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SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS IN REFERENCE WITH NATURAL LAW HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY Raipur, Chhattisgarh JURISPRUDENCE PROJECT ON SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS IN REFERENCE WITH NATURAL LAW SUBMITTED TO Dr. Azim B. Pathan Faculty, HNLU SUBMITTED BY:- SARTHAK MISHRA SEMESTER – V ROLL NO. 131

Jurisprudencial Development during Medieval Period

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This particular literary piece is concerned with development in the field of jurisprudence that took place during the medieval. However, the paper majorly focuses upon the social contract theory given by Hobbes, Locke, Rosseau and also contains a comparative study of the same.

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Page 1: Jurisprudencial Development during Medieval Period

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS IN REFERENCE WITH NATURAL LAW

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Raipur, Chhattisgarh

JURISPRUDENCE PROJECT

ON

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS IN

REFERENCE WITH NATURAL LAW

SUBMITTED TO

Dr. Azim B. Pathan

Faculty, HNLU

SUBMITTED BY:-

SARTHAK MISHRA

SEMESTER – V

ROLL NO. 131

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CERTIFICATE OF DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Social Contract Theory in Medieval Period:

An Analysis in Reference with Natural Law” submitted to HNLU, Raipur, is record of an

original work done by me under the guidance of Mr. Azim B. Pathan, Faculty Member, HNLU,

Raipur.

Sarthak Mishra

Roll. No. 131

Semester – V

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SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS IN REFERENCE WITH NATURAL LAW

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to sincerely thank the Legal Method Teacher Mr. Azim B. Pathan for giving me this

project on “Social Contract Theory in Medieval Period: An Analysis in Reference with Natural

Law”, which has widened my knowledge on the scope and relevance of it in the Indian Legal

System. His guidance and support has been instrumental in the completion of this project.

My heartfelt gratitude also goes out to the staff and administration of HNLU for the

infrastructure in the form of our library and IT lab that was a source of great help in the

completion of this project.

I also thank my friends for their precious inputs which have been very helpful in the completion

of this project.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................................5

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................5

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................6

CHAPTERISATION.....................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 1..................................................................................................................................8

Main Characteristics of Natural Law Principle of Jurisprudence...................................9

CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................................11

Natural Law and the Hobbesian Social Contract.............................................................11

Natural Law and the Social Contract theory of John Locke...........................................13

Natural Law and Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory.....................................................14

CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................16

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................17

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OBJECTIVES

To discuss the concept of Natural law.

To discuss the various social contract propounded during the renaissance period with

reference to its relation to the Natural Law.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The method of research adopted in this project is secondary in nature. I have referred sources on

the internet as well as books on social contract theories as well as that of jurisprudence for the

clarification of the concepts of natural law and the social contract theories available in the

university library besides adding my personal views and knowledge of the topic.

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INTRODUCTION

In medieval texts the term “jus naturale” can mean either natural law or natural right. “Jus

naturale” in the former sense, and also lex naturalis, mean the universal and immutable law to

which the laws of human legislators, the customs of particular communities and the actions of

individuals ought to conform.1 It is equivalent to morality thought of as a system of law. It is

called "natural" either (a) because it is taught by natural instinct, i.e. some capacity innate in

human beings, or (b) because it is accessible to "natural reason", i.e. to personal reflection

independent of any special revelation from God, such as the Christian faith claims to be, and

independent of the moral authority of other human beings; or for both reasons. This study of

social and political states has linked philosophers across the ages. Some questions that have

occupied these philosophers' discussions are: Was there ever a period of time when men lived

outside of societies and what was it like? How did men escape that period and enter into a new

time of societies? Was it through force or mutual agreement? Once a form of government is

chosen, or appointed, who rules and is the rights of the individual preserved? Several of these

questions are addressed by both Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan, and by John Locke in Two

Treatises of Government.2 Both Hobbes and Locke wrote of that period prior to the formation of

societies, referred to as the State of Nature, when individuality, rather than collectivity, described

mankind. Each also wrote of how mankind was able to leave the State of Nature and form civil

societies. This transition from the State of Nature to government was considered a contract by

both of these 17th century philosophers. Hobbes is traditionally labeled as having an alienation

theory, while Locke is considered as having an authorization theory. The fundamental difference

between alienation and authorization theories concerns what happens to an individual's rights

once the contract is executed. Alienation theory considers the contract as irrevocable. Jean

