary to consider the most important factors that influence and determine directly or indirectly man in relation to recreation. 18% of 24 billion dollars are the costs for heart disease, which are attributed to absence of physical activity, as well as 22% of the $ 2 billion for patients with colon cancer (Colditz, 1999). In the UK 20% of the population is obesity, the cost which are partly attributed to the absence of physical activity are estimated at 500 million pounds a year, and obesity and related diseases at the same population cause 18 million days of sick leave (Close, 2006; Hill et al., 2007). It is certain, however, that active involvement in human recreation and its relationship to these activities shows his complete personality, which determines the different features and social environment in which man lives. The economic consequence caused by physical inactivity is estimated at 910 million euros for a population of 10 million people, with half of physically inactive. Recorded 3.1 million days of accrued sick leave as may be related to physical inactivity in a population of 5.5 million people (Petrović-Oggiano et al., 2010). Studies of incidence of infection, which can occur as a consequence of modern life dominated by sedentary style, aimed at determining the

correlation level of physical activity with the degree of illness in certain groups of diseases (HNB/MNB), have shown a reduction in mortality rates when performed regular physical activity (Paffenberger, 1994), and that walking and jogging replaced treatment and rehabilitation (Tanasescu et al., 2002). Lack of physical activity (12% - 14%) causally associated with colorectal cancer (Slattery, 2004), 7, and provides the highest level of protection of breast cancer (Fridenreich et al., 2001). Since it is likely that a number of factors determines orientation of individual to engage in recreational activities, it is expected that the very evaluation recreation effects will be different, both in scope and intensity, because people differ in a number of social-experiental and personal characteristics. In addition, it is likely that, despite the general relationship (positive or negative) of the citizens towards recreation, will be made out important differences in relation to certain effects that citizens prefer, from whom they expect a greater benefit. As a part of the elaboration of the problems of pedagogical-psychological characteristics as factors to assess the effect of recreation, it is necessary to consider not only each other connection of characteristics collected from participants assessments as recreation, but also to determine whether and to what extent the pedagogical-psychological characteristics of factors assess the effect of recreation.


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In other words, whether and in what manner the direction and intensity with which the pedagogical-psychological characteristics of participants determine the assessment of the effects of recreation. Given that in our society, tremendous changes occurred, it is interesting to correlate psychological and sociological factors as drivers of certain recreational facilities and activities, of which the practice is meeting the specific needs of individuals and society. The importance of small sporting events of regional, local or amateurs do not have a lot of public attention because of minor economic importance to the state, but have a positive economic impact on the host contests and encourages the development of the tourism industry of the region (Daniels, 2003). If we talk about determinants that influence the acceptance and involvement (or non-acceptance, passivity), it seems that is necessary to ask the question: What are the dynamic forces that encourage or discourage participation in sports and recreational facilities and activities, and what personality characteristics are determined the behavior of individuals? This research was conducted with the aim to review the assessments of the effects of recreation in the interconnectedness of psychological and social factors. Methods Given the complexity of the case studies, formulated aim of research and selected research methods, the research was conducted on a sample of 553 participants, residents of the western part of the Republic of Srpska (Prijedor, Gradiška, Srbac and Banja Luka), of which 132 participants did not engaged recreational activities, 169 of them are engaged in recreation from time to time, and 252 subjects engaged in recreation properly. The sample size and the method of selecting participants who are not actively involved in recreation is done on the model of a multi-stage stratified random selection, while other participants were chosen from groups: Physical

Education Teachers, active amateurs (club members) or the ones who are currently involved in the implementation of programs of some recreational groups. Bearing in mind the choice of possible sciental methods, and taking into account the nature of the problems that research, the types of data collection instruments and other factors, in a study we use two methods: the method of theoretical analyze and empirical - nonexperimental method or Survey method. Applying the above methods is done empirical research and testing the asess of the effect of dealing with recreation, but also established social status of the participants. Survey method as a form of field research is used to collect and analyze data in order to determine the state, establishing a tendency and drawing conclusions of general views and their universal meanings. In this study for the purposes of collecting relevant data will be used the following instruments: a questionnaire for assessing the effects of recreation (the questionnaire was anonymous, and was filled with the written instructions which were given by the interviewer, and with help of instructions that are listed with each question, where it was necessary) and the Scale for the questioning of the general attitude towards recreation (Likert summation scale intended for questioning relations of subjects to different aspects of recreation, the reliability of the scale was determined using the "split-half" procedure, which checks consistency - the correlation between half of the scale is 0.6984, and the coefficient of reliability was calculated using the Spearman-Bronjn formula is 0.8152). For the processing of the data used statistical program SPSS 17.00. In other words, in data processing, in addition to frequency and percentages were calculated measures of central tendency (arithmetic mean) and variability (standard deviation), the association between variables (Score correlation) and testing of statistical significant of difference between the relevant variables (Hi-square test).

Results and discussion Table 1. Assessment of the impact of recreation

Effects of recreation f % 1) in health 177 32.00 2) for rest and relaxation 103 18.62 3) prolonging the life and working life 67 12.11 4) for fun and pleasure 61 11.03 5) maintaining the working capacity of 47 8.49 6) maintaining a beautiful looking 42 7.59 7) for a pleasant Leisure time 29 5.24 8) the regulation of body weight 12 2.16 9) for self-assertion 3 0.54 10) in fashion and modern trends 0 - 11) I do not see the benefits of recreation 5 0.90 0) no response 7 1.26


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Table 2. Gender of participants and estimation of the effects of recreation

Sex:

Assessment of the effects of recreation

Pre

serv

atio

n

heal

th

Mai

nten

ance

ca

pabi

litie

s

Mai

nten

ance

vi

talit

y

Reg

ulat

ion

of

body

wei

ght

Bea

utifu

l a

ppea

ranc

e

The

rest

an

d re

laxa

tion

Fun

Soc

ializ

ing

Sel

f-ass

ertio

n an

d af

firm

atio

n Th

ere

is n

o be

nefit

of

recr

eatio

n

Σ

male 116 29 37 4 29 56 46 9 3 3 332 34. 94 8.73 11.14 1.20 8.73 16.87 13.86 2.71 .90 .90

female 61 18 30 8 13 47 15 20 0 2 214 28.50 8.41 14.02 3.74 6.07 21.96 7.01 9.35 0.00 .93

Σ 177 47 67 12 42 103 61 29 3 5 546 32.42 8.61 12.27 2.20 7.69 18.86 11.17 5.31 .55 .92 Pearson Chi-square: 27.5213, df=9, p=.001150

Table 3. Place of residence of participants and estimation of the effects of recreation

Pla

ce o

f re

side

nce

Evaluation of the effects of recreation

Pre

serv

atio

n h

ealth

Mai

nten

ance

ca

pabi

litie

s

Mai

nten

ance

v

italit

y

Reg

ulat

ion

of

body

wei

ght

Bea

utifu

l ap

pear

ance

The

rest

and

re

laxa

tion

Fun

Soc

ializ

ing

Sel

f-as

serti

on

and

affir

mat

ion

Ther

e is

no

bene

fit o

f re

crea

tion

Σ

city 87 37 26 7 8 62 34 7 3 1 272 31.99 13.60 9.56 2.57 2.94 22.79 12.50 2.57 1.10 .37

suburb 57 1 31 0 22 10 19 21 0 4 165 34.55 .61 18.79 0.00 13.33 6.06 11.52 12.73 0.00 2.42

village 33 9 10 5 12 23 4 1 0 0 97 34.02 9.28 10.31 5.15 12.37 23.71 4.12 1.03 0.00 0.00

Σ 177 47 67 12 42 95 57 29 3 5 534 33.15 8.80 12.55 2.25 7.87 17.79 10.67 5.43 .56 .94

Pearson Chi-square: 107.783, df=18, p=.000000 Table 4. The general attitude toward recreation and assessment of recreation effects

