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7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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Kharkov
and S ina i
A S t u d y i n O p e r a t i o n a l T r a n s i ti o n
by
Major James E. Sikes
In an ry
School of Advanced Mil i tary Studles
US
Army Command
&
General Staff College
Fort Leavonworth, t<ansas
28 Apr i l
988
Approved
for
public
release
d i s
l r i
bu
t ion i s un
limi
led
88-2866
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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D i r e c t o r , S c h o o l o f
A d v a n c e d M l l i t a r y
i t i h L c , .
U i r e c t o r , t i r a d t i a t t . l I c r r + v
P r o g r a m
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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AB§TllACT
KH RKIJv
ND
SINAI--A
STUDY
N
O ~ E R A T I O N A L T R A N ~ T I O N
hy
~ l < 1 J l t (
,lrtllt{JS
E.
SlVflS.
l iSA
86 pages.
1111< stu l l , t e ~ j t ~ the h y p o t : h f . S l ~
tha t , a t the
operatIona.1
Ipvel . thf:irl.' I 1 fP
l L ~ J f ~ r d Jul Edf'merltc:. u{ upera t iona l
t r ans I t ion
t h a t the commander may II li
r·
n
lJulde ttl d p . t e m l l l ~ the ac t Ions that must
be
tal:en
to
purslie t.he pusi t . l I f d.Im,
thp
LUll l l te>rof tensive.
The
act ions
a
force
takes from the successful d E ? f e I l 5 r ~
to
the JnItlation
of a [ounteroffenSlve IS operatIonal
transItIon. To defille
t t lE
~ e a r c h tor e5sential elements of operatIonal transition, the paper bpQlrlS
witll
d
review
of
theory
and current US
Army
doctrine concerning the mix of
offenSive and deferlslve actions
in
the operational defense. It
then closely
e ~ a m l n ~ s two successful operational tranSitions by forces
that were
s u r p r l S ~ ~ o ~ t n l l m b e r e d and
mal-posltioned. The
campalgns
chosen for study
are
Mallst.eln 5
count.eFoffenslve
against
the
Soviets on the
Eastern
Front from
Februdry to
March
1943
and
the Israel counteroffensive against the
Eqypt ldns
In tho
1973 Arab-Israel . War.
l11e IBonograpn f i r s t studies the
linkage
of
ends, ways,
means
and
r I S ~ S
reQuired for' successful operational
defense
and the t ransi t ion
to
the
offens ?
Second. the paper e)lamines the
elements
of operational d e ~ l g n tllat
m I A ~ ; t
tJe
COI1Sldereri to produce
a
campaign
plan
t h a t facil l ta tes opera
I t J n ~ i
trdnt:. ltlon.
Las t ly ,
the study
e ~ a l l l i n e s
the elements of
comhat
power tlldt
trltl[dl
for s u c [ ~ ~ s f l l l
defense dnd
pursuit
of th counteroffensivP dl tIle
Clpt: rat
l t lr lrd ievpl.
T 1 1 ~ monograph
concilldes
that there are
essent ia l
elements of operat .onal
t r ans , t .on that
may
be used to gUIde
campaign
plannIng. Firs t , ends-ways
l e i l l l ~ - r 15k must be harmollized
so that
strategy,
operational art and
tact ics
are
s y n c n r o n l ~ e d
to
pursue the POSitive
aim
of
the
counteroffensive.
Second,
tile operatlonal commander
should understand
and
apply
the ana lyt ica l
to()ls
of
operational design in
order
to be successful 1n the
defense
and t r a n s i t i o n to
t l l ~
[OLlnteruffenslve.
These cOllcepts are
ttlose
of th center
of gravity,
the
culmillatlng OOlnt, the determInation
of deCisive
pOints and
the
designation
uf l l r l ~ ~ s of operation and
support. This understanding
and
appl1catlon
p r o d u c ~ ~
a
wor l:able,
ln i t la l campaign plan tha t focuses on set t ing the
condJtlrl"s ior' the t r ans . t lon to the counteroffensive. Lastly,
through
the
d p ~ l J l l a t l o n of intel l igence,
deception,
generation of operational reserves
and sll '3talnlltent, the operatIonal commander must meld the
operat ional comhat
~ l ) W e r
~ · H s o u r c e s of leadership. maneuver, firepower, and
protection
InLo a
fO (1 e (dp,:dlle of t . ' ) ,ecutlnq hIS campalgn pIau .
Ihp
mOIlOt]r ' rlph
(lJllL.ludes
t h a ~
the
dp.tense
15
the
~ i t r ( ) n L J p . r
form of
wdr
Dilly
Lt I t l ln /u lves rlO t lp£ . r . : l t J lJ l l r l l transltiClrl tu the of fe r l s lve .
lh lh monograph also contains three appendices that
may
be useful to
CJfleratlorlal
planner s
In developing campaign plans. While
the
discllsslon
in
the appendIces i s not completely supported by the two case s tudIes presentel i ,
the append
••
e .
may
prOVIde s ta r t points for those in teres ted ,n conductIng
f ~ r t h e r research
into the subjects of operational defense and t ransi t ion to
til£
uffp.ltl,e.
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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I .
l n t r n d ~ c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
C u r r e n t D o c t r i
T h e s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 4
D e f i n i t i o n s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. .
. 4
I I e t h o d o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
I .
I I i ~ . t o r i r : a l
[;a ;@
S t u d i e s .
. . ,
h
L a s e
f i i u t l y 1 : K h a r k o v . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. * 0
1 1 1 .
c
1111
I 1(15 1 0115.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
I V .
Apbi e n d i r e s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
P I J
E s s e n t i a l E l e m e n t s o f U p e r a t i o n a l ' T r a n s i t i o n . .
. .
. . . .
. .40
E s s e i i t i a l E1em en't.s o f E n d s , Ways , i l e a n s a n d R i s k
4 4
46
E s s t ? n t . i a l E l e m e n t s o f U o e r a t i o n a l R e s e r ve s
. . . . . .
E s s e n t i a l E l e m e n t s o f
O p e r a t i o n a l D e s i g n
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
.
E s s e n t i a l
E l e m e n ' t s o f C o mb at P o w e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
, .
V .
. . .
. . .
. . . .
.
L
.,
>
I h e o r e t i c a l R a s e f o r O p e r a t i o n a l T r a n s i t i o n . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
. . .J
-
n e o f U p e r a t i u n a l T r a n s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A n a l y s i s r i f
I : a s p i i t u d y 2 :
A i i a l v s i s o f
K I i a r
k o v . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
S i n a i . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
S i n a i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. .
. . . .
. . .
.
I
r
. . I n
., .
. . L . I
.
. J i
L I
.
. ,I L
.
,511
c-
.
. i.,
[ l rd ec o f R a t t l e - M a n s t e i n ' s C o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e # f i x i s F o r c e s . . . . . . . . . .5 7
M a n s t e i n ' s C o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e - T a s I f l r y a n i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Y
A r a h
a n d I ; r a e l i C o m b a t S t r e n g t h , 1 9 7 3 W a r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. f > G
l ' l a n s t . k i t 1 ' 5 h e i n f o r c e m e n t s
i n
F e b r u a r y
1 9 4 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..56
Maps
I
t n
8 :
Khar i . i i v
C a n p a i f l n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h l
l l a p s
9
ti,
1 2 1 1 9 7 . i A r a b - I s r a e l i War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0
V I .
h r l n o t e s . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8
x .
: i b l i o g r a p hy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4
c11i I
s
Llrdrr 01
b a t . t
l e
f
01
D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 2 . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O r d e r
o f
N a t t l e - M a n s t e i n ' s C o u nt e r o f f e n s i v e : S o v i e t F u r c e s . .
. . .
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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I . I NTR0DU.r .T
I
O N
C i J u s e w i t r ' s t l i z o r y o f w a r i m p l i e s t h a t a l a r g e m i l i t a r y f o r c e m us t
11055e '55 t l l e c a p a b i l i t y t o t r a n s i t , i o n q u i c k l y f r o m t h e d e f e ns e t o t h e
o f f e n s e . W h i l e d e f e ns e
may
b e t h e s t r o n g e r f o rm o f w a r , C l a u s e w i t z a r g u e d ,
t h e c o nm a ri de r must t a k e d e c i s i v e o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n a t some p o i n t t o a r h i e v e
p o c . l t l v e result,^.
8 0 t h W e l l i n g t o n i n P o r t u g a l and
S l i m
i n B u r ma aCkn l1Wiedged
t i l t ' i n h e r e n t s t r e n g t h s o f t h e d e f e n s e -- t h e a b i l i t y t o g a r n e r r e s o u r c e s a n d
d e l a y o r a t t r i t e t h e e nemy a s t h e a t t a c k e r c o m m it s h i m s e l f a g a i n s t e i t h e r
h a r d e l l e d
p o s i t i o i i s
o r m o b i l e d e f e n s e f o r c e s . B o t h , h o w ev e r,
a l s o
r e L u q n i : e d
t h f ? n e e d
t o
" . . . t u r n
t h e
t a b l e s on t h e a t t a c k e r . . . ' t h e r e b y " . . . f o l l o w i i i g a
s i i cc es . i fu i o p e r a t i o n a l i ~ e f e n s ew i t h
an
o f f e n s i v e c a mp a ig n ..
, / '
T hu s, t o e n j o y
t h e f r i a i t s o f s t r a t e g i c s u cc e ss , a rm ed f o r c e s m us t b e a b l e t o e x e c u t e t n e
o p e r a t i ; i n a I t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d e f e n s e t o t h e o f f e n s e .