Hampton wrote in Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition that the individual’s rights are

surrendered to the Sovereign.3 The only justifiable way to retrieve one's rights after the contract

is initiated is to form a new contract. Authorization theory, on the other hand, considers the

1 LEO STRAUSS, NATURAL LAW, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968; NATURAL LAW, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press. 2007.2 THOMAS HOBBES, LEVIATHAN, ed. C.B. Macpherson, New York, Penguin Books, 1985; JOHN LOCKE, TWO TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT, ed. Peter Laslett, Cambridge University Press, 1991.3 JEAN HAMPTON, HOBBES AND THE SOCIAL CONTRACT TRADITION, p. 3, Cambridge University Press, 1986.

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contract as revocable. The individual, as opposed to the Sovereign, retains the authority to

terminate the contract at any time. Hampton called it an agency theory, retaining Hobbes' terms,

where the rights of each subject are only loaned to the Sovereign.4 The supremacy of the human

lawgiver, as posited by Machiavelli and in their diverse ways also by the French and English

political theorists Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes and others, interwove in the following

centuries with the continued insistence of Hugo Grotius, the Dutch political and legal

philosopher, and others on the dominance of divine reason and humans’ participation in it, by

which they have access to the natural law.

In the present project topic an attempt has been made to analyze the natural law theory in

accordance with the social contract theories propounded by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau during

the renaissance period.

4 Ibid.

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CHAPTERISATION

CHAPTER 1

To discuss the concept of Natural law theory of Jurisprudence.

Natural law theory has been interpreted differently at different times depending on the needs of

the developing legal thought. But the greatest attribute of the natural law theory is its adaptability

to meet new challenges of the transient society.5 The exponents of natural law philosophy

conceive that it is a law which is inherent in the nature of man and is independent of convention,

legislation or any other institutional devices.

Dias and Hughes describe natural law, “as a law which derives its validity from its own inherent

values, differentiated by its living and organic properties, from the law promulgated in advance

by the State or its agencies”.

Similarly, according to Cohen, “natural law is not is not a body of actual enacted or interpreted

law enforced by courts, it is in fact a way of looking at things and a humanistic approach of

judges and jurists. It embodies within it a host of ideals such as morality, justice, reason, good

conduct, authority. Some thinkers believe that these rules have a divine origin, some modern

sociological jurists and realists have sought resource to natural law to support their sociological

ideology and the concept of law as a means to reconcile the conflicting interests of individuals in

the society”.6

A widespread concept of political and legal thought, denoting the aggregate or collection of

principles, rules, laws, and values dictated by human nature and therefore seemingly independent

of concrete social conditions and the state. Natural law has always appeared as a value category

relative to the legal order in force in a given political society and to the system of social relations

consolidated by such a legal order. In views serving as apologetics this system and the existing

laws are declared to be in conformity with natural law and natural justice; views calling for

social transformations declare the society and its laws to be in contradiction with natural law and

justice. During the long history of natural law its content has varied according to the historical

5 R.W. M. DIAS, LEGAL THEORIES OF JURISPRUDENCE, 5th ed., Cambridge University Press, 1987.6 COHEN, READINGS IN JURISPRUDENCE AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY, p.660, Harvard University press, 1951.

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conditions, as well as the social and political positions of its proponents.7 The idea of natural law

had already developed in ancient times, especially in the classical world. It was used by the

Greek Sophists and Aristotle and was central to Stoicism. Along with civil and popular law

Roman jurists singled out natural law (jus naturale) as a reflection of the laws of nature and the

natural order. Cicero stated that a law of the state that contradicted natural law could not be

viewed as law. During the Middle Ages natural law was primarily theological in form. It was an

integral part of religious doctrine: in the teaching of Thomas Aquinas, for example, natural law is

the concrete expression of divine reason guiding the world and the basis of law created by the

state. Even today the idea of natural law continues to be a part of the official theological and

political doctrine of the Catholic Church. The idea of natural law had its greatest social influence

in the 17th and 18th centuries as a fundamental ideological weapon in the struggle of the

progressive forces of society against the feudal structure. During this time the principle of the

natural law was utilized as a weapon to criticize the feudal system prevalent in the society.