The

gene

ral a

ttitu

de

tow

ards

recr

eatio

n Assessment of the impact of recreation

Pre

serv

atio

n h

ealth

Mai

nten

ance

c

apab

ilitie

s

Mai

nten

ance

v

italit

y

Reg

ulat

ion

of

bod

y w

eigh

t

Bea

utifu

l ap

pear

ance

The

rest

and

re

laxa

tion

Fun

Soc

ializ

ing

Sel

f-ass

ertio

n an

d af

firm

atio

n

Ther

e is

no

bene

fit

of re

crea

tion

Σ

Mostly negative

0 0.00

0 0.00

3 100.0

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00 3

unsure 29 28.16

13 12.62

7 6.80

4 3.88

1 .97

29 28.16

1 .97

11 10.68

3 2.91

5 4.85 103

Mostly positive

133 34.64

26 6.77

43 11.20

8 2.08

24 6.25

74 19.27

58 15.10

18 4.69

0 0.00

0 0.00 384

Extremely positive

15 26.79

8 14.29

14 25.00

0 0.00

17 30.36

0 0.00

2 3.57

0 0.00

0 0.00

0 0.00 56

Σ 177 32.42

47 8.61

67 12.27

12 2.20

42 7.69

103 18.86

61 11.17

29 5.31

3 .55

5 .92 546

Pearson Chi-square: 162.349, df=27, p=.000000 Insight into the results presented in Table 1. shows that participants estimate that for them personally, the greatest effect of recreation "in health care," as stated 32.00 percent of the participants, and the smallest effect "in fashion and contemporary trends", because neither one participant pleaded in following new trends see the benefits of recreation. Another major effect of dealing with recreation is that recreation serves "for rest and relaxation" as 18.62 percent of participants pleaded, followed by: to extend the life and work (12.11%), for fun and pleasure (11, 03%), maintenance of working ability (8.49) and maintain a beautiful appearance (7.59%).

In this study of socio-psychological characteristics of participants were analyzed sex and place of habitation. The results obtained are presented in Table 2. and Table 3. Insight into the results shows that half of the participants significant source of differences in the assessment of the effects of recreation, considering that the obtained chi-square = 27.5213, with 9 degrees of freedom, statistically significant at the 0.01 level. This means that the differences in the assessment of the effects of recreation statistically significant with regard to patient sex, as can be seen in Table 2.


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Insight of the results of interconnection assessments of the effects of recreation with the participant’s place of residence shows that in all participants (Table 3), regardless of place of residence, dominate an assessment of the significance of the recreation for health care, but that differences occur in the other aspects. The research results obtained (Table 4) show that there are significant distinctions in assessing the effects of recreation with respect to the direction and intensity of general attitude towards recreation. The resulting chi-square = 162.349, with 27 degrees of freedom is statistically significant at the 0.01 level, which means that the established differences are statistically significant, as it can be seen in Table 4. Global overview of the results shows that the subjects prevailing moderately positive and unsure attitude toward recreation, while a negative attitude completely negligible, because none of the participants has no meanengly negative relationship, and only three or 0.55 percent of participants have a moderate negative relationship, as it can be seen from Table 4. In this study, we assume that the social environment can significantly affect the individual, and that these effects show through the action of the factors in the immediate and wider social situation. Hence, in considering the interconnection effects of recreation and participants’ characteristics of social experience takes into account and the impact of characteristic of social groups which the participant belongs. Research conducted in the countries of the European Union on a sample of 24,791 participants from 2004 shows that the reasons not to engage in physical activity for 34% of participants lack of time, 25% do not like sports, 4% is too expensive, and 3% have no adequate sports infrastructure close of life, and that the reasons for dealing with some physical activity improve health (mental and physical) 78%, the development of physical abilities 46%, 43% relaxation, entertainment 39%, to be with friends 31%. Stojiljkovic (1995) states that motives for engaging in recreation group membership 23%, relaxation and improve mental and physical fitness and health 14.6%, caring for ill health 9.5%, 6.8% aesthetic orientation and prestige and fashion 6.3%. It is obvious that health, home, beautiful appearance and maintenance work and life skills are the most important effects of the recreation of which participants expect the greatest benefit, so that it becomes desirable activity with positive effects. It is interesting to note that a very small number of participants estimated that "there is no benefit of recreation," as declared only 0.90 percent of participants. Global score distributions to assess the effect of recreation on a sample of these participants clearly shows a high degree of positive evaluation on the effects of recreation. Research (Dragosavljević et al., 2014) conducted in the Bosnian entity - Republic of Srpska found that participants do not participate in sports and recreational activities (32.2%) or rarely practice

them (23.2%), while 13.8 % do so every day, and that men are far more active in sports recreation activities than women. The analysis of the results shows that the first two places in the ranking, both men and women prefer same aspects of recreation, except that slightly more males (34.94%) than women (28,50) estimates that for them the greatest benefit from recreation in health, and slightly more women (21.96%) compared to males (16.87%) in rest and relaxation. In other respects they differ assessment of subjects, because the third party men estimate (13.86%) compared to women (7.01%), while women maintain viability (14.02%) compared to men (11.14%). Another important result of this study is that the trainees at the self-assessment of health and attractiveness were significantly more positive than those who were not engaged (A. Djordjevic, 2002). It was assumed that the place of residence, also play an important role in the formation of attitudes towards recreation. For example, those who live in the countryside estimate that in addition to preserving health (34.02%) is the biggest benefit of rest and relaxation (23.71%) and the beautiful appearance (12.37%), and residents of suburban areas to the next preservation health (34.55%) is the biggest benefit of recreation in maintaining vitality (18.79%), aesthetic (13.33%) and socializing (12.73%), while participants who live in the city estimated that in addition to preserving health (31.99%) the biggest benefit is the rest and relaxation (22.79%), maintenance capability (13.60%) and entertainment (12.50%). Havelka and Lazarević’s results of exploration (Havelka and Lazarević, 1981) and Galić (Galić, 1995) showed that socio-demographic factors are quite influential in sports participation. In a number of factors that could significantly affect the assessment of the effects of recreation are certainly factors of valuator, or psychological factors. We believe in fact that the assessment of the effects of recreation closely associated not only with a range of experience characteristics of participants but also with his psychological characteristics. Among the main characteristics of personality, in addition to uniqueness, unity, coherence, identity and maturity, belongs and self-consciousness (Pajević, 2003). Research Bouillet (2008), which reflects in Perasović’s (2009) work, confirms the fact that shows that young intellectual potential social elite (sample of 325 students in Zagreb) their ideal leisure see in almost total passive form. The starting point, namely, that the attitudes formed in social interaction to represent readiness of individual to react in a certain way in social situation, to reflect the active relationship between individual and appearance in more social situations, and that are associated with the behavior, it means that directly or indirectly influence the actions of individuals to the phenomenon.


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In other words, we believe that the general attitude towards recreation can significantly affect the assessment of the effects of recreation. Analysis of the results obtained on the interrelation between the general attitude towards recreation and recreation effects assessment shows that within the general positive attitude of the majority of participants to the recreation there are significant differences with regard to the assessment of the effects of recreation. These differences are the most significant in subjects who are unsure of the general attitude towards recreation. Among the participants who are unsure attitude toward recreation is evident that the tendency of dealing with recreation can benefit in all aspects, but it is in this category of patients is evident and the most pronounced understanding that they do not see any benefits from recreation. On the other hand, in patients who have a positive attitude towards recreation there are evident differences in the assessment of the personal benefit of the individual aspects of dealing with recreation. For example, participants who have generally positive attitude towards recreation estimate that for them personally, the biggest benefit of recreation is a prevention of health (34.64%), rest and recreation (19.27%) and entertainment (15.10%) while the patients who have an extremely positive attitude towards recreation have the most common estimates that the benefits of recreation is conformity of looks and movement, beautiful looking (30.36%), then preservation health (26.79%), and maintenance of vitality (25.00%). Such a situation can be found in the aftermath of the war, but the lack of respect of the community towards this area that is not so attractive as a marketing professional sport. (Dragosavljević, 2008). Also, the lack of organization and organized exercise, and lack of green spaces and sports facilities, could be one of the reasons for these results.