S i n L e t h e o r y a n d d o c t r i n e s u g g e s t t h a t o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n 5 i t i o n
i 5
r e q t i i r e d , a d e f e n d i n g o p e r a t i o n a l co mm and er m us t p r e p a r e f o r i t . To at, S : I ,
l i p n i l s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n .
E s t a b l i s h i n g t h rr s e e l e m e n t 5 o f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n
w i l l
a i d t i l e
o p e r a t i o n a l commander. i n t h e p a s s ag e f r o m t h e d e f e ns e t o t h e o f f e n s e .
Th1. i imi inoqraph
w i l l
s t u d y t h e o p e r a t i o n a l . t r a n s i t i o n
f r i im
t h e
i ~ i e o i r . ~ l r . a I ,
d n r t r i n d l d i i d h i s t o r i r a l p e r s p e c t i v e . To d e f i n e t h e p ro b le m , i t
w i l l
b ~ g i n w i t h a ll a l l d ly s i ; o f t h e m i l l o f o f f e n s e a nd d e f e n s e i n t h e
C : l au s e w i t z ia n c o r i s t r i i c t o f o p e r a t i o n s . F r o m t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e u r y a r id
d o c t r i j i e , t w o
c a s e
s t u d i e s
w i l l
b e a n a l y z e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e 1e ment.s (if
t r a i i s i i i o n p e r t i n e n t t o e a ch . F i n a l l y , c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g o p e r a t i o n a l
. t r a n s i t i o n w i l l b e d ra w n f r o m a c o m p a r is o n o f c a s e s t u d y a n a l y s i s w i t h
t h e o r
e t i L a 1
p r o p o s i t i o n s .
CI T h . e o r e t i L a 1
B d s i s
f o r
O p e r . a t . j o n a l . , T r a n s i t ~ . o n
I n
i l l s m o n u m e n t a l
w o r k , O n
Wart-, C l a u r e u i t z s e t s t h e s t a g e f o r t h e
r eq t i i r em e rl i o f an o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . I n B o o k 6 o f On War., h e s t a t e s
t h a t . liir
d r t v n s i v e
f o r m o f w a r h a s t h e c o n c e p t o f " p a r r y i n g t h e b l o w : w i t h
t.;-Ne
c11dr'a i : t er i s t i c
f e a t u r e b e i n g " a w a i t i n g t h e b l o w " . ' D e f e n s i v e o p e r a r i u n s ,
t l i c f k ~ f i . s r c , c o n s i s t
o t
w a i t i n g f o r t h e enem y a t t a c k
a n d
t h e n f e n d i n g o f t t hr .
r i ie inr
r . I i r u S t s .
i i e g o es u n t o s a y t h a t a d a f e n s i v e c a mp a i g n i s f o u y i i r w i t h
[ 1 1
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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b o t h i i f f e n s i v e a nd d e f e n s i v e a c t i o n s . I n h i s w or d s. d e f e n s i v e i i p e r a t i o n ~ ,
i t
F
n o t
" a
s i m p l e s h i e l d , b u t
a
s h i e l d made u p o f w e l l - d i r e c t e d b l o w s " . " i t 1 1 5
c o n s t r u c t p r o v i d e s a p u r p o s e f o r l i m i t . e d o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s i n t h e i l e f e n s r .
h ow sv el. ', t h e o f f e n s e
may
h a v e a b r o a d e r f u n c t i o i 7 ,
C l a u s e w i t z s t a t e s t h a t " d e f e n se h a s a p a s s i v e ~ ~ u r p o s c :r e se r va t 1 1 1 1 1 ;
a n d
tl lc- a t t a c k a p o s i t . i v e o ne : c o n q u e s t . ''4 T hi i s , t h e d e f e n s e a im s t u h o l d on t u
w l i d t
t h e d e f e n d e r p r e s e n t l y o w ns w h i l e a h e o r b i n q t i l e enemy a i . t a c I .
a n d
. t t r i t i r l g enemy r e s o u r c e s . B u t , t h i s i s
a
n e g a t i v e a i m , f u r o f t r r i t h e
a t t a c k e r w i l l g a i n some g r o u n d a n d, a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e a t t a r . i : r r
may t a k e a m e a s ur e o f g r o u n d t h a t
i s
u n a c c e p t a b l e t o s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s .
T he d e f e n d e r i s o b l i g e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o u n d e r t a k e o f f s n s i v r a c t i o n s t i 1 r e g a i n
t h i s l o s t g r o u n d i f t h e d e fe n d e r i s t o p r e s e r v e h i s t e r r i t o r y .
C l a u s e w i t z g o e s on t o s t a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b t ? tw ee ii t h e r i f fs n ; iv ?
a n d
d e f e n s i v e a c t i o n s o f t h e d e f e n s e .
" I f
d e f e n s e i s t h e s t r o n e r f o r m o f w ar , y e t h a s t h e n e g a t i v p
o b j e c t , i t f o l l o w s t h a t s h o u l d b e u se d o n l v so l o n i j a 5 w e a k n e s s
@
c o m p e l s , a n d b e a b a n d o n e d a 5
s o o n a 5
w e a r e
s t f o n q
e n o u g h t o p u r 5 u e
thl? p o s i t i v e o b j e c t . When o n e h a s u s ed d e f e n s i v e m e as u r es
' . L I i
r s s f 111 1 a m or e f a v o r a b l e b a l a n c e o f s t r e n g t h i s u s u a l i v
c r t A a + e d ; %[As, t h e n a t u r a l c o u r s e i n , w a r is t.o b e g i n d e f e n s i v s l y a n d
riiil b y a t t a c k i n
. . .
a w a r i n w h i c h v i c t o r i e s w e re u s e d
n n l y
d t: f PI>s i v e 1 y w
i
t h o u t h e in t e n t io n o f c u u n
t
e r at .
t
ac k 1
ii
i
w o u
1d b
9
i t l t ; i i r i i
a5 a b a t t l e i n w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f a b s o l u ? r d e t e n h r
p d i . i v i t y , t h a t
i s -
w e r e
t o
d i c t a t e e v e r y a c t i o n . " f ,
' 1 . 8 i ~ i c w ~ t zd ~ v e l o p s a p l a n o f d e fe n se t h a t i n r l i i d t i b uinre t h a t i i i q t t h r
r ea c i , i i i : ; o f o f f e n s e a nd d e f e n s e a t a l o w e r l e v e l ; h e n t i t e s t h a t at. ' , i :me
p n i n i t h e d e f e n d e r m il s t t a k e u p t h e o f f e n s e a nd p u r s u e t h e p o s i t i v e
a i m
n f
c on c i ir st .. He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e f en d er . s t a r t s f r o m
a
p o s i t i o l i o f w e a kn es s
i t , some f o r m r e l a t i v e t o t h e enemy a n d t h u s , s e e ks t o r e d u c e t h i s d i s u a r i t y
t h r o u g h a r u g g e d d e f e ns e . T h e d e f e n d e r ' s a c t i o n s o f b o t h a t t a c k i n g a nd
h o l d i n q
h a v e a c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t u p o n t h e enemy t h a t r e s u l t s i n t h e b a l a i t c e
o f c om ba t p ow er s h i f t i n g t o t h e d e f e n d e r . O nce t h e d e f e n d e r i s r e l a t i v e l y
s t r u n q e r , t h e o f f e n s i v e f o r m o f wa r, t h e a t t a c k , n lu s t b e u se d t o p u r s u e t h e
p o s i t i v e a i m . l h e d e f e n d e r c a n n o l o n g e r a c c r u r a d v a n t a q ps b y w a i t i n q 1111 t , he
i l r t r r i s r
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f r o m t.Ii<it o f p u r e d e f e n s e .
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s t r d t e g i c d e f e n d e r :
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t h e d e f e n d e r h a s g a i n e d an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n ta g e , d e f e n s e a s
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a c h i e v e d b y t h e d e f e n s i v e f o r m . . . i s a l l o w e d t o w i t h e r aw ay u n u s e d
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f o r t h e d e f e n d e r . I f
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d e f e n s e , h e w i l l n e v e r b e p e rs u a d e d o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f tlle
d e f r r l s i v e f o r m . . . 7 ( 1 t a l c s a d d e d)
C l a u s e m i t i , t l i u 5 , m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l u f f e n s i v e r e s u l t i n g
f r o m w c c e s s f u l d e t e n s e i s t h e m or e p o w e r f u l .
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s t r o n g e r , t h e d e f e n d e r
m u s t a t t a c k . T h i s c ha n ge , f r o m t h e s u c c e s s f u l d e f e n s e t o t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f
t h e a t t d c l : i s o p e r a t i q n a l t r a n s i t i o n . O p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n m us t
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e s s e n t i a l t o w a r f i g h t i n g or ' , a s C l a u s e w i t z h a s s a i d , t h e
e n t i r e c f t o r t o f k i l r
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p r i n c i p a l d u t y o f e v e r y c o m p e t e n t a n d
.iui . t : t?Li ' i fu l ~ : o m m a n i l i ~ r 1111 t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e n s e i s a p o w e r f u l t r d n s i t i o n t o
t l l r ? o f f r r i s e t o g a i i i ( i 1 ) 5 i t i v ~ 1e n d .