The 20th century has seen the so-called renaissance of natural law. This occurred because the

transition of capitalism to the monopolistic and then the state-monopolistic stage required the

reevaluation of many legal institutions, which both included natural law and was conducted with

its aid. Increased consciousness of the working masses forced the bourgeois ideologists to seek

popular slogans that could be directed against socialist ideas, and the theory of natural law was

convenient for these purposes for example, the rejection of private property is declared to be a

violation of the fundamental principles of natural law.

Main Characteristics of Natural Law Principle of Jurisprudence

The phrase ‘natural law’, has a flexible meaning. It has been interpreted to mean different things

in its evolutionary history. However, it has been generally been considered as an ideal source of

law with invariant contents. The chief characteristic features of natural law may be briefly stated

as follows:

1. It is basically a priori method different from empirical method, the former accepts things or

conclusions in relation to a subject as they are without any need or enquiry or observation

while empirical or a posteriori approach tries to find out the causes and reasons in relation to

the subject-matter.

7 R.W. M. DIAS, LEGAL THEORIES OF JURISPRUDENCE, 4th ed., Cambridge University Press, 1976.

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2. It symbolizes physical law of nature based on moral ideals which has universal applicability

at all places and times.

3. It has often been used either to defend a change or to maintain status quo according to needs

and requirement of the time. For example, Locke used natural law as an instrument of change

but Hobbes used it to maintain status quo in the society.

4. The concept of ‘rule of law’ in England and India and ‘due process’ concept in USA are

essentially based on natural law philosophy.

The content of natural law have varied from time to time according to the purpose for which it

has been used and the function it is required to perform to suit the needs of the time and

circumstances. Therefore, the evolution and development of natural law theory has been through

various stages which may broadly be studied under the following heads:

1. Ancient Period

2. Medieval Period

3. The period of Renaissance

In the next chapter the third phase i.e. the phase of renaissance would be discussed in terms of

social contract theories and with reference to the natural law. This period saw the evolution of

the social contract theories propounded mainly by Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and departure of

their theories from the natural law principle.

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CHAPTER 2

To discuss the various social contract propounded during the renaissance period with

reference to its relation to the Natural Law.

In the present chapter the social contract theories of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau has been

discussed separately with reference to the natural law principle and thereby showcasing it’s

departure from the same.

Natural Law and the Hobbesian Social Contract

For centuries, political philosophy has dealt with methods of making the legal ordering of society

mirror what is moral and just. Central to this concept is whether or not laws in themselves are

just and moral, and how human beings with different traditions and experiences can arrive at

moral laws, reject immoral laws, and discern between the two. This concept of natural law has

been arrived at in different ways, and in some sense Thomas Hobbes’ version of the social

contract can be viewed not only as a competing version of natural law theory, but the modern-

day interpretation in most Western-style democracies as the basis for moral lawmaking.

The concept of natural law is largely attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican priest

during the Scholastic era where the reintroduction of Aristotelian philosophy to Western

Civilization had become all the rage. This, theory was undoubtedly borrowed from the Greeks

themselves, and most notably from Aristotle’s discussion on the topic of goodness in the

Nichomachean Ethics. Aquinas borrowed Aristotle’s understanding of goodness and happiness

and incorporates it into Catholic theology in the magnum opus Summa Theologicae. Aquinas

had made the argument in favor of natural law and had suggested the same being reflective of the

eternal law itself. As the natural law is the inherent normative quality in nature, not only does

Aquinas claim that all m en are bound to it, but by its very nature as a reflection of the eternal

law, it is both absolute and immutable.8

This was an idea that Hobbes violently rejected. The first and most basic premise that Hobbes

argues is the equality of man in his natural state, and that from this natural state springs a

constant state of warfare based on three motivators: competition, diffidence, and glory. Hobbes

states that there can never be law, and without law there is nothing to contravene, and therefore

8 WALTER FARRELL, A COMPANION TO THE SUMMA, Ch. XX, Vol. III, Sheed & Ward, 1939.

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no peace. He argued that the only thing that can negate these motivators are fear of dying, desire

of goods and a hope to enjoy the fruits of one’s own labor. Thus, he defined natural law as:

“A law of nature is a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a m an is for bidden

to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taken away the means of preserving the same; and

to omit, that, by which he thinks it may be best preserved”.9

This particular definition can be categorized into three percepts defining Hobbes concept of

Natural Law.