Conclusion Looking at the whole sample, it can be seen that participants share the opinion that engaging in recreational activities should have effects in health, for rest and relaxation, prolonging life and work, and for fun and pleasure. While, looking at interest for recreational activities by gender showed that women engage in recreational activities for prevention the health, rest and relaxation, and maintaining vitality, and men for the preservation health, rest and relaxation, fun, maintaining vitality, maintenance ability and good looks. It turned out that the place of residence conditioned the reasons for engagement in recreational activities, thus participants who live in the city and suburbs consider that the effects of recreation are maintaining of health and vitality, while those who live in the village consider that the effects of recreation should be to maintain health, rest and relaxation. Global overview of the results shows that the subjects prevails moderately positive and vacillating attitude toward recreation, while a negative attitude completely negligible, because none of the participants has no meaningly negative relationship, and only three or 0.55 percent of participants have a moderate negative relationship. This research has shown that awareness of the participants about the exercise and recreational activities developed to a great extent, and that the analysis of psychological and social factors received enough reliable information on the participants' needs for recreational activities, and their wants and needs in relation to sex and place housing. It can be concluded that this study demonstrated that the organization of recreational activities should be approached by analyzing many aspects and factors that may contribute to the pursuit of recreational activities, take into account the views and needs of the area in which they want to develop a culture for recreational activities and involve experts of various profiles in order to achieve the objectives and enable the conditions for engaging in organized recreational activities.

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u nivonastalim uslovima društva u tranziciji, U. Dikić, B.(Ur). Zbornik radova II Međunarodni skup Ekologija, zdravlje, rad, sport, (pp. 177-181). Banja Luka.

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obesity. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 81, 772-775.


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Paffenberger, R. (1994). Forty years of progress: Physical activity, health and fitness. Indianopolis. In: American College of Sports Medicine 40th anniversary lectures, (pp. 93-109).

Pajević, D. (2003). Psihologija sporta i rekreacije. Laktaši: Grafomark. Perasović, B. (2009). O (ne)mogućnosti upravljanja slobodnim vremenom, o istraživanju autorice (Buillet,

2008.). Slobodno vrijeme zagrebačkih studenata: prilika za hedonizam i samoostvarenje. Sociologija i prostor, 48(1), 135-140.

Petrović-Oggiano, G., Damjanov, V., Gurinović, M., & Glibetić, M. (2010). Fizička aktivnost u prevenciji i redukciji kardiovaskularnog rizika. Med Pregl, 63(3-4), 200-207.

Slattery, M. (2004). Physical activity and colorectal cancer. Sports Medicine, 34, 239-252. Stojiljković, S. (1995). Programi rekreacije u Sportsko rekreativnim centrima Beograda i motivacija učesnika

za vežbanje. /Magistarska teza/. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. Tanasescu, M., Leitzmann, M.F., Rimm, E.B., Willett, W.C., Stampfer, M.J., & Hu, F.B. (2002). Exercise type

and intensity in relation to coronary heart disease in men. Journal of American Medical Association, 288, 1994-2000.

* * * (2005). http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/arcives/ebs/ebs_213_report_en.pdf, s mreže skinuto u veljači 2005.

PSIHOLOŠKI I SOCIJALNI ČIMBENICI PROCJENE UČINKA REKREACIJE

Sažetak Za pravilno shvaćanje sadržaja rekreacije u svakodnevnom životu čovjeka uopće, a posebno kad je riječ o njegovoj manifestaciji kod pojedinaca, kao i u pojedinim društvenim grupama u okviru kojih se i odvijaju određene rekreacijske aktivnosti, nužno je poznavati najvažnije čimbenike koji utječu i određuju posredno ili neposredno odnos čovjeka prema rekreaciji. S obzirom da izvjesno niz čimbenika determinira opredjeljenje pojedinca za bavljenje rekreacijom, očekivati je da će i sama procjena efekata rekreacije biti različita, kako po obujmu tako i po intenzitetu, jer se ljudi međusobno razlikuju po nizu socijalno-iskustvenih i osobnih obilježja. S obzirom da su se u širem okruženju desile ogromne promjene, veoma je intersantno dovesti u korelaciju psihološko-sociološke faktore kao pokretače na određene rekreativne sadržaje i aktivnosti, čijim korištenjem se zadovoljavaju konkretne potrebe pojedinaca i društva. Ovo istraživanje je provedeno s ciljem sagledavanja procjene efekata rekreacije u međusobnoj povezanosti sa psihološkim i socijalnim čimbenicima. Istraživanje je realizirano na uzorku od 553 ispitanika, stanovnika zapadnog dijela Republike Srpske, od čega se 132 ispitanika ne bave rekreacijom, 169 ih se bavi rekreacijom povremeno, a 252 ispitanika se bavi rekreacijom redovito. U ovom istraživanju su korišteni Upitnik za procjenu efekata rekreacije i Skala za ispitivanje općeg odnosa prema rekreaciji. Istraživanje je pokazalo da su ispitanici procijenili kako je za njih najveći učinak rekreacije “u očuvanju zdravlja”, a najmanji “u praćenju mode i suvremenih trendova”, kako je spol ispitanika značajan izvor razlika u procjeni efekata rekreacije, te da, bez obzira na mjesto stanovanja, dominira procjena o značaju rekreacije za očuvanje zdravlja. Globalni uvid u dobivene rezultate pokazuje da je kod ispitanika prevladao umjereno pozitivan ali i kolebljiv odnos prema rekreaciji. Ključne riječi: psihološki i socijalni čimbenici, sportska rekreacija, spol, mjesto stanovanja, efekti

Received: June 14, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assosc.Prof.Žarko Bilić, PhD Faculty of Sciences University of Mostar 88000 Mostar,Matice Hrvatske bb, Bosnia & Herzegovina Phone: +987 63 325 690 E-mail: [email protected]

Rogulj, N. et al.: Spirometric and morphological indicators of top level handball... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 88‐92

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SPIROMETRIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF TOP LEVEL HANDBALL PLAYERS

Nenad Rogulj1, Mladen Marinović1, Nikola Foretić1, Vatromir Srhoj1 and Zvonko Herceg2

1 University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology 2 Faculty of Sciences, University of Mostar, Bosnia & Herzegovina


Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the differences and relations of the morphological and spirometry characteristics between elite and the first league quality handball players. The study was conducted on the sample of 35 handball players playing in two clubs of 1st Croatian handball league divided in two groups: national team players (n=15) and the first league quality players (n=20). A total of 18 variables were analysed, 12 out of which to evaluate morphological characteristics and 6 to assess spirometry and ventilation parametres. Generally, by applying variance and discriminant analysis, no statistically significant differences between elite and high-quality players were established in the analysed areas. Individually, statistically significant differences are present only in the shoulder girth and hand length, and spirometry indicators show no statistically significant differences. Relation analysis between morphological and spirometry indicators detected positive statistically significant connections between most of the variables in the spirometry domain and in most of the longitudinal dimensionality skeleton variables as well as shoulder girth. Key words: handball, parameters, spirometry, morphology Introduction Handball, as a complex sport game, belongs to polystructural complex kinesiological activities. Its basic characteristics are the abundance of natural ways of movement, but also specific cyclic and acyclic moving structures (Rogulj, 2003). Kinesiological variety reflects on the anthropological status of handball players since there are no anthropological features that cannot be influenced by handball (Srhoj, 2002). However, different anthropological features do not equally contribute to the playing quality. Numerous researches revealed that motor and functional abilities and morphological features are important efficiency indicators in handball players (Srhoj et al. 2006, Galal El-Din et al. 2011) and that these features should be given special significance in the selection process. Morphological characteristics of handball players are one of the most reliable indicators of playing quality and a good selection criterion in choosing players for certain playing positions (Šibila, 2009). Aerobic endurance, being an important guideline of situation efficiency in handball players (Buchheita et al. 2008), may be efficiently developed since early childhood (Malina et al. 2004). Ventilation parameters, being an important component of pulmonary system efficiency, determine aerobic endurance to a great extent, and at the same time, the efficiency in a certain kinesiological activity, likewise in handball (Prakash et al. 2007, Schoene et al. 1997). A great number of sport scientists studied the relations of morphological and respiratory features in athletes, which is also the topic of this research. Sancho-Chust et al. (2010) concluded that body height, in addition to anthropometrical variables connected to height, may be properly used to predict pulmonary function.