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l l q c t r l n e o f Oeer . a_ t _ on_a l . . T , : a?5 l . t p r i .
i : u r r e i : t l l f i A rm y o a s r a t . i ~ ~ n a l o c t r i n e a 5 s t a t e d i n FH. loo:? O p e r a t q s .
s t a t e s
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d e f e n s i v e s t r a t e g y d e s i g n e d t o d e n y 5 u c c e s s w i l l r p q i r i r e
LI Ii ei i i v t? 1: ump on e i i t i
t u p r ec 1i id e d e f e a t . '''
A i r L a n d B a t t l e d o c t r i n e , l i k e
[ . l a L is L'w it ; id It t h e o r y , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e a n o f f e n s i v e o p e r a t i o n
i n
a d e f e n s i v e c a m o a i g n t u p u r s u e a p o s i t i v e a i m . I n o r d e r t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e
i i f f e n ~ i v e , I le d e f e n s e m u s t d en y s u c c e s s t o t h e e n e m y.
US
A rm y d o c t r i n e
> td t t? , t h a t w h i l e " r e a c t i v e m e a su r es may h a l t t h e en e m y, e a r l y c o u n t e r a t . t a c k s
i ii i( ir o v? a t h e c h a l i c e s f o r
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d am ag e t h e enem y o n l y w hen e a r l y c o u n t e r s t r o k e s a cc om pa ny t t i e r e a c t i v e ( i l ia r,e
o f t h e b a t t l e .
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I e v r l
n f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s an d o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l o f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r s t r o k r l s .
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w i t h
a
s u c c e 5 s f u l o f f e n s i v e .
" . r o w i n [ co m m an d er s1 m u st p r e s e r v e t h e i r own f0 r r .e t h r o u g h
s u r c e s s f u i d e f e n s e , w e a k e n t h e e ne m y, a nd t h e n t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e .
I n some c a s e s , , co m ma nd er s c a n s e c u r e t h e a t e r o b j e c t i v e r I h r -o u gh t h e
t a r : t i c a l o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s o f a d e f e n s i v e c am pa i 11, i l o r e i i j m m o n l v ,
s u c c e 5 s
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a
s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a Y t o na 1 d e f e n s e w i t t i
a i l o f f e n s i v e c a m p a i g n . " lO
D o c t r i n e a n d t h e o r y a r e , t h e r e f o r e , i n a g r ee m en t t h a t t h e d e f e r i d e r must
t r a n s i t i o i i t o t h e o f f e n s e
t o
p ut ' f iu e a p o s i t i v e a i m . R u t h d r a w a ( l i s t i i i i : t i n n
h e t w e e n r e a c t i v e o f f e n s i v e a c t i o r i s o f s u c c e s s f u l
d e t e n s e ,
t n a t
I S
c o u n t ~ r a t t a c k s , a n d t h e p r o a c t i v e o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s
[ i f t h e
a t t a c k t .h at q r i jw s
f ro n , t t l e d e f e n s e , t h a t i s t t i e C D U l i t e r5 t r o k e o r c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
S i n c e
t h e r e
c l e b r l y se em s t o b e a d i f f e r e n c e a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l b e t w e e n the ;*
t w o
t y i i e s o f o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n , o n e r e a c t i v e a n d o n e p r o a c t i v e , t h e i ~ s i i ea r i = . e s
c o t i c s r n i n q t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o e n a b l e t h e co m ma n de r
t o
p u r s u e t h e
p 0 5 i t i v ~
a i m .
C u r r e n t l y , A i r L a n d
B a t t l e
d o c t r i n e a d d r r r s e s t h e s e
p r e r e q u i a i t e 5 i n o n l y a s u p e r f i c i a l w ay.
THESIS.
1 I i i s s t u d y
w i l l
t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l : t h e r e
a r e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h a t
t h e
commander may
, i 5 e
a s a q u i d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t i o n s t h a t m us t be t a k e n u l t i m a t e l v
t i ]
p u r s u e a
O C I S I ~ ~ Y Pa i m , t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
To
d e t e r m i n e t h e s e e l e m e n t s t w o
h i s t . u r i c a 1 c a s e s t u d i e s
w i i l
b e a n a l y z e d .
Definitions
l l i r e e d e f i n i t i o n s a r e c r i t i i : a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e i e m e i i t s o f
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n w h i c h w i l l h e e x a m i n e d. T he y a r e :
;Jp u r xt I on a 1
1.ra n 5 i
t i
on.:
1
h e a c t 1 on s t a k e n b y
an o e r a t i o n a l
co mma n d e r t o
s e t
f h i c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h
e i h a n q r
111
o p e r a o n s i r o l i l
t h r s u c c e s s f u l d e f e n s e t o t h e i n i t i a t i n o f t h e c
o u 11
t
e
I
i) f f
e n s
1 v e .
T t t E a 5 r
a c t i o n s c e n t . er o n t h e m ovem en:
t o f l a r g e f o r m a t i o n s o v e r v a s t
d i L j la i i r e s , d e f e n s i v e o p e r a t
i o n s ,
f o r c e q e i i e r a t
i o ~ i
o f i i p e r a ' t
1 [ i i i d i
r P L c , r v e s , s u s ta i nm e n t . o p r r a t i n n s a nd ,
f i n a 1 y ,
1
O I I
IIt
er n f f P I L,
1
. I f
[ l p e r
"j n.n.a ...
Desi.qr1:
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p a n n i n r j a n . T ' e i e e u t i o n o f c a m p a ig n s a n d m a i r w o p e r a t i o n s a r t ?
r : r n t i . , :
o f r a v l t v , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p n i ro t s , art11 l i r ~ e ? .
,,i
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a l i t l t ;~ i ' l i i : ; I i y
p r o v i d i n g a n a l y t i c a l t o r i l s f u r t h e p l a n n e r t o
use
111
< i e t e r m i n i n g t l i t ' b e s t u s e o f c o m ba t p o w e r
i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a c t o r s
<i f
M E T I - T a i i d I.he i i i f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l i n t e l l i q w t [ i ~
~ i r - i ~ i i a r a t i a i iif t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .
I J ( i e r a t i o i l d 1 C o m b a t
P q w e r :
I i ~ c l u d e s h e d o c t r i n a l e l e m e n t s o f com ba t
p o w e r : l e a d e r s h i p , m an eu ve r, f i r e p o w e r a nd p r o t e c t i o n a s g r o u p o n e
a nd a dd s i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n , f o r c e e n e r a t i o n , a nd s u s t a i n m e n t
a s e l e m e n t s o f a s e co n d g r o u p t h a t a ? f e c t s r o u p o ne . Th es e t w o
t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f comba p ow er a nd c r i t i c a l
u n c ' i o n s , t h a t e l e m e n t so r m p l a n s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s i m p a c t t h e d o c t r i n a l
u f c om ba t power a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l .
M e t hodo1 . ogy
T h i s m o n o s r a p h
u s e 5
t h e c a se s t u d y a p p r o a ch t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e 5 5 e l l t i d l
e l e m e n t s
1
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t c am p a i gn s . T he
c r i t e r i a f o r s t u d y enters on t h r e e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f
o p e r a t i o n a l a r t. t a k e n f r o m FM 1 0 0 - 5
Opgrat pn5 1 1 :
1 . WHAT MIL IT AR Y CONDITIO N
M U S T
BE PRODUCED I N THE THEATER OF
WAR
[IR
O P E R A T I O N S
r[i
A C H I E V E T H E
S T R A T E G I C
G O A L ?
( t h e l i n k a g e of s t r a t e q i c e n d s a n d m i l i t a r y m ea n s )
2 . WHAT SEOUENCE OF ACTIONS I S MOST LIKELY I 0 PRODUCE THAT CONDll l i lN'. '
( t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m b a l a n c i n g e n d s , w ay s , m e d l 1 5
a n d r i s k )
i.
HOW SHOULD THE RESOURCES OF THE FORCE BE APPLIED
T O
ACCOMPLISH Tl lk:
SEOLIENCE [IF ACTIONS7
i t l i e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l c o n h at p uw er e l e m e n t s t h a t e n a b l e operat. ion.-.:
drs ly l l i
I t i t .
c a m p a i g i i s
~ t i o s e r i
f o r t h e s t u d y a r e M a n s t e i n ' s c o u i i t e r o f f e i l . i v e
a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t 5
i n
F e b r u a r y
1943 ,
s t u d i e d u n de r t h e r u b r i c o f " K h a r k o v "
J Q I I
t h e I s r a e l i c o u n t e r o f f e r i s i v e a g a i n s t t h e E g y p t i a n s i n t h e
1 9 7 ;
A r a b -
I s r a e l i i J ar , s t u d i e d u n de r t h e r u b r i c o f " S i n a i " . T he se c am p a ig n s w er e
c h n s e r ~
b ec au se t h e y d e p i c t s u c c e s ~ f 1 1 1o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s b y s u r p r i s e d ,
o u t i i u m h e r e i l a n d , n d I p o s i t i o n e d f o r c e s . T he K h a r l i o v c a m p a i g n may b e d e s c r i b e d
a s a i i ~ d j o r o p e r a t i t i i t t h a t t e m p o r a r i l y a c h ie v e d o p e r a t i o n a l 5 1 1 c c e 5 5 ar:d
t h e r e i i y s t a b i l i z e d t h e G erm an s t r a t e g i c d e f e n s e . T he S i n a i c a m p a ig n
f e p r e s r n t s t r u e o w e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n i n t h a t I s r a e l s h i f t e d from a p u r e 1 . r
i l r f e r i s i v e p o s i t i o n , f i g h t i n g f o r h e r p e r c e i v e d S U r V i V a l , t o a S t r a t e g i c
r i f i e r i s i v e t h a t r e s u l t e d
111
t h e d e f e a t o f h e r a t t a c k e r . O p e r a t i o n a l co mm al id er s
m a y f a c e s u c h a s i t u a t i o n i n NATO o r a s h o r t n o t i c e c o n t i n g e n c y o p e r a t i o n .