The first precept of Hobbes’ is that natural law becomes the opposite of the wild and untamed

world of warfare that unrestricted exercise of the rights of nature permits, as Hobbes observes;

“that every man, ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he

cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all help, and advantages of war.10

The second precept of Hobbesian natural law suggests that individuals should be willing to lay

down their natural rights in or der to achieve peace.11

Finally, the third precept suggests that once these natural rights have been laid down for the sake

of peace an expressed contract has to be made between mutually consenting people and the

participating individuals are bound to honor the arrangement because without such a contract

there would be no development in state of nature and thereby the state of war would persist.12

Departure from Natural Law Principle of Thomas Aquinas

Thus Hobbes devises a theory of natural law that stands in sharp contrast to the former

Aristotelian forms of natural law expounded upon by Aquinas and his successors. The points of

departure has been discussed below.

Under former Thomistic norms for human motive, happiness was the first and foremost goal,

whereas under Hobbes fear and self-interest were the primary motivators.

9 THOMAS HOBBES, LEVIATHAN, p. 64 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.10 Ibid at p. 64.11 Ibid at p. 65.12 Ibid at pp. 66-71.

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Laws and justice were also points of contention, as Thomistic natural law saw these as objective

from the standpoint of God, Hobbes saw these as belonging to the entity of the state exclusively.

Finally, the origins of natural law stand in stark contrast, for Hobbes removes and replaces the

concept of God as being advocated by the Thomistic norms with his concept of the absolute

sovereign.

Natural Law and the Social Contract theory of John Locke

According to Locke Natural law is, “the law of nature is a declaration of God's will and a

standard of right and wrong. It is a law that already governs the state of nature, i.e. a

pre-social state in which all men are free and equal, and in which they live together in

peace. If men make promises to one another in the state of nature, they must consider

themselves bound by them, 'for truth and keeping faith belong to men as men, and not as

members of society.' It is likewise according to this law and prior to any positive civil

laws that each man's private property is determined. the law of nature sets bounds to

what each man is allowed to appropriate and keep for himself. Since within these bounds

a person's 'right and convenience' go together, there can be little room for quarrels about

property. Further, for Locke, God's purpose in the creation man was to 'put him under

strong obligations of necessity convenience, and inclination to drive him into society, as

well as to fit him with understanding and language to continue and enjoy it. In general,

political power for Locke is justified only in so far as it preserves men's natural rights,

especially those of life and property. Government is thus limited both by natural law and

by men's rights, and these two came to be almost identical for Locke. It can be seen that

the part played by natural law in Locke's political theory is indeed fundamental. It is

because he believes this law to be the law of the state of nature, and this state of nature

to be not altogether annulled when it is superseded by men's life in society, that for him

natural law remains valid in society and in fact sets limits to political government.

Unlike, Hobbes Locke have taken a slightly favoring stand for the natural law theory considering

it to be rational aspect of the human mind.

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Natural Law and Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory

Traditionally moral judgments in opposition to prevailing norms or law were made within the

framework either of revelation or of that most rubber-like conceptual device, natural law.

But the creed of the Savoyard vicar clearly indicated Rousseau's reluctance to accept the

authority of a Bible whose interpretation was so vehemently disputed on all sides. This rejection

would seem to have left him no option but recourse to some version of natural law theory. In its

most common and general form this theory postulated a law known by reason, and morally

obliging man on the ultimate authority of a God also known by reason.

Rousseau’s Criticism of Hobbes and Locke

In Rousseau’s state of nature, the primitive man was a creature of isolation seldom coming into

contact with his fellows. This description is corollary of his far more radical position that man

is not naturally, i.e., of necessity, a rational animal. This was in contradiction to the theory

propounded by Hobbes as he had previously denied man’s sociality but not his rationality.