In accordance with this, Radovanović et al. (2007) determined above-average values of spirometry parameters in elite female water polo players and connected this to the above-average body height and weight of the respondents. Gabrilo et al. (2011) have been continuously following the pulmonary function of female synchronised swimmers over a one-year cycle. The research showed a significance increase in body height and weight, and consequently the increase of spirometry values in the respondents. The research done by Ronga et al. (2008) set the aim of studying the influence of 10 different sports on pulmonary function. Among other, they established a significant positive connection between spirometry parameters and body height and weight. Starting with the importance of morphological and respiratory features for efficiency in handball, the intension of this research was to establish the differences, but also relations of these two anthropological features in elite national team and quality first league players. Methods The sample of respondents The research was conducted on the sample of 35 handball players of the two Croatian first handball league clubs. The clubs were ranked among the top three clubs at the end of the championship. One of the clubs won the European Cup that year, while the other played in the quarter-finals of the European Champions league. Top Croatian and world handball players played in these clubs, the members of five national teams of some European countries.


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The respondents have won the total of 23 medals with their national teams in major competitions (Olympics, World Championship, European Championship), and one of them was officially the best world handball player. The players’ average age was 24,6 and the average competition experience in sport was 137,2 months. The respondents were categorised in two quality groups as elite players (n=15), including national team players from national selections. These were all elite national team players of international values including numerous medal winners in major international competitions. The other sub-sample (n=20) involved players with a generally weaker handball status, not belonging to the previously mentioned category, but to quality first league club players. The sample of variables We analysed the total of 18 variables, 12 out of which were used for the assessment of morphological characteristics and 6 to assess spirometry and ventilation parameters. Morphological characteristics were measured according to IBP, and the measures selected, according to the previous scientific knowledge, were the best indicators of the morphological model of handball players (Srhoj et al. 2002), and at the same time best distinguish male and female handball players regarding their playing quality (Cikatić and Foretić 2005, Čavala 2012). To assess longitudinal dimensionality of the skeleton, we measured: body height (AVIST), sitting height (AVISSJ) and hand length (ADUŠAK). To assess transversal dimensionality of the skeleton, we measured: shoulder girth (AŠRAM), pelvis girth (AŠZDJ) and hand girth (AŠŠAKE). Voluminosity and body mass were assessed by the following variables: upper arm volume (AONADL), forearm volume (AOPOT) and body weight (ATT). To assess sub-skin adipose tissue, we measured: skin folds of the upper arm (AKNTRI), back (AKNLEĐ) and stomach (ANKTRB). To assess spirometry and ventilation functions, we used the following indicators: forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiration capacity in the first second (FEV1), middle expiration flow with 75% of vital capacity on the flow-volume curve (MEF75), middle expiration flow with 50% of vital capacity (MEF50), middle expiration flow with 25% of vital capacity (MEF25), peak expiration flow (PEF). The measuring of morphological characteristics was done in the morning in a clinical hospital by an educated kinesiologist according to IBP, and ventilation parameters were measured during the same morning in the Spirometry laboratory at the Pulmonary ward of the clinical hospital on Pneumoscope Erich Jaeger instrument. The room and the measuring conditions satisfied the recommendations given by the manufacturer. The calibration of the instrument was done by an original calibration syringe before the measuring, according to the manufacturer’s instructions, in order to avoid mistakes in measuring by the instrument itself.

Data processing methods We analysed basic descriptive and distribution parameters of prediction variables as it follows: arithmetic means (AS), standard deviation (SD), the lowest (MIN) and the highest (MAX) results, asymmetry coefficient (Skewness), distribution curve coefficient (Curtosis) and, with the purpose of testing distribution normality by Kolmogorov-Smirnova procedure, maximum differences between actual and theoretical cumulative frequencies (MaxD). The differences between the two quality groups of players were established by multivariant (ANOVA) and univariant variance analysis (MANOVA), and by dicriminant analysis. The relations between the two sets of variables (morphological and spirometriy) were established by Pearson correlation coefficients. The data were processed by Statistica for Windows ver. 7.0 statistical-graphic package.

Results and discussion

Table 1. Basic descriptive and distribution parametres of prediction variables

Variable Mean Min Max Std.Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Max d AVIST 190,58 178,00 205,00 6,69 ,04 -,47 ,06 AVISSJ 98,90 92,10 105,10 3,54 -,04 -,76 ,10

ATT 90,99 72,00 104,00 7,94 -,57 -,38 ,12 AONADL 33,60 30,00 39,30 2,11 ,63 ,39 ,13 AOPOT 40,08 35,20 44,90 2,35 ,00 -,56 ,09 AŠRAM 41,90 36,00 45,30 2,20 -,61 ,12 ,10 AŠZDJ 30,29 27,00 33,50 1,51 -,20 -,31 ,11

AŠŠAKE 8,84 8,10 9,40 ,36 -,16 -,84 ,13 ADUŠAK 21,93 19,60 23,80 1,01 -,15 -,16 ,09 AKNTRI 8,31 5,30 15,50 2,32 1,15 1,76 ,12 AKNLEĐ 11,54 7,30 17,40 2,53 ,75 -,08 ,12 ANKTRB 15,49 5,80 25,90 5,85 ,12 -1,19 ,10

FVC 6,31 4,23 9,55 1,17 ,88 1,02 ,15 FEV1 5,47 3,44 7,32 ,88 ,00 -,24 ,08

MEF75 6,91 1,94 15,80 3,59 ,34 -,76 ,17 MEF50 6,96 3,88 11,90 1,70 ,82 ,74 ,13 MEF25 6,63 2,36 11,09 2,88 -,18 -1,56 ,15

PEF 11,56 7,36 17,80 2,77 ,47 -,32 ,09 Test value of the KS test for Max D on the level p<,01 = ,23

Table 1 displays the analysis results of the basic descriptive and distribution parameters of prediction variables. Kolmogorov-Smirnova test confirmed all the variables were normally distributed, i.e. there is no irregular data dispersion or distribution deviations, thus the variables are suitable for the further processing by multivariant parameter statistical procedures. We can observe a minor negative asymmetry, i.e. a tendency towards higher values of most of the variables in the morphological area, except for the variables to assess sub-skin adipose tissue which incline towards lower values. This shows the sample involved top level athletes who are more dimensioned in longitudinal and transversal dimensionality of the skeleton and voluminosity, than in sub-skin adipose tissue as a negative factor of sport efficiency, which was determined by a large number of researches (Chinn et al. 1996, Lazarus et al. 1997, Harik-Khan et al. 2001). Variables related to ventilation parameters are in the same way mostly insignificantly positively asymmetrical, except for the variable MEF25, meaning that, unlike most morphological variables, has a minor tendency towards lower values.


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Table 2. The results of multivariant variance analysis and the discriminant analysis between top level and quality players

Multivariant variance analysis parametres Disciminant analysis parametres

Wilks' Lambda

Rao's R

p-level

Eigen- value

Canonicl R

Chi-Sqr.

p-level

,40 1,32 ,29 1,49 ,77 21,88 ,24 Table 3. The results of the univariant variance analysis and discriminant fuction structures between top level and quality handball players

Variable AS Top level

AS quality F p-

level STRUC

AVIST 191,09 190,21 ,15 ,71 ,05AVISSJ 99,77 98,25 1,61 ,21 ,18

ATT 93,43 89,15 2,61 ,12 ,23AONADL 33,97 33,32 ,82 ,37 ,13AOPOT 40,78 39,56 2,41 ,13 ,22AŠRAM 42,89 41,16 6,05 ,02* ,35AŠZDJ 30,47 30,16 ,37 ,55 ,09

AŠŠAKE 8,99 8,73 5,13 ,03* ,32ADUŠAK 22,25 21,69 2,74 ,11 ,24AKNTRI 7,91 8,60 ,77 ,39 -,13AKNLEĐ 11,46 11,60 ,03 ,87 -,02ANKTRB 15,53 15,47 ,00 ,98 ,00

FVC 6,36 6,27 ,05 ,83 ,03FEV1 5,50 5,45 ,03 ,87 ,02

MEF75 6,24 7,42 ,92 ,34 -,14MEF50 6,58 7,25 1,32 ,26 -,16MEF25 6,67 6,61 ,00 ,95 ,01

PEF 11,61 11,52 ,01 ,93 ,01

By comparing the obtained results to the results of certain previous researches conducted on elite male handball players, we may observe their accordance, particularly in morphological area (Srhoj, 2002), but even the expected difference regarding the results obtained from female handball players (Cikatić and Foretić 2005, Foretić et al. 2007) or the female handball players from younger age categories (Foretić et al. 2005). Similar differences were stressed by Ronga et al. (2008) in the study conducted on male and female athletes in 10 different sports. The authors revealed significantly more spirometry parameter values in male athletes compared to female athletes. The same research showed swimmers have significantly more developed pulmonary function compared to volleyball players, football players, fencers, judo fighters and track-and-field athletes. Table 2, which includes the results of multivariant, i.e. discriminant analysis, displays there are generally no statistically significant differences between elite and quality players in the analysed variables of morphological and spirometry area. By discriminant analysis, we isolated one discriminant function not statistically significant. A detailed insight into to differences regarding certain areas and variables may be obtained from the results of the univariant analysis variance and discriminant function structure, i.e. from the correlation of variables and the discriminant function presented in table 3. By analysing table 3, we may observe only two statistically significant differences found in the morphological area in shoulder girth (AŠRAM) and hand girth (AŠŠAKE) variables.