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O n e of t h e
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s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s i n h is t o r y w a s
c o n d u c t e d
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l A G l
d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d N o v e m b e r 1942 t o M a r c h 19 4 3. O n a f r o n t o f v a s t s c a l e ,
w i t h f e w o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e s a nd f a c i n g a n u m e r i c a l l y s u p e r i o r S o v i e t f o r c e ,
M a n s t e i n i n f l i c t e d t r e m e n d o u s ~ O S S R B o n h i s e n e my a nd r e g a i n e d h u n d r e d s o f
m i l e s o f t e r ri t o r y. H e c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a rt a nd i t s p r o p er
e x e c u t i o n . M a n s t e i n ' s i n c r e d i b l e f e a t o v e r c a m e
a
f l a w e d G e r m a n s t r a t e g y t h a t
h a d its r o o t s in t h e s u m m e r o f
1942.
H i t l e r ' e
1942
s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e a g s i n r t S t a l i n g r a d a n d t h e o i l r i c h
C a u c a s u s r e g i on
of
t h e s o u t h e r n S o v i e t U n i o n h a d g r o u n d t o a h a l t by t h e
aut .umn o f
1942. G e r m a n g r o u n d f o r c e s w e r e w e a r y f r o m m o n t h s o f w ar a n d
d a n g e r o u s l y o v e r e x t e n d e d a c r o s s s o u t h e r n R u s si a . T h o u g h
in p o o r
c o n d i t i o n
t h e m s e l v e s , t h e S o v i e t s s e i ze d t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o s t r i k e a s t r a t e g i c b l o w
a n d i n t h e i r W i n t e r O f f e n s i v e of ' 4 2 - 4 3 d e s t r o y e d t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A r m y a n d
c a p t u r e d S t r l i n g r a d . T h e lams o f S t a l i n g r a d a nd t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A rm y
was
a
g r a v e b l o w to H i t l e r ' s o f f e n s i v e pl a n s , b u t i t w a s n o t s t r a t e g i c a l l y
d e c i s i v e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e S o v i e t s w e r e u pl i f t ed b y t h e i r f i r s t
m a j o r
v i c t o r y a n d b e l i ev e d t h e G e r m a n s
w e r e
c r u mb l i ng . B a s ed o n t h i s e r r o n e o u s
a n a l y s i s , t h e y l a u n c h e d f u r t h e r o f f e n s i v e e t o d e s t r o y t h e G e r m a n s o u t h e r n
w i n g i n a n a t t e m p t t o r e g a i n t h e s t r a t e g i c i n i t i a t i v e p e r m a n e n t l y . ( S e e M a p
112, p a g e s
61,
b 2 , a n d
b 3 )
O n
20
N o v e m b e r 1942, M a n s t e i n t o o k c o m m a n d o f P O D o n w i t h t h e m i s s i o n o f
f r e e i n g t h e G e r m a n
6th
A r m y f r o m e n c i r c l e m e n t a t S t a l i n g r a d a n d s o l i d i f y i n g
t h e f r o n t a r o u nd R o s to v . T h i s m i s s i o n i n c l u d ed t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
vul ner abl e s uppl y li ne s to PIG P w h i c h w a s a t t a c k i n g in t h e C a u ca s u s .
M a n s t e i n f a c e d t w o i m m e d i a t e p r o bl e m s i S o v i e t s u p e r i o r i t y o f
B
t o
1
and
poor
g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n .
l 3
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h t h e b a t t e r e d f o r c e s at h i 5
d i s p o s a l , h e w a s u n a b l e to s a v e t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A r my n o r , w i t h t h e r e n e w e d
S o v i e t o f f e n r i v e s , c o u l d h e
k e e p
t h e l i n e r of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t o
A G A
open.
M a n s t e i n f e l t his o n l y r e c o u r s e w a s t o shorten t h e d e f en s i v e l i n e s o f A6 D o n
a n d t o g e n e r a t e s u f f i c i e n t c o m b a t
p o w e r
to h a l t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s .
To
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a s s e m b l e t h e m o b i l e P _ u f o r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e , h e
p r o p o s e d t h a t
the
e a s t e r n w i n g
of
AG A and AG Don be draw n in and the
o p e r a t i on a l r e s e r v e s t h u s g e n e r a t ed b e u s e d t o a n a s h t h e S o v i e t t h ru s t s.
H o w e v e r , H i t l e r w o u l d n o t a l l o w a n y w i t h d r aw a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
A G
D o n w a s
place d in an unt enab le position. The front warn in ruch a st ate
of
d i s a r r a y
f o l l o w i n g t h e S o v i e t d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e I t a l i a n, H u n g a r i a n a n d R u m a n i a n
a r m i e s ( f i g h t i n g w i th t h e G e r m a n s on t h e m o u t h e rn w i n g ) t h a t M a n s t e i n w a s
u n a b l e t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s m i s s i o n s w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s .
( S e e Map 3,
p a g e
6 4 I
On
15
J a n u a r y 1943, t h e S o v i e t s t o o k a d v a n t a g e of t h e d e r p e r a t e G e r m a n
p o s i t i o n t o l a u n c h t h e V o r o n e zh
F-cr
( s u p p o r t ed by t h e S o u t h w e s t e r n
F r 0 n . t )
14
t h r o u g h t h e 270 m i l e g a p l e ft by t h e r e t r e a t i n g G e r m a n a l l i e d a r m i es .
B y
t h e e n d of J a n u a r y t h e S o v i e t s h a d t a k e n K u r s k , c r o a s e d t h e D o n e t s R i v e r a n d
w e r e r e a d y
t o
t a k e K h a r k o v . N a n s t e in ' s s t r i d e n t d e n a n d s f o r f r e e d o m
of
a c t i o n a nd t h e o b v i o u s s t r e n g t h o f t h e S o v i e t d r i v e c o m p e l l e d H i t l e r t o
a u t h o r i z e r e l u c t a n tl y t h e w i t h d r a wa l o f t h e G e r n a n 1 s t
k * f . A r m y
f r o m t h e
C a u c a s u s a n d p o s i t i o n i t t o t h e r e a r o f
A G Don s o
t h a t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s
a l o n g t h e
Don
R i v e r c o u l d b e s t o p p e d , E v e r y t h l n g d e p e n d e d o n M a n s t e i n ' s
ability t o shift f o r c e r , c o n s ta n t l y b a c k a n d f o r t h a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s
on
R o s t o v . N a n s t e i n c o o l l y h a n d l e d t h e s i t u a t i o n t h r o u g h s o u n d j u d g e m e n t ,
s h r e w d r i s k a s s e s s m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n a l a d r o l t ne n r . U r i n g i n t e r i o r l i n e s ,
s t r o n g p o l n t e a t d e c i s i v e p o i n t s , a n d m o b i l e c o u n t e r a t t a c k f o r c e s
h e s l o w e d
t h e S o v i e t a d v a n c e a n d e m p l o y e d h i s 4 t h
A r m y
t o s a v e t h e s i t u a t i o n a t
R o s t o v . B u t h i s s u c c e s s w a s t e m p o r a r y as t h e S o v ie t t h r u s t s w e r e too s t r o n g
f o r h i m t o h o l d i n d e f i n i t e l y .
A l t h o u g h t h e G e r m a n
1st P m g ~ r -A r m y
w a s s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h d r a w n ,
a
"super-
S t a l i n g r a d " l o o me d b e f o r e N a n s t e i n' s f o r c e s p r o j e c t in g
out
f r o m t h e D n ei p e r
R i v e r b e t w e e n t h e D o n e t s R i v e r a n d t h e S e a
o f
A z ov . T h e c r i t i c a l j u n c t i o n s
o f t h e r o a d a n d r a i l n e t w o r k a l o n g w i t h t h e m a j o r r i v e r c r o s s i n g p o i n t s
i n
t h e a r e a
of
o p e r a t i o n 6 w e r e S l a v y a n s k , R o s t o v , D n e p r o p e t r o v s k , a n d
Z a p o r o z hy e . T h e S o v i e t s w e r e o n e h a lf t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e s e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s
a s w er e t he ma in Ge r m a n f ~ r m a t i o n s , ~ ~n d t h e y d e c i d e d t o u s e t h c i r n u m e ri c a l
s u p e r i o ri t y a nd f a v o r a b l e g e o g r a p hi c p o s i t i o n t o s t r i k e t o t h e S e a
o f
Azov in
o r d e r to s h a t t e r A G B a n d c u t o f f AG D o n a n d A G A . (See N a p 4. p a g e 651
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Renewed S o v i e t a t t a c k s c o u p l e d w i t h H i t l e r ' 5 o b s t i n a c y , a l m os t ca us ed t h e
German O p e r a t i o n a l a nd t a c t i c a l command an d c o n t r o l s y s te m t o f a i l .
A G
8 , A G
Don and A G A e ac h h ad d i v e r g e n t m i s s i o n s and t hu s , t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n s
d i d n o t c om ple me nt e ac h o t h e r . F o r h i s p a r t , M a n s t e i n a sk e d p e r m i s s i o n t o
c o n d u c t an o p e r a t i o n a l l y m o b i l e d e f e n se so h e c o u l d m an eu ve r a n d g i v e g r n u n d
i n o r d e r t o g r i n d down t h e S o v i e t o f f e n s i v e . H i t l e r r e f u s e d any g i v i n g up o f
t e r r a i n and f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d t h e i s s u e b y p e r s o n a l l y d i r e c t i n g t h e com ba t
16
n f s e v e r a l c r i t i c a l P$,nm.c d i v i s i o n s .