Rousseau also criticized the theory propounded by Locke that provided for a natural and

language less thought with a conventional vocabulary and syntax extrinsically added to

antecedent and independent thought processes. He rejected this dualism, insisting that only the

most elementary kind of thought is possible without words to solidify abstract ideas and

relations. Though man has the potential for higher thought, without language this capacity can

never be realized.

Rousseau’s Rejection of Natural Law Principle

There are other reasons which some have seen as evidence that Rousseau rejected natural

law. In his first version of the Social Contract, there is a chapter which contains a

critique of natural law as expounded by Diderot in an article for the Encyclopedia. Neither

the idea of God nor of natural law is innate since both have to be taught to men. It may

be a law of reason, but the reason sufficient to apprehend it develops only after the rise

of those passions which render its dictates impotent13. This contention reflects Rousseau's

belief that the unfolding of man's rational capacities is a result of a prior growth of the

passions.

13 THE POLITICAL WRITINGS OF JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, p. 449, vol. I, ed. C. E. Vaughan, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1962

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According to him, There is a natural law but in order for it to be operative certain conditions

must be fulfilled; in the absence of these conditions it is not obligatory. This idea of a

conditional natural law is by itself enough to differentiate Rousseau's version from the

absolutist versions of tradition. His reason for making legitimate laws conditional constitutes

the very heart of the Social Contract.

But unfortunately most if not all states, from Rousseau's point of view, are far from ideal,

and laws bear unequally on subjects. According to his analysis in the Social Contract this

constitutes at least a partial reconstitution of the state of nature, and the only obligation

subjects have toward rulers is prudential. Thus, from the moral point of view, subjects are

in a state of nature vis-a-vis their rulers.

In the absence of rules determined by the collective decision of the people, the individual is

thrown back on his own resources; he must be his own general will. The self-imposed law

which gives a moral dimension to an individual is not a product of his particular will, i.e.,

that will which looks to his advantage, but of his general will, i.e., that will which never

concedes him a right over others he would not willingly concede others over himself. This

principle of generality and equality responds to what otherwise is known as natural law, and

goes to the very roots of what Rousseau means by morality.

Thus, evident that Rousseau believed in natural law though his version significantly differs

from traditional accounts. It is also clear that ultimately he linked the fate of morality with

the existence of God.

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CONCLUSION

Under the leadership of anthropologists, analyses of human beings’ internal process of response

to the exigencies of existence within a particular culture—to conscious and subconscious psychic

drives and motivations—deeply affected the jurisprudential study of law and society and helped

to bring natural-law thinking to a 19th-century nadir. In the anthropologist Bronisław

Malinowski’s most mature statement on the matter, he distinguished four major meanings of the

word law as important in understanding the growth of civilization. They included “laws of

nature” in the scientific sense of rules governing humans’ conscious adaptations to the

environment; rules of “efficiency” and “convenience” according to which the group lives; rules

for conflict adjustment; and rules about enforcement of the last two. No conception of natural

law, which had engaged earlier thinkers for two millennia and more, was included.

In addition the vehement criticism of the natural law principles by the social contractualists

ignited the gradual downfall of the natural law principle that had covered up the area of the legal

for well a period of more than seventeen centuries. This process was sped up by the emergence

of new schools of jurisprudence including Analytical School of Law, Historical School of Law

and Sociological school of Law.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE POLITICAL WRITINGS OF JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, ed. C. E. Vaughan, Oxford University

Press, Oxford, (vol. I, 1962).

THOMAS HOBBES, LEVIATHAN, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1996).

WALTER FARRELL, A COMPANION TO THE SUMMA, Sheed & Ward, (Vol. III, 1939).

R.W. M. DIAS, LEGAL THEORIES OF JURISPRUDENCE, Cambridge University Press, (5th ed., 1987).

COHEN, READINGS IN JURISPRUDENCE AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY, Harvard University press, (5th

ed.1951).

R.W. M. DIAS, LEGAL THEORIES OF JURISPRUDENCE, Cambridge University Press, (4th ed. 1976).