Although elite handball players expectedly dominate in all variables, it is evident that two mentioned indicators, out of all the morphological characteristics, mostly distinguish elite from quality handball players. We may assume that shoulder girth in particular and to the greatest extent presents morphological characteristics determining playing quality since it enables the player powerful shooting and the increase of the shooting angle, in addition to higher efficiency in performing technical-tactic tasks in defence, particularly in the zone defence systems. Hand girth enables an efficient ball handling and to a large extent increases power and shooting preciseness which is a characteristic of elite players (Van Den Tillaar 2004, Gorostiaga et al. 2005, Srhoj et al. 2012). There are no statistically significant differences in ventilation parameters. Elite players were insignificantly dominant in FVC, FEV1, MEF25 and PEF, and quality players in the last two indicators: MEF75 and MEF50. It is logical to assume that spirometry indicators distinguish playing quality less clearly in sports such as handball which is characterised by mixed aerobic-anaerobic energy processes (Chelly et al. 2011), which makes the elite and the quality players more equal in these indicators than in e.g. motor or morphological indicators (Gorostiaga et al. 2005). Further on, it is not illogical to assume that the absence of statistically significant differences is a consequence of insufficient motivation in elite players during testing. With the purpose of better understanding interactive relations between the morphological and ventilation area, we calculated the cross-correlations coefficients (table 4). Table 4. Cross correlations between the variables of the morphological and the ventilation area

Variables FVCA FEV1 MEF75 MEF50 MEF25 PEFAVIST ,44 ,45 ,17 ,40 ,29 ,17

AVISSJ ,49 ,46 ,18 ,30 ,15 ,18ATT ,24 ,20 -,04 ,06 ,17 ,06

AONADL -,24 -,14 -,42 -,11 ,34 -,22AOPOT -,19 -,10 -,31 -,11 ,27 -,15AŠRAM ,33 ,39 ,03 -,04 ,07 ,22AŠZDJ ,05 ,17 -,22 ,16 ,47 -,09

AŠŠAKE ,06 ,04 -,01 ,13 ,20 ,21ADUŠAK ,41 ,33 ,19 ,19 ,15 ,27AKNTRI -,24 -,05 -,07 ,03 -,02 -,18AKNLEĐ -,02 ,03 -,01 -,08 -,18 -,12ANKTRB -,14 -,12 -,01 -,09 -,20 -,05

By inspecting table 4, we may observe that all the longitudinal skeleton dimensionality variables have positive and mostly statistically significant correlations with all the ventilation parameters. This means there is a significant positive connection between body measurements lengthwise and ventilation efficiency, i.e. the respondents who are taller, achieve better results in spirometry parameters. Undoubtedly, this was expected since longitudinal dimensionality directly determines larger voluminosity, i.e. lung capacity, and immediately a bigger active mass of the respiratory muscles. Naturally, the nature of this connection involves reversed cause-and-effect causality, i.e. the total bigger active muscle mass characteristic for respondents with stressed


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longitudinal skeleton dimensionality, necessarily influences development and demands the increase of spirometry-ventilation potentials which enable adequate energy support. All the variables of sub-skin adipose tissue have minor and mostly negative correlations with ventilation variables. It may be assumed that sub-skin adipose tissue, negatively, but not to a large extent, affects the ventilation efficiency. Handball is a sport in which, in addition to anaerobic, there are also aerobic energy processes influencing the burning of adipose tissue and its reduction, both in quality and elite handball players. It is likely that the absence of a higher degree of the negative connection of these two variables primarily lies in the fact that handball abounds in anaerobic energy processes (Rannou et al. 2001, Sporiš et al. 2010) which can affect the reduction of adipose tissue to a significantly lesser degree (Carey 2009). Transversal skeleton dimensionality variables achieve mostly positive, and in some variables statistically significant connections with ventilation variables. The largest correlation is between the shoulder girth and FEV1. It is evident that transversal dimensionality of the upper trunk, involving the proportional dimensionality of the chest, is more important in the starting than in the later phase of exhaling. We may easily conclude that shoulder girth in particular, followed by the proportional voluminosity of lung tissue, but also by the respiratory muscles tissue, is the most reliable morphological indicator of the lung capacity. A strong correlation of the pelvis girth and MEF25 is most interesting. We may assume that the air flow efficiency in the final phases of exhaling positively affects the diaphragm efficiency and the efficiency of stomach muscles in

the lower part of the stomach, which are likely more dimensioned in handball players with stressed transversal dimensionality of the pelvis. Variables referring to volume have less significant, but negative correlations with ventilation indicators apart from MEF25 where there is a positive connection. Volumes are body voluminosity measurements affected by muscle mass as well. We may assume that larger voluminosity in particular, and at the same time the muscle mass of the upper trunk, improves the power of exhaling in the starting phase. This assumption is corroborated by the total body mass which expectedly has positive, although relatively low correlations with the ventilation indicators. Conclusion Situation and result efficiency in handball players undoubtedly depend on all the anthropological features, including morphological characteristics as well, in addition to spirometry and ventilation parameters. This research established that the differences between elite national team players and quality first league handball players are generated more by morphological than by spirometry and ventilation parameters. The differences are more evident in longitudinal and transversal skeleton dimensionality variables than in adipose tissue. Regarding the fact these morphological characteristics are greatly genetically determined and not subjected to almost any of the changes under the influence of kinesiological treatments, we may consider them reliable indicators in the selection process in handball.

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SPIROMETRIJSKI I MORFOLOŠKI POKAZATELJI VRHUNSKIH RUKOMETAŠA Sažetak Cilj istraživanja je bio utvrditi razlike, ali i odnose morfoloških i respiracijskih obilježja vrhunskih reprezentativnih i kvalitetnih prvoligaških rukometaša. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 35 rukometaša dvaju rukometnih klubova I hrvatske rukometne lige, podijeljenih u dva subuzorka kao vrhunski reprezentativni (n=15) i kvalitetni prvoligaški igrači (n=20). Analizirano je ukupno 18 varijabli od kojih 12 za procjenu morfoloških karakteristika i 6 za procjenu respiracijskih i ventilacijskih parametara. Primjenom analize varijance i diskriminacijske analize nisu utvrđene statistički značajne razlike između vrhunskih i kvalitetnih rukometaša u analiziranim prostorima u cjelini. Pojedinačno, statistički značajne razlike prisutne su samo u varijablama širina ramena i dužine šake, a kod respiracijskih indikatora nije zabilježena niti jedna statistički značajna razlika. Analiza relacija između morfoloških i respiracijskih indikatora detektirala je pozitivne statistički značajne veze između većine varijabli respiracijskog prostora s većinom varijabli longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta te širinom ramena. Ključne riječi: rukomet, parametri, spirometrija, morfologija

Received: June 22, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc.Prof. Nenad Rogulj, PhD Faculty of Kinesiology University of Split 21000 Split, Teslina 6, Croatia Phone: +385 95 835 3195 E-mail: [email protected]

Bonacin, D. and Bonacin, Da.: Factor approach as universal model of optimization... Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 93‐96

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FACTOR APPROACH AS UNIVERSAL MODEL OF OPTIMIZATION METHODS WITH APPLICATION IN KINESIOLOGY