H i t l e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l command a nd c o n t r o l o f t h e
f l u i d s i t u a t i o n i n t h e G erman s o u t h e rn w in g c u l m i n a t e d
wi th
t h e 1135s o f
K h a r k o v . l7 T he s o u t h e r n f r o n t was i n
a
s h a m bl e s. F a c e d w i t h
a
p o t e n t i a l
d e ba c l e , H i t l e r o r d e re d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f
A G
Don and
A G B
i n t o
A G
S o u t h
a nd p l a c e d M a n s t e i n i n command. Now w i t h o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l , M a n s t e i n
moved h i s 1 s t
P
A rm y a nd 4 t h
F'a'apy-
Army t o t h e n o r t h ba nk o f t h e D o n et s
R i v e r t h e r e t o b e
a
s t r i k e f o r c e t h a t c o u l d d e f e a t any c o n t in u e d S o v i e t
o f f e n s i v e d e s i gn e d t o i n f l i c t f u r t h e r c r i t i c a l l o s s e s s u c h a s ha d b e f a l l e n
t h e G e rm an s a t K h a r k o v .
M a n s t e ln now p r e p a r e d an o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e ns e t h a t m ix ed t a c t i c a l d e fe n s e
a t d e c i s i v e p o i n t s w i t h t a c t i c a l o f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s t o b l e e d o f f t h e
s te am o f t h e S o v i e t a t t a c k . A f t e r s t a b i l i z i n g t h e f r o n t , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e c o u l d b e c r e a t e d . M a ns te in ,
t h e r e f o r e , r e n ew ed h i s c a l l f o r a d e f e n s i v e l i n e a l o n g t h e M iu s R i v e r ,
c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f
o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s an d p r i o r i t i z a t i o n o f s u p p l i e r t o
A G
S o ut h. H i t l e r r e s i s t e d v e h em e n t l y , b u t a f t e r t wo t e n s e c o n f e r e n c e s , o n 6 F eb
and I h F eb, h e r e l u c t a n t l y ga ve i n t o M a n B t e i n ' s p l a n . I 9 (S ee Map
5,
p a g e 6 6 1
M a n s t e i n knew t h e S o v i e t su c ce 6s wo u ld r e s u l t i n t h e i r o v e r e x t e n s i o n a nd
e nc ou ra ge d t h i s b y j u d i c i o u s l y r e l i n q u i s h i n g R o s t ov an d t h e g ro u nd b et w ee n
t h e Don a nd t h e D o n e t r R i v e r o n a l i n e f r om t h e M i u s R i v e r t o t h e w es t o f
K h a r kn v . J u b i l a n t a t t h e i r p e r c e i v e d s uc ce ss , t h e S o v i e t s p us he d on
r e l e n t l e s s l y and r e c k l e s s l y , t h u s p r e s e n t i n g M a ns te in w i t h t h e c ha nc e f o r a
s m as h in g b l o w . S oon t h e S o v i e t f o r c e s w e re e x h a u s t e dz 0 a nd M a n s t e i n l a u n c h e d
t h e c o u n t e r e t r o k e . ( Se e Map 6 , p a g e
b71
M a ns te in began h i s c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e b y s eq u e nc in g b a t t l e s t o s t a b i l i z e
t h e f r o n t , t h e n h e t a c k l e d e ac h S o v i e t t h r u s t i n t u r n . On
20
Feb ,
SS P_anzer-
C o rp s d r o v e f o r w a r d f r o m K r r s n o g r a d a nd sm ash ed i n t o
the
r i a r o f t h e S o v i e t
6 t h
A r m y
w h i l e 4 8 t h
P g n e r .
C o r p i d r o v e n o r t h i n t o t h e t h e l r f l a n k . T h i s
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c o n c e n t r i c a t t a c k s t u n n ed t h e S o v l e t s . 1 s t
Pjggri
A r m y t h l n n e d
I t #
e x t e n d s d
l i n e s , c o n d u c t i n g a r i s k y economy o f f o r c e ,
t o
m u s t e r 40th Pm: C o rp s t o
s t r i k e t h e S o v i e t t a n k f o r m a t i o n , P opo v M o b i l e G ro up , an d d r i v e n o r t h .
German i n t e l l i g e n c e p r o v i d e d a rm or f o r m a t i o n s w i t h e n a c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
size,
l o c a t i o n , a nd d i r e c t i o n o f movement o f e ac h S o v i e t t h r u n t .
2 1
rhus,
G erm an a r m o r k e p t d r i v i n g , a v o i d i n g d e c i s i v e en g ag e me n t, w h i l e G erm an
i n f a n t r y h e l d d e c i s i v e p o i n t s . I n
t h i s
m a nn er , t h e Ge rm an s w e r e a b l e t o
b e
s t r o n g
a t
e v e ry en ga ge me nt , s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r s u c c e i m fu l t a c t i c a l b a t t l e s
i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l v i c t o r y .
I n q u i ck s u c c e s s io n , s tu n ne d S o v i e t t a c t i c a l 1 P ld e rS C r i e d f o r h e l p .
V a t u t i n w ou l d n o t l i s t e n t o s u b o r d in a t e s i t u a t l o n r e p o r t s and w ou ld t o l e r a t e
n u
s l o w i n g o f t h e a t t a c k .
2 2
T he S o v i e t ' s o f f e n s i v e c o a b a t p ow er was
so
d i s s i p a t e d i t ith he red.'^ S o v i e t o p e r a t l o n a l c om ma nd ers an d t h e S o v i e t H i g h
Command
( S T A V K A )
c o n t i n u e d t o c o m mi t a d d i t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n s t o
an
a l r e a d y
f a i l e d e f f o r t .
2 4
By 23 F e b H a u s s e r ' s SS P3na~. C o r p s a n d 4 8 t h
fl.$azpr
C o r p s
l i n k e d
up
a t P a v lo g r a d and t h e S o v i e t 6 t h
A r m y was
r u l n r d .
By 2S
Feb ,
a f t e r
a s e r i e s o f d e s p e r a t e s i g n a l s b etw e en t h e S o u th w es t F r o n t commander , V a t u t i n ,
a nd P op ov , (c om ma nd er o f t h e 6 t h Army s t r i k e f o r c e , Po po v M o b i l e G r o u p ) ,
V a t u t i n r e a l i z e d h e w as d e f e a t e d an d c a l l e d a h a l t . B u t , h e was p a s t h i s
c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t a nd h e c o u l d n o t d e f en d h i e g a in s . (See Hap
7,
p a g e
6 8 )
S T A V K A w ou ld n o t g i v e up and d i r e c t e d t h s S o v i e t 6 9 t h A r m y a n d 3 r d T a n k
Army s o u t h t o h e l p V a t u t i n ' s a t t a c k . T he y s l o w l y moved s o u t h , t h e i n f a n t r y
w i t h l i t t l e a r m or s u p p o r t , s h o r t o f s u p p l i e s and w i t h u n t r a i n e d c o n s c r i p t
p e a sa n ts a s s o l d i e r s .
25
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e m i s e r i e s , S o v i e t f o r m a t i o n s ,
o u t o f f u e l and w i t h n o m u t u a l s u p p o r t , became h o p e l e s s l y i s o l a t e d . The
e u p h o r i c e x p a n s io n o f t h e o f f e n s i v e h a d d i s m i p a t e d t h e S o v i e t S ch w er pu n kt .
The G erman c o u n t e r s t r o k e h a r k e n e d t o t h e
Bllt?_k~zkjq
d a y s
a s
t h e S t u ka d i v e
b o m b er s d i s c o v e r e d t h e S o v i e t 3 r d T an k f ir my a s s e m b ly a r e a s a nd s m as he d t he m .
Th e G erm an s t u r n e d t h e t a b l e s on t h e i r enemy e n c i r c l i n g
small
S o v i e t f o r c e s
t i m e a f t e r t i m e an d o v e r w h e l m i n g t h e n . ( Se e Map B, p a ~ e6 9 )
By
I
M arc h t h e S o v i e t s c o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e a nd w e nt o n t h e d e f e n s i v e
a c ro s s t h e f r o n t . By 2
M a r c h ,
4 t h hn ; gc . A r m y
on
t h e l e f t w i n g an d 1 s t P ~ E ~ T .
Army
on
t h e r i g h t d e s t r o y e d t h e i r enemy b e tw e en t h e D n e ip e r an d t h e Do n e ts .
A G
S o u th h ad r e g a i n e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e an d now t u r n e d t o d e l i v e r t h e d e c i s i v e
b l o w o n t h e S o v i e t V o ro n ez h
p g n t .
H a n s t e i n k new t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d c om m it
e v e r y t h i n g t o h o l d I lh a rk o v . The d e s t r u c t i o n o f S o v i e t 6 t h Army and P op ov
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d o b i l e G ro up c r e a t e d a 120 m i l e g ap i n t h e S o v i e t f r o n t l i n e . 2 6 But, e v e r y
S o v i e t a t t e m p t t o p l u g t h e g ap warn p i e c e m e a l , u n c o o r d i n a t e d , a n d o u t o f s t e p
w i t h t h e tem po o f t h e b a t t l e . By
1 4
d a rc h , K h ar ko v f e l l t o t h e G ermans a f t e r
b i t t e r f i g h t i n g . By t h e 1 9 t h , B e l g o r o d was a g a i n i n G erm an h an ds . E x c e p t
f o r
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p o r t i o n o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s b e s t s t u d i e d b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l i n k b e tw e e n t h e
s t a t e d s t r a t e g i c g o a l s a s p r es e n t e d b y H i t l e r and t h e m i l i t a r y means
a v a i l a b l e t o d a n s t e i n . S eco nd , we must d e t e r m i n e t h e s e q u e n c e o f a c t i o n s t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l commander t o o k t o p r o du c e a s a t i m f a c t o r y m i l i t a r y end
s t a t e .