Dobromir Bonacin and Danijela Bonacin

Faculty of Social Sciences dr.M.Brkić, University of Herzegovina, Međugorje, Bosnia & Herzegovina


Abstract The purpose of this paper is the definition of a new framework and protocol optimization method that is based on a factorial approach. Namely, if it can be demonstrated that the analyzed system has no linear combinations of variables, ie that the system is regular, then the optimization problem in the first step down solve the dimensionality reduction of inequality constraints. This is true regardless of the objective function. In the second step, linking latent dimensions of space constraints was crucified set of nominal or continuous variables. As an example, take the indicators measuring bio-motor variables of boys aged 7 years. First are located extremely capable motor entities, the three of them. Then, the entire space is integrated into the morphological dimension. Results clearly show the strength of the protocol and wrote the entities in an easily recognizable way, defining specific morphological profile. Key Words: optimization, factorization, universal model, boys, biomotorics Introduction Optimization methods or methods of optimization are expensive procedures to the given conditions at a satisfactory solution, if there is a realistic solution. Optimization methods allow search of the most favorable solution of different problems. In the business economy the most used method of linear optimization that enable finding the most suitable solution to the problem in which the objective function (ie. Size we want to optimize) and restrictions have a linear shape dependence on independent variables. In practice, the most commonly used well-known method of linear optimization: linear programming, integer linear programming, transportation problem and the problem of assignment. The emphasis is on identifying practical problems that can be solved by linear optimization, the formulation optimization model and the sensitivity analysis results optimization (Mafioli, 1986; Éppen et al., 1993; Ceric and Varga, 2004). The simplest notion can be acquired in a graphic display which have the n-dimensional system (eg in 2 dimensions), the k-dimensional system of linear constraints (the direction in Example 3), in Figure 1, where k > n, and the objective function is arbitrarily set. This presentation obviously leads to the need to calculate the specific data that can be solved by linear programming. According to the theorem of extreme points of linear programming if there is an optimal solution to the problem of linear programming, at least one optimal solution must be in an extreme point of areas of possible solutions. This theorem shows that the search for the optimal solution can be limited to a finite number of extreme points (in this simple example is only a few points, while at the complex problems that can be a very large number).

For this purpose, for example, Simplex algorithm, which is the algebraic procedure search extreme points of the field of possible solutions to the problem of linear programming (Draščić-Ban, 2011). It is a row searched adjacent extreme point, as these extreme point is chosen the one that gives equal or better solution than the previous one.

Figure 1. Example of Ssace optimization solutions with three

functions constraints and objective function in two-dimensional space

If a solution exists in the field of real numbers this algorithm will be sure to find and give optimal solution. However, in the general case things are somewhat less favorable (Zangwill, 1969; Martić, 1973; Saaty, 1988). Figure 2 shows the general case of optimization problems where the solution exists and is limited to 5 function, regardless of whether or not the objective function is default. Of course that the objective function determines the behavior of the algorithm, but we are primarily interested in the space of possible solutions, and cost function can be subsequently addressed if the appropriate way to solve the problem of space solutions.


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Figure 2. Example of general space optimization solutions with five function limitations in two-dimensional space regardless of

the objective function As can be seen, in this solution is generally to k > n and the often k >> n. It is obvious also that in these situations is not entirely certain that the methods of detection points to provide a credible solution, as well as integral, and in particular that, the finding may not be optimal, because optimality further depends on your position and with that of set constraints optimal solution set (Bronson, & Naadimuthu, 1997). Of course, we cannot act in a way that we do not care for that kind of optimization solutions if it is in space solutions, but then obviously it does matter where from, for example, the above extreme dark marked points is the solution occurred. It seems to be a little simplified and rationalize these solutions but provided higher reliability and less intervention by the person who set the terms of optimization. In this way the whole thing strongly objectifies. Factor analysis Factor analysis is generally a full set of procedures, which serves to reduce the dimensionality of a multidimensional space (Bonacin, 2008). This reduction is not carried out only for the reason that analyzes the structure to simplify and understandable, but primarily for the reason that "seizes" latent mechanisms in a multidimensional stretched space exists. This is because of these mechanisms depend measurable events that we see on a conventional scale initially been detected. Based on projections of individual manifest indicators identify factors or latent mechanisms. In this case, for the purposes of this study, it can be said that the factor analysis could be quite beautifully used to optimize the function of limitations, where the number of function limitations should be equal to the number of dimensions of space in which the whole thing played out. This is shown in chart 3. And as can be seen also, it is certain that there is always a solution! In a general linear model in which the system is regular, ie. there is no linear combination of one series derived from other series, this proposition leads us into a situation that is a function of restrictions still as much as the dimensions of space, which certainly leads to optimal solutions at multiple coordinates (Pardalos & Rosen, 1987; Hlupić & Kalpić, 2009).

Thus, the problem reduces to the factor in the factorization, ie. reducing the dimensionality of feature constraints, where k = n. A situation whereby n> k we will not discuss, because in the same logic and the same conditions of regularity, it is not difficult to imagine the reduction of dimensionality of space dimensions on the order of functions, so it's again k = n.

Figure 3. Example of space previously shown a general

optimization solutions 5-function limitations factored in two-dimensional space regardless of the objective function

In figure 4, swe can ee the final set of potential information obtained by factorization with oblique rotation - typically orthoblique (Bonacin, 2008). This solution allows to haul axis space are not necessarily orthogonal, but can be in any relations. This setting allows the fundamental problem certainly a higher level of optimization for any defined as a problem or task. The solution space is curved but the truth is its linearity is unquestionable and in essence is nothing more than oblique mapping some of the possible solutions as the graph 3, with the known matrix transformation in the oblique system.

Figure 4. The case as previously with the relaxed limit

orthogonality system Example results and discussion Although examples of these considerations can be given in any scientific discipline (education, medicine, economics, ...), here will be displayed in the field of kinesiology. Let therefore there is a collection of 249 entities aged 7 to 26 described biomotor variables of which 14 morphological (body height - AVIT, leg length - ADUN, length of arms - ADUR, wrist diameter - ADRZ, knee diameter - ADIK, shoulder width - ASIR , width of the pelvis - ASIK, Body weight - ATEZ, Volume forearm - circumference -AOPL, kicking - AOPK,


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Medium scope chest - circumference -AOKG, upper arm skinfold - AKNN, skinfold back - AKNL and skinfold abdomen), then 11 motor (Steps aside - MKUS, polygon backwards - MPOL, Taping hand - MTAP, Taping foot - MTAN, bent in sitting foot - MARD, Standing on the bench for balance - MP2O, Long jump from place - MSDM, throwing balls into the distance - MBLD, running 20 ms high start - M20V, raising troops from lying - MDTS, and endurance in higher joint - MVIS) and one functional (run three minutes - FT3M). Let there is a set of targeted restrictions which are out of this mass wants for any purpose draw just those entities. Then the set of constraints to be reduced to a set of dimensions that determine the initial space in which the entities are spread applied variables. Suppose that we are interested in three of the fittest by latent motor dimensions, but we do not know what the morphological space is. Then we simply factorize motor area and find the ones that have the most value to motor factors. When we locate them, they will result in the value of the factor associated with the initial coordinate system, in this case defined with 14 morphological dimensions. Then we will determine their position in the morphological space which we define 14 dimensional framework and designed the morphological profile of the fittest motor entities. Of course, we could have taken otherwise defined set of entities, eg. those on motor dimensions are between +1.5 and +2.5 standard deviations, and spend the same procedure, but it is only a question of the definition of entities of interest and not a problem. According to the results of the factor analysis, we obtained three easily recognizable factors, the first of which can be identified as a general energy motor status, the other as a control motor status, and the third leg explosiveness. They then mapped entities with the highest sum of projections on such factors with the restriction that no value should be less than 0.45 (this can be changed arbitrary). Table 1. Ortoblique final matrix in motor dimensions

OBQ1 OBQ2 OBQ3 MKUS -0.07 -0.38 0.32 MPOL -0.31 -0.14 0.33 MP2O 0.33 0.16 -0.11 MPRR 0.19 -0.38 -0.23 MTAP -0.03 0.73 -0.09 MTAN -0.03 0.80 -0.03 MSDM 0.23 0.05 -0.63 MBLD 0.67 -0.05 -0.05 M20V 0.01 0.01 0.80 MDTS 0.63 -0.18 -0.18 MVIS 0.65 -0.12 -0.03 MT3M 0.80 0.27 0.64 OBQ1 OBQ2 OBQ3 OBQ1 1.00 0.37 -0.44 OBQ2 0.37 1.00 -0.33 OBQ3 -0.44 -0.33 1.00

These three entities were the E049 with the total sum by a factor of 2.79 (value of 0.45, 0.85, 1.49), then the entity E222 with a total amount of

1.87 (value of 0.55, 0.66, 0.66) and entity E051 with the sum of 1.79 (value of 0.55, 0.64 , 060). These three entities have the most desirable values in the sample with all the positive aspects of motor skills. Their morphological status is shown in Table 2. The morphological status of the three separated entities shows, compared to the whole sample, features especially developed longitudinally and transversality, therefore the growth of hard tissue (other than the diameter of the knee). At the same time, the volume (the volume of muscle) is slightly below average and adipose tissue markedly below average, then registered lower values of the soft tissue in relation to the whole sample. This testifies to the possible development in the direction of an athletic constitution but not completely, but with some prominent graceful structure. Table 2. The morphological status of the three specials entities in motor

E049 E220 E051 AVG- AVG AVIT 132.07 131.73 138.43 134.08 128.43 ADUN 73.10 75.47 78.23 75.60 71.44 ADUR 53.20 52.33 58.17 54.57 53.00 ADRZ 4.33 4.30 4.20 4.28 4.19 ADIK 7.20 7.97 7.07 7.41 7.74 ASIR 27.27 27.00 30.17 28.15 27.24 ASIK 21.30 20.50 22.30 21.37 20.30 ATEZ 25.17 27.17 27.17 26.50 27.02 AOPL 16.73 16.83 15.90 16.49 17.79 AOPK 25.03 25.57 24.57 25.06 25.76 AOGK 56.03 59.70 58.90 58.21 60.68 AKNN 9.30 10.53 10.40 10.08 11.44 AKNL 4.27 6.13 6.03 5.48 7.01 AKNT 4.93 5.07 5.77 5.26 7.43

(FILE entity => E049, E220, E051, AVG E = average of three isolated entities, AVG = overall average in the sample of 249

entities) If this was an adults sample you would possibly describe them as potential handball players, goalkeepers in football, basketball guards, aspiring volleyball, taekwondo fighters and the like. But not for example, gymnasts, judokas, weightlifters, etc. As can be seen, the optimization model is spawned typically and best representatives of the motor profile of children aged 7 years, and that profile has proven to be consistent in morphological space. Conclusion For the purpose of this work was made a special protocol and algorithm which defined a new framework for optimization purposes of identification phenomena in kinesiology, although the same could be applied in other areas such as medicine, pedagogy, economy and the like. The foundation of the whole process is the definition of optimization in a way that limits factor functions and reduce to a finite set and target latent mechanisms is by (dimension) is equal to the area in which the whole calculation takes place. In this way it is avoided the problem of multiple solutions and the optimal solution to a given problem is only one.


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For example, the selected set of 249 boys aged 7 to 26 described biomotor variables. Optimization has allocated three motor fittest according to the set parameters and then expressed their morphological profile. It is obvious that all three

were very similar morphological characteristics dominated tendency sporty type of constitution but with the influence of gracious materials and expressed the development of hard tissue, with markedly smaller amount of fat folds.

References Bonacin, D. (2008). Uvod u kvantitativne metode [Introduction to quantity methods. In Croatian.]. Kaštela:

Personal edition. Bronson, R., & Naadimuthu, G. (1997). Schaum's Outlline of operations Research. NY: McGraw-Hill Comp. Cerić, V., & Varga, M. (eds.) (2004). Informacijska tehnologija u poslovanju [Informatic technology in

business. In Croatian]. Zagreb: Element. Draščić-Ban, B. (2011). Linearno programiranje (LP) – simpleks metoda [Linear programming (LP) – Simplex

method. In Croatian.]. Rijeka: Pomorski fakultet. Eppen, G.D., Gould, F.J., & Schmidt, C.P. (1993). Introductory Management Science, 4th Edition. Englewood

Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Hlupić, N., & Kalpić, D. (2009). Linearno programiranje i simpleks algoritam [Linear programming and

Simplex algorithm. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Fakultet elektrotehnike i računarstva. Mafioli, F. (1986). Randomized algorithms in combinatorial optimization: A survey. Discrete Applied

Mathematics, 14, 157-170. Martić, L. (1973). Nelinearno programiranje [Nonlinear programming. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Informator. Pardalos P.M., & Rosen, J.B. (1987). Constrained global optimization: Algorithms and applications. Lecture

Notes in Computer Science, 268. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Saaty, L.T. (1988). Multicriteria Decision Making. The Analytic Hierarchy Process. Pittsburgh: RWS

Publications. Zangwill, W.I. (1969). Nonlinear programming, A unified approach. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

FAKTORSKI PRISTUP KAO UNIVERZALNI MODEL OPTIMIZACIJSKIH METODA S PRIMJENOM U KINEZIOLOGIJI

Sažetak Svrha ovog rada bila je definicija novog okvira i protokola optimizacijskih metoda koji je utemeljen na faktorskom pristupu. Naime, ukoliko je moguće dokazati da u analiziranom sustavu nema linearnih kombinacija varijabli, tj. da je sustav regularan, tada se problem optimizacije u prvom koraku svodi na redukciju dimenzionalnosti funkcija ograničenja. Ovo vrijedi neovisno o funkciji cilja. U drugom koraku se povezuju latentne dimenzije sustava ograničenja sa prostorom koji je razapet skupom nominalnih ili kontinuiranih varijabli. Za primjer su uzeti pokazatelji biomotoričkih dimenzija dječaka uzrasta 7 godina. Prvo su locirani ekstremno motorički sposobni entiteti, njih troje. Zatim je cijeli prostor integriran u morfološke dimenzije. Rezultati su jasno pokazali snagu protokola i pisali entitete na lako prepoznatljiv način definirajući specifičan morfološki profil. Ključne riječi: optimizacija, faktorizacija, univerzalni model, dječaci, biomotorika

Received: June 22, 2014 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc.Prof.Dobromir Bonacin, PhD Faculty of Social Sciences dr.Milenko Brkić University of Herzegovina Bijakovići, Međugorje, Bosnia & Herzegovina Phone: +385 (0)99 663 7597 E-mail: [email protected]

Bonacin, D.: Product ’free’ energy or not – that is a question!? Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 97‐99

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PRODUCT ‘FREE’ ENERGY OR NOT – THAT IS A QUESTION !?

Dobromir Bonacin

Faculty of Social Sciences dr.M.Brkić, University of Herzegovina, Međugorje, Bosnia & Herzegovina

Preliminary scientific communication

Abstract This article affirms an old idea of energy production under condition that energy has to be available to everybody. Maybe it is only an illusion, only an error, and an impossible dream, OK, it can be, but I think that seed is sown. Future will evaluate it. And of course, although it may not be seen immediately, it has enormous reflections in Kinesiology, as well as medicine, machinery, civil engineering, physics, space exploration, maritime studies, etc. etc, etc. Key words: energy, free, beginning Introduction Let me play a game. A game of exploration. And let me play a game. Game of joy. And let me play a game. Game of freedom. So, I played a game that includes exploration, joy and freedom. That is all. Methods For start, middle and final phases I used a strongest tool that ever existed. A brain. And not only mine but primary brains (results, thinking, papers, ...), of many authorities across the world and across the history. Those brains are extraordinary tool, believe me. It is literary impossible to name all of them on this piece of paper, so let me be excused, but all of them are my references. We have belt, and two weight on each side, so belt can go round by gravity force acting on weights. Weights change its position on limiter contact. Everything is so simple. And finally, this is not perpetuum mobile, because it requires input energy – gravity.

Figure 1. Moving position (middle)

Idea We are talking about usage of gravity force. In this moment I am not interested in factors of usefulness or similar mathematical constructions. I believe, someone will manage it quite good. Anyway, my calculations shows that it is possible to produce useful energy after we accept all system losses.