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a c h i e ve s u c c e ~ s . T h i s i s b e s t d on e b y e x a m in i ng o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l com bat
p ow er . T he se t h r e e q u e s t i o n s fo r m t h e f ra m ew or k f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
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w ay s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e e nd s b y b a l a n c i n g means and r i s k s . H i t l e r a b r o g a te d
t h i s p ro c es s t h r o u g h h i s u n r e a l i s t i c s t r a t e g i c g o a l5 a nd t h e r e s u l t a n t
" s t a n d f a s t " p o l i c y . H i t l e r f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t an d t h e c h a n g in g r e a l i t y o f
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c o u l d n o t m atch . H i t l e r ' s f o cu s on a s t r a t e g y o f a n n i h i l a t i o n b as ed on a
d e c i s i v e b a t t l e was b e y on d t h e m eans o f G erm any.
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o b s t i n a t e p u r s u i t o f t h e o f f e n s i v e , H i t l e r w o u l d no t g i v e u p a n y g a i n s in t h e
u n r e a l i s t i c h o p e t h a t h e c o u l d r e b u i l d h i s f o r c e s f o r t h e c l i m a c t i c a t ta c k.
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m e a s u r e m u c h l i k e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e w i n t er of 1941-1942. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
H i t l e r ' s " s t a n d f a s t " d i r e c t i v e s w o u l d n o t a l l o w a n y c o m m a n d e r t o r e l i n q u i s h
t e r r a i n v o l u n t a r i l y t o g a i n o p e r a t i o n a l a d va n ta g es . T h e s t r a t e g y d e m a n d e d
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t h e p o i n t t h at h e r o u t i n e l y d i r e c t e d t h e m o v e s o f o p e r a t i o n a l l y c r i t i c a l
f o r m d t i o n s i n p o i n t l e s s t a ct i ca l c o u nt e ra t ts c ki . T h e l ac k o f ~ t r a t e g i c
f l e x ib i l i t y a n d f o r e s i gh t m a d e t h e e f f o r t t o b a l a nc e t h e m e a n s a v a i l a b l e wi t h
t h e i n h e re n t r i s k s a l m o s t i n po i si b lo . T h e s t r a t s g i c e n d s H i t l e r d e f i n e d f o r
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a u t h o r i t i e s t o c o n c e d e t o h i s p la n . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t a b r o a d t r a n s i t i o n t o
t h e o f f e n s i v e w a s n o t p o s s i b l e i f t h e en d w a s to d e f e a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n, h e
t a i l o r e d h i s l i m i t e d m e a n s t o m e e t t h e i m m e d i a t e s t r a t e g i c s n d r b y s u p e r i o r
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t o b e a t t a in e d . I n o r d e r f o r t h i s p o w e r f u l t r a n s i t i o n t o o c c u r , t h e a n a l y s i s
o f t h e k ey e l e m e n t s of o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n m u s t p r o d u c e a c a m p a i g n p l a n w h i c h
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i n t h e n o r t h and Popov M o b i l e Grou p i n t h e s o u t h f oc u s e d o n t h e S o v i e t c e n t e r
o f g r a v i t y . P op ov M o b i l a G ro up was t h e m os t d a n ge r ou s S o v i o t f o r c e s i n c e
i t s l i n e o f o p e r a t i o n s to o k ad v an t ag e o f a gap i n t h e German d e f e n s i v e l i n e
a n d h a d t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e t o t r a v e l t o i t s o b j e c t i v e o n t h e Sea o f A Z O V .
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p r o t e c t e d t h ro u g h l o c a t i o n an d g i v i n g them l o g i s t i c s p r i o r i t y . Th us ,
M a n s te i n a t t a c k e d h i s e ne my 's c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g h i s own.
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e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n .
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b e h i n d s h o r t e n i n q t h e l i n e s o f d e f e n s i v e o p e r a t io n s . M a n s t e i n ' s s t u b b o r n
d e f e n s i v e e l e m en t s c om bi ne d w i t h h i s p r u d e nt c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a t t h e t a c t i c a l
l e v e l w ur e down t h e v u l n o r a b l o S o v i e t a t t a c k s . M a n s te i n f e l l ba ck on his own
l i n e s o f c o m n u n i c a t io n 6 , n h o r t e n i n g th em a nd g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h . W a t c h in g t h o
t i d e o f b a t t l e c l o s e l y , h e c a l c u l a t e d enemy d e t e r i o r a t i o n a nd h i s own
s u c t a in m e n t t o d e t e rm i n e t h e o pt im um moment t o t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e . He was
a b l e t o c r e a t e O p e ra t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t h ro u g h f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n f o r t h e
c o u n t e r s t r o k e t h e r e b y d e l a y i n g h i s own c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , h e
p r i o r i t i z e d s us t a in m e n t re s o u r c e s t o
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c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . As a r e s u l t , M a n st e i n p r o t e c t e d h i s f o r c e s a nd s lo we d h i s
own c u l m i n a t i o n w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e h a s t e n i n g t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e
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o p e r a t i o n s made t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a c r u c i a l i s s u e .
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o f R os t ov , S t a l l n o , t h o Hius R i v e r , S l r v y a n k s and G r i e h i n o as c r i t i c a l t o
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t o c ho s e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i n e t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h s c o u n te r o f f e n s i v e .
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o f o p e r a t i o n and s u p p o r t . German l i n e r o f o p e r a t i o n r a n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
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t a k e a dv a n ta ge o f e n t e r i o r l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n t o c o n du c t c o n c e n t r i c a t t a c k s .
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d e c i s i v e p o i n t s d i s c us s e d ab o ve . F o r e xa mp le , i n t h e e a r l y d e f e n s i v e
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b :r dK li og ra d a nd Z a p o ro z h y e a s s t r o n g p o i n t s h e m a n eu ve re d t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d
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t h i s c a u t i o u s a p p r oa c h w o u l d n o t h a ve p ro d uc e d d e c i s i v e r e s u l t s . M a n s t e i n ' s
b o l d e r u 5e o f e x t e r i o r l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n o p e r a t i o n a l v i c t o r y .
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l e a d e r s h i p , m an eu ve r, f i r e p o w e r a nd p r o t e c t i o n . T he se same f o u r p o i n t s a r e
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i n t e l l i g e n c e f u n c t i o n s , d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s , g e n e r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s
and s u s t a i n r e n t c a p a b i l i t y m a t e r i a l l y i m p ac t co mb at p ow er .
L e a d e r s h i p i s p e r h a p s t h e m os t i m p o r t a n t e l em e n t o f o p e r a t i o n a l c om ba t
p ow er . I n t h e K h a rk o v c am pa ig n, M a n s t e i n ' s l e a d e r s h i p a nd v i s i o n w ere t h e
k e y s t o s uc ce s s. H I S a b i l i t y t o s ee t h e l o n g t e r m v i e w p e r m i t t e d him t o p l a n
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s t r e n g t h s an d a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n s w er e c r u c i a l t o t h e
d e s i g n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t e g y a nd o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n t h a t c r e a t e d t h e
c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e . He u n d e r s t oo d t h a t th o ug h t h e S o v i e t s we re
t e n a c i o u s on t h e d e f e n s i v e , t h e y w er e l i a b l e t o p a n i c d u r i n g t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
a t t e n d a n t t o d ee p o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s e n a b l e d h i m
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m i s t a k e s a nd w e ak n e ss e s s u c h a s P o p o v ' s p o o r l y s u p p o r t e d a nd d i f f u s e d d e ep
s t r i k e and 6 t h A rm y ' s p o o r l y c on d u c t ed m o b i l e o p e r a t i o n .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , M a n s t e i n a l s o u n d e r s t oo d t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f h i s
Germ an l e a d e r s a nd f o r m a t l o n s . He r e l i e d on t h e G erman p h i l o s o p h y o f
s .u ft ia .gs ta kt ik a nd d i d n o t r e s t r i c t h i s o p e r a t i o n a l and t a c t i c a l co mm and ers
i n t h e m oves o f t h e i r a rm o re d f o r m a t i o n s . I n s t e a d , h e g a ve th em l o n g r a n g e
t a s k s . G erman s o l d i e r . a nd German l e a d e r s h i p w er e s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f
t h e i r enemy, a nd M a n s t e i n ' s l e a d e r s h i p c r e a t e d
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p l a y e d o n e ns my n e a k n e m i a nd a c c e n t u a t e d G erm an S t re n g th s .. F i n a l l y ,
M a n s t e i n ' s v i s i o n n e v e r e xc ee de d h i s k no w le d ge o f h i s Army G r o u p ' s
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o f a r mo r ed f o r m a t i o n s . T h ro u g ho u t t h e b a t t l e s o f Novem ber 42 t o M ar ch
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s uc ce ss . Of p a r t i c u l a r n o t e w er e t h e C h i r R i v e r b a t t l e s o f 4 8 t h P an ze r
C or p s . U s i ng m o b i l i t y , a g i l i t y a n d f l e x i b i l i t y , t h e 4 8 t h Pinm~r. C o r p s , a n d
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and t h e 3 r d Tank Army a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . F l e x i b i l i t y
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and a g i l i t y p e r m i t t e d German f o r m a t i o n r r t o g a i n m ane uv er s u c c es s f a r o u t o f
p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r s i z e a n d po we r.
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p ow er , f i r e p o w e r . German f i r e p o w e r was e s s e n t i a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n
b e c a u s e
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made t h e d e f e n s e w or k a nd p r o v i d e d t h e s t r e n g t h f o r t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . Qerman o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o n t i n u a l l y p l a c e d s u p e r i o r means
a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s . l l t h
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f i r e p o w e r o f t h s t a c t i c a l de fenm e.
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t h e S o v i e t A rm or ed C o r p i a t t a c k e d , t h e y
l e f t t h e i r f l a n k s p o o r l y p r o t e c t e d . The G erm ans a l l o w e d t h e i r enemy t o
p e n e t r a t e t o h i t t h e s t r o n g p o i n t o f 6 t h P.abze~D i v . S l m u l ta n eo u m ly , t h e l l t h
P a ~ z e r .
D i v s t r u c k t h e e n te n de d S o v i e t f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e r e a r . U s i ng t a nk s ,
a i r c r a f t , a n d i n f a n t r y i n t h e d e fe n ce , t h e Germans m assed t h o i r f i r e p o w e r t o
d e s t r o y t h e S o v i e t G u a rd s Ar mo re d C o rp s . 3'
D u r i n g t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e ,
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t h e p o w e r fu l a rm o r o f SS P anZ.e[,.Corps t h e Ge rm an s h a d s u p e r i o r i t y i n m o b i l e
f i r e p o w e r .
C e n t r a l t o M a n s t e i n ' s s u cc e ss i n t h e v a s t a p a c e6 o f t h e S o v i e t f r o n t was
h i s u s e o f a i r p o w e r . The r e s p on s i v e n e s s a nd l e t h a l i t y o f German a i r f l e e t s
p r o v i d e d m o b i l e f i r e p o w e r t o s u p p o r t t h e P_@~.mpr f o r m a t i o n s when t h e a r t i l l e r y
c o u l d n o t ke ep up w i t h t h e s pe ed and d e p t h o f t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . W i t h h i s
c o n c e n t r a t e d a i r p ow er r a n g i n g f a r a he ad a nd i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h m assed
a r t i l l e r y , German P_mz.~s. f o r m a t i o n s .v er wh el me d t h e d i s p e r s e d S o v i e t
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T h e f i n a l e l e m e n t o f c o m b a t p o w e r , p r o t e c t i o n , a l s o p l a y e d a r o l e i n
“Ilitein‘S success. Th e critical iss ue wa s that Manst ein stabi lized hi5
f r o n t t o p r o t e c t h i s c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o r c e s .
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f o r t i f i e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
d e c i s i v e p o i n t s w i t h i n f a n t r y a n d a r ti l l er y . T h e n h e u s e d s t r o n g p o i n t s a5
p i v o t 5 f o r m o b l l e a r m o r c o u n t e r a t t a c k s . A r m o r e d f o r m a t i o n s d i d n o t h a v e t o
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t h e s o u t h , p r o t e c t e d t h e d e c i s i v e p o in t s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r b e t t e r m a n e u v e r
a g i l i t y a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r f o r c e s a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s ,
Ge rm an ta ct ic al li ad er r had fr ee do m t o act and t o de ve lo p S.ch.+ erpunkts wi th
t h e i r a r m o r f o r m a t i on s . F u r t h e r m o r e , M a n s t e i n w a s a b l e t o c o n s e r v e t h e
s t r e n g t h o f h i s e x h a u s t e d i n f a n t r y f o r m a t io n s . G e r m a n i n f a n t r y c o u l d h o l d
o u t i n r e l a t l v e c o m f o r t w h e n c o m p a r e d to
t h e i r S o v i e t c o u n t e r p a r t s w h o w e r e
w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e w a r m t h o f t h e v i l l a g e s t h a t f o r m e d t h e d e c i s i v e
points.
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n e a r p e rf e ct . M o n i t o r i n g S o v i e t r a d i o t r a f f i c a l l o w e d t h e G e r m a n s t o h a l t
t h e S o v i e t d r i v e s b y m a m s i n g a t t h e c r i t i c a 1 t i m e a n d p l a c e w h i l e t a k i n g
e c o n o m y o f f o r c e m e a i u r e s i n o t h e r a r e as . L a t e r , t h i s s a m e s o u r c e o f
i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d c r i t i c a l i n f o r n a t i o n ali t o t h e l o c a t i o n of S o v i e t a r m o r
b r i g a d es . O n c e t h e y f i x e d t h e S o v i e t b r i g a d e s , t h e G e r m a n s m a s s e d s t r o n g e r
c o m b a t p o w e r a g a i n i t t h e m a n d d e 6 t r o y e d t h e m p i ec e m e a l .
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m u l t i p l i e r t h at a l l o w e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n t o w o rk . T h e i r d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s
s o u g h t t o p o r tr a y w e s k n e i s t o t h e S o v i e t s a l o ng t h e c h o s e n S o v i e t l i n e o f
o p e r a t i o n s w h i l e s i n u l t a n eo u s l y p r o t e c t in g t h e G e r m a n c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e
f o r c e s . N a n i t e i n k n e w t h a t t h e S o v i e t s c o u l d b e d e l u d e d
b y
r e i n f o r c i n g a n d
m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e v p e c t a t i o n s o f 5 u c c e s s . T h e S o v i e t s d i d
n o t b e l i e v e t h e G e r m r n i c o u l d e v e r s e t u p a d e f e n s i v e l i n e o n t h e M i u s
River .32 L i k e w i se , e v e r y p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g G e r m a n a r m o r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e S o vi e t s a s m e r e l y ar m o r c o v e ri n g f o r c e s
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h i s c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v s f o r c e s o f 1 s t and 4 t h P z . e m A rm ie s n sd u h i s o t h e r
i o r c e s w e ak er . T he se w e ak er f o r c e s f o u g h t d e s p e r a t e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e
S o v i e t p , g i v i n g g ro un d r e l u c t a n t l y , b u t f a l l i n g b ac k n o n e t h e le i s . Ths
c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t o f t h e s e a c t i o n s r e i n f o r c e d t h e S o v i e t a s se ss m en t o f t ierm an
UR ilkne6E and t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e o f f e n s i v e p l a n u po n w h l c h t h e y h ad
embarked.
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o f t h e i r co mb at po wer i s t h e I m p ac t o f f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n o f r e s e r v s s and
s u s t a i n m e n t o p e r a t i o n s . Tho e f f o r t t o g e n e r a t e a nd s u s t a i n c om ba t p ow er I r
t h e l i n c h p i n o f t h e ca mpa ign p l a n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . A l a c k o f
c r e d i b l e c a p a b i l i t i e s i n t h i s a re a w i l l l e a v e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c om mander w i t h
n o f o r c e t h a t h e may u s e f o r d e c i i i v u r e s u l t s when t h e enemy bec om es
a p p r o p r i a t e l y w e a k e n e d .
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o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n to t h e o f f e n s e was t h e g u n u r r t i o n o f arm or r e s e r v e s
and t h e i r s u s t a i n r e n t d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f en ro . W a n s t e i n 's a b i l i t y t o
a n t i c i p a t e and i m p ro v i s e t o g e ne ra t e f o r c e s was c r i t l c a l t o h i s o p e r a t i o n a l
t r a n s i t i o n . Hu h ad d e t e rm i n e d hm w o ul d n ee d a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e b t o w i n t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l m o b i le d e f en s e and t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n r e . He worked
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I n a d e c i s i v e mann sr. L i k s w i i e , h i s r u t h l m s i m t r i p p i n g o f a rm or and
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t r a n s i t i o n . Once t h e s e f o r c e s w e re s t a g e d, t h e b u l k o f German s u p p l l s s
w ere s e n t t o t h e s e f o r m a t io n s . M a n s ts i n, t h e r e f o r e , p r i o r i t i z e d f i re p o w e r
and s u s ta i nm e n t t o h i s c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o r c e s a t t h e enpensu o f h i s f o r w a r d
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o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . F i r s t , M a ns te in u n de rs t oo d what m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s had
t o b e p ro du ce d i n t h e s ou t he r n w in g t o s c h is v u H i t l e r ' r i r m e d i a t e s t r a t e g i c
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s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s t o h a r m o ni z e t h e e nd s, wa ys , m eans an d r i s k . S ec on d,
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M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o r r e c t l y a s s e s s ed t h e f o u r e s s e n t i a l
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a n d l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t . M a n s t e in ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o n v e r t e d a
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e v e r y r e m p e c t b u t n u m b e r s . C e n t r a l t o M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t
p o w e r w e r e t h e e l e m e n t s o f l e a d e r s h i p a n d m a n e u v e r c o u p l e d w i t h h i s a b i l i t y
t o g e n e r a t e f o r c e s a 6 o p e r a t i on a l re s e rv e s . T h r o u gh t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t
p o w e r a n d t h e s e a c t i o n s , h e p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d h i s r e s o u r c e s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e
r e q u i r e d s e q u e n c e o f a c ti o ns . M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b a l a n c e d e n d s ,
m e a n s a n d risk in 6 u c h a w ay t h a t h e u s e d o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t p o w e r t o
a c c o m p l is h t h e s t r a t e g ic e n d s t h r o u g h a r u c c e i s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t o
a c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
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is
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t o t h e K ha r k o v c o u n t e r st r o k e , t h e S i n a i c a m p a i g n w a s
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e nd s. B u t , t o u n d e r s t an d t h e p r o b l e m s t h e I s r a e l i s f a c e d i n i m p l e m e n ti n g
t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n s , w e mu s t t a k e
a
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o p e r a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n f a c i n g t h e an t a g o n i st s .