Figure 2. Transition position (near limit)

Figure 3. Final position (1)


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Figure 6. Transition position

Figure 7. Transition position

Conclusion Product ‘free’ energy or not – that is a question !? References * * * (from <- 5.000.000.000 years -> today). All people through human history that ever try to compose,

assemble, invent, anything new.

PROIZVODITI ‘BESPLATNU’ ENERGIJU, DA ILI NE - TO JE PITANJE !? Sažetak Ovaj članak afirmira poznatu zamisao o proizvodnji energije pod uvjetom da je raspoloživa svakome. Možda je to samo tlapnja, samo pogreška, i nemoguć san, može biti, ali mislim da je sjeme posijano. Budućnost će sve vrednovati. I naravno, iako možda nije odmah vidljivo, ovo ima enormne refleksije u Kineziologiji, baš kao i u medicini, strojarstvu, građevini, fizici, istraživanju svemira, istraživanju mora, itd., itd., itd. Ključne riječi: energija, sloboda, početak


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Received: February 14, 2012 Accepted: December 20, 2014 Correspondence to: Assoc.Prof.Dobromir Bonacin, PhD Faculty of Social Sciences dr.Milenko Brkić University of Herzegovina Bijakovići, Međugorje, Bosnia & Herzegovina Phone: +385 (0)99 663 7597 E-mail: [email protected]

Guidelines for authors Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 100‐101

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GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS

Aim & Scope Acta Kinesiologica - International Scientific Journal of Kinesiology is published twice a year containing review and scientific (sometimes professional and preliminary communication) articles in all wide areas of kinesiology (human movement science). In addition, articles can be published from other scientific areas if do satisfy higher degree of correspondence with kinesiology. General publishing policy Each submitted article first passes through evaluation according to journal intentions, editing (preparations), format, and general satisfaction. If satisfies those criteria, will be sent as blind (without information about authors) to anonyms referees. Authors take all responsibility for article contents and ethics. Journal can ask special statement from authors about originality of research as well as statement that article is not published or sent to any other publication. Author's rights remain, but journal can freely dispose with article in sense of reprint or other types of publication distributions. Authors have right for one printed copy and of journal and further copies by 50 % of full price. All other questions stand in order with standard law presumptions in society. Article preparation It is recommended that the structure of article include Abstract, Introduction, Problem and aim, Methods, Results, Discussion and conclusions, Literature. This recommendation is not a firm obligation for authors but helps a way for publishing and further ideas understanding. Articles are not restricted in amount, but if article contains more then 7 journal pages the author can be informed about additional payment for printing costs. Expected size is 12000 characters without tables and figures (exceptionally 14000). All tables should be standardized (e.g. Excel) and photos and other illustrations made in vector format for good printing resolution (600 dpi). Journal takes rights to manage illustration for printing preparation, and author will be informed by e-mail. Language English with Croatian abstracts.

Article types Article can be one of the following: 1. Professional paper – usually known topics

and thematic expressed in new manner, or in new field of application,

2. Preliminary scientific communication – new ideas but without strict proof through research,

3. Original scientific paper – complete project, from idea, through research to suggestions,

4. Review paper – mostly conceptual approach based on several projects and literature/researches comparison.

References Journal uses APA reference citation (egg. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition, 2001). Literature may contain only the authors cited in the text. We accept articles in electronic form exclusively (e-mail, CD, disc). Address for articles submission Acta Kinesiologica – Physical Education Pedagogues Association, Ljubuški

to: Editor-in-Chief: Assoc. Prof. Žarko Bilić, PhD, 88320 Ljubuški, Put za crveni grm, Bosnia & Herzegovina, e-mail: [email protected],

or to: Executive editor: Assoc.Prof.Dobromir Bonacin, PhD, 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, Croatia, e-mail: [email protected],

or to: Assistant Editor: Danijela Bonacin, MSc, 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, Croatia, e-mail: [email protected] Note Articles that do not satisfy requirements will be immediately return to corresponding author for corrections. Other Additional information can be viewed at address: http://www.actakin.com/. Issue price: 15 Euro, Overseas: 30 Euro + postal fee. Journal copyright and distribution according to law. Acta Kinesiologica ®: All rights app.

Upute autorima priloga Acta Kinesiologica 8 (2014) 2: 100‐101

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UPUTE AUTORIMA PRILOGA

Namjera i svrha časopisa Acta Kinesiologica – međunarodni znanstveni časopis iz područja kineziologije, publicira se dva puta godišnje i objavljuje pregledne, izvorne znanstvene članke, prethodna priopćenja i stručne priloge iz područja kineziologije u svim širim kineziološkim utilitetima, kao i priloge iz drugih područja i disciplina, ako imaju visok stupanj korespondencije s kineziološkom znanošću. Opće odredbe o prilozima Svaki prilog se vrednuje u odnosu na to odgovara li prilog intenciji časopisa, a zatim se upućuje na recenzije. Autori sami snose odgovornost za sadržaj, kao i etičnost svega što je u prilogu. Od autora se može zatražiti posebna izjava da članak nije objavljen u drugoj publikaciji. Sport Science ne ugrožava autorska prava autora objavljenih priloga, ali zadržava pravo distribucije u suglasju s pravnim uzusima i bez dodatne konzultacije s autorima, s čim su autori objavom suglasni. Autori nemaju pravo na reprint, osim jednog primjerka tiskanog časopisa. Dodatne primjerke plaćaju sa 50 % popusta po primjerku. Sva ostala pitanja rješavaju se u skladu s propisima. Priprema priloga Preporuča se da se autori pridržavaju forme koja uključuje: Sažetak, Uvod, Problem i cilj, Metode, Rezultati, Rasprava i zaključak, Literatura, Abstract. Ova preporuka ne obvezuje autore priloga, ali olakšava put do publiciranja i kasnijeg lakšeg razumijevanja materije. Prilozi nisu ograničeni veličinom, ali ukoliko prelaze 7 stranica u časopisu, od autora može biti zatraženo da sami osiguraju dodatna sredstva za tisak. Očekivana veličina je 12000 znakova bez tablica i slika (iznimno 14000). Sve tablice trebaju biti standardne (npr. MS Excel), a slike, fotografije i druge ilustracije u vektorskom formatu ili rezoluciji koja osigurava kvalitetan tisak (600 dpi). Časopis ima pravo radi pripreme za tisak urediti ilustraciju, o čemu se konzultira ili informira autora e-mailom. Jezik priloga Engleski uz sažetke na hrvatskom.

Vrste članaka Članci mogu biti kako slijedi: 1. Stručni članak – obično poznata tematika

ali izražena na neki novi način ili u novom području primjene,

2. Prethodno znanstveno priopćenje – nova ideja ali izražena bez striktnih dokaza kroz istraživanje,

3. Izvorni znanstveni članak – kompletan projekt, od zamisli, preko istraživanja do prijedloga,

4. Pregledni rad – uglavnom konceptualni pristup utemeljen na više projekata ili usporedbe referenci/istraživanja.

Navodi referenci Navodi literature, kao i drugi oblici formatiranja teksta, bit će prihvaćeni po APA standardu (npr. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition, 2001). Prilog se šalje isključivo u elektronskom obliku (e-mail, CD, disk,...). Adrese za dostavu priloga Acta Kinesiologica – Društvo Pedagoga Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, Ljubuški

za: Glavni urednik Prof. Žarko Bilić, PhD, 88320 Ljubuški, Put za crveni grm, Bosnia & Herzegovina, e-mail: [email protected],

ili za: Izvršni urednik: Prof.dr.Dobromir Bonacin, 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, Croatia, e-mail: [email protected],

ili za: Pomoćni urednik: Danijela Bonacin, MSc, 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, Croatia, e-mail: [email protected] Napomena Prilozi koji ne ispunjavaju uvjete ili je potrebna dodatna konzultacija, bit će žurno vraćeni autoru na korekcije. Ostalo Dodatne informacije mogu se dobiti na adresi:http://www.actakin.com/. Cijena po primjerku: 15 Eura. Cijena za inozemstvo: 30 Eura+poštarina. Umnožavanje-distribucija u skladu sa zakonom. Acta Kinesiologica ®: Sva prava pridržana.

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Journal text is avaliable on · Dear reader, We are honored and pleased to present a 16th issue of journal, the second number in 2014. This number is a bit unusual, because in addition