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d l f f i c u l t p o s i t i o ns . T h e A r a b s f a c e d t h e s e e m i n g l y i n v u l n e r ab l e
I s r a e l i D e f e n s e F o r c e s (IDF). T h e A r a b s k n e w t h a t t h e i r a r m e d f o r c e s we r e n o
m a t c h f o r t h e I D F I n g r o u n d m a n e u ve r b a t t l e m o r t r a d i t io n a l a i r c o m b a t ; t h e y
k n e w t o o t h a t s u c c e s 6
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i n w e l l - c o o r d i n a t e d s u r p r i s e a t t a c k s w i t h
o v e r w h e l m i n g f o r c e s . I n t h i s ma n n e r , t h e I D F w o u ld b e f o r c e d t o c o n t e n d u i t h
m a s s i v e a t t a c k B o n m u l t i p l e f r o n t s w i t h o n l y a s m al l s t a n d i n g ar m y. T h e A r a b
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a t t r i t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e Arab , h a d to a c h i e v e t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l
o b l e c t i v e s r a p i d l y a n d t h e n t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e d e f e n s e
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a n t i ta n k s y s t e m s u n d e r a n e x t e n s i v e a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e
u m b r e l l a .
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w a r p l a n s w e r e i n t e n d e d to p r e v e n t t h e i n i t ia l A r a b r t t a c k f r o m y a i n i n g
t e r r a i n t h a t w o u l d b e u s e f u l f o r p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g .
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l a n d f o r u s e
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a t t a ck , e a r l y m o b i l i z a t i o n o f r e m e r v e r a n d r a p i d
d e p l o y m e n t t o t h e f r o n t u n d e r d p r o t e c t i v e a i r u m b r el l r . H o w e v e r , d e t e r r e n c e
o f w ar w a s o f f o r e m o s t i m p o r t a n c e t o I s r a e l i s e c u r i t y d u e t o t h e i r
u n f a v o r a b l e p o l i t i c a l r n d e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n . As a r e s u l t of t h e 1 9 6 7 wr r ,
m a n y n a t i o n s s a w I s ra e l a s t h e a g g r es s o r . M i l i t a r y m e a s u r e s t h a t I r r r el h a d
u s e d i n t h e p a s t , s u c h a s p r e e m p t i v e s t r i k e s ,
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t o t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld . T h o u g h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e 1967 w a r h a d r e d u c e d t h e
l e n g th o f I s r a el ' s b o r d e r s , t h e d e f e n s e of t h e s e b o r d e r s w a s
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m a s s i v e I s r a el i r e s p o n s e , t h e A r a b s s o u g h t t o m a k e t h e i r a t t a c k a s p o w e r f u l
a s p o s s i b l e . As a r e s u l t , t h e A r a b s i n c r e a s e d t h e p ot e n t ia l o f t h e i r l a r g e
s t a n d i n g a r m i e s t h r o u g h a e u c c e i s f u l l o n g r a n g e d e c e p t i o n p l an . A s e r i e s o f
f u l l d r e s s r e h e a r s a l s a n d e x t e n s i v e m a n e u v e r s ware c o n d u c t e d f r o m
December
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r e 5 o u r c e 5 i n r e a c t i o n t o t h e s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n r a n d e v e n t u a l l y a p o l i t i ca l
d e c i s i o n w a s m a d e t o r e d u c e t h e l e ve l o f v i g i l a n c e a n d r e s p o n s e . I n t h i s
w a y , t h e A r a b s s e t t h e s t a g e f o r s t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r p r i s e.
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a n d c o o r d i n a t e d A r a b a t t a c k .
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h e l p t h e i so l a t e d d e f e n s i v e p o s i t i o n s o n t h e S u e z C a na l . C o u p l e d w i t h t h e i l l -
a d v is e d e f f o r t s , t o s a v e t h e d o o me d s t r o n gp o i n ts o n t h e c a n al , t h e IDF
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b r i d g e he a d s . ( S e e H a p 9, p a g e 641 As a r e s u l t , E g y p t e n j o y e d t r e m e n d o u s
i n i t i a l s u c c e s s a n d a s u p e r i o r i t y o f f o r ce . W i t h i n 24 h o u r s o f t h e i n i t i al
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t h e S in ai . T h e r e f o r e , t o e x p l a i n t h e I s r ae l i c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e i n t h e S i n a i ,
w e m u s t f i r s t e x a m i n e t h e e v e n t s on t h e G o l a n H e i gh t s .
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p r e s s e d a n d t h e i r G o l a n h e a d q u a r t e r s w a s q u i c k l y s u r r o u n de d . B y E O c t t h e
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t h r u s t 5 p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t e v e r t o t h e h e a r t l a n d o f I s ra e l.
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a n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r i o r l i n e s t o s h i f t its s t r a t e g i c c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y
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f o r c e s a g a i ns t t h e S y r i a n s.
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m e a s u r e t o t h e e a s e o f a t t a c k i n g t h e e n t e n d e d Is r ae l i f r o n t i n t h e G o la n .
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t h e y c o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e a n d a c h i e v e i n i t i a l s u c c e s s m u c h more e a s i l y . H e n c e ,
t h i s i n i t i a l s u c c e s s w a s m o r e a r e s u l t of b e t t e r s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n t h a n an y
i m p r o v e d t a c t i c a l or o p e r a t i o n a l skills. T h e I D F , t h e r e f o r e , c o u n t e r a t t a c k e d
a n d g a i n e d a d e c i s i v e d e f e n s i v e v i c t o r y b y f i r s t a b s o r b i n g t h e S y r i a n a t t a c k
w i t h t h ei r r e g u l a r f o r c e s a n d s e c o n d s e t t i n g t h e u t a g e for. t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e w i t h t h e i r m o b i l i z e d r e s e r v e f o r ce s . M a r s h a l l i n g f o r t h e
c o u n t e r s t r o k e , t h e
IDF
r a p i d l y l a u n c h e d t h e c o u n t e r o ff e n s i v e , d e s t r o y i ng
39
1 100 S y r i a n a n d A r a b t a n k s a n d d r i v i n g t o w i t h i n 22 mllss of D a m a s c u s .
( S e e M a p 11/12, p a g e 76-77)
A
s t u n n e d G y r i a c r i e d f o r a r e s u m p t i o n o f
E g y p t i a n p r e s s u r e i n S i n a i t o a g a i n p r e s e n t I s r a e l w i t h a
two
f r o n t w a r ,
H o w e v e r , i t w a r t o o l a t e , w i t h S y r i a v i r t u a l l y d e f e a t e d ,
I s r a e l
w a s a l r e a d y
p r e p a r i n g f o r its o p e r a t i o na l t r a n s i t i on t o t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e i n S i n a i .
T h o u g h E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r r w e r e a w a r e o f
Irrreli p l a n s
t o
l a u n c h a c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e , E g y p t i a n p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s d i s a g r e e d , b e l i e v i n g
t h e y c o u l d
still
m a n a g e t o d i sr u p t t h e I s r a e li f o r c e s
in
S i n a i a n d t a k e t h e
p r e s s u r e off S y ri a . B e n d i n g u n d e r S y r i a n p r e s s u r e , A n w a r el S a d a t , P r e s i d e n t
o f E g y p t , a n d G e n . A h m e d Ali I s m a i l , M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e , p r e s s u r e d G e n G r a d
e l S h a z l y , C h i e f o f S t a f f , E g y p t i a n A r m e d F o r c e s , for a n i m m e d i a t e a t t a c k on
t h e S in a i p as se s. S h a z l y w a s a d a m a n t t h at t h i s w a s c o n t r a r y t o t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l
p l a n . 4 0
He k n e w t h a t a n a t t a c k w o u l d f a c e t h e I s r a e l i A ir F o r c e ,
s i n c e t h e SAM u m b r e l l a w a s n ot y e t r e a d y t o m o v e f o r N a r d , a nd E g y p t i a n f o r c e s
a n d l e a d e r s h i p w e r e n o t y e t r e a d y f o r s u c h a b o l d m o v e . S h a z l y a n d his
c o m m a n d e r s f o u g h t t o s t i c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n , b ut t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w o u l d
n o t t i e s w a y e d a n d o r d e r e d t h e a t t a c k f o r
14
O c t o b e r i n a n s w e r t o S y r i a n
p l e a s . (See M a p 9 8 , p a g e
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T he w o r s t c a s e s c e n a r i o e n v i s i o n e d b y t h e ID F was a n E g y p t i a n a r m or e d
4 1
t h r u s t i n t o S i n a i f ro m t wo d i r e c t i o n s w i t h 750 t a n k s on e ach a x i s .
F o r t u n a t e l y , h o we v er , t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n was f a u l t y . The p l a n was
p r ep a re d b y t h e M i n i s t e r o f D ef e ns e w i t h p r e s i d e n t i a l i n p u t f o r
a
p u r e l y
p o l i t i c a l g e s t u r e w i t h a s ec on da ry m i l i t a r y e f f e c t o f r e l i e v i n g p r e s s u r e on
S y r ia . E g y p t i a n p o l i t i c i a n s d i s r u p t e d t h e e n t i r e s t r a t e g i c an d o p e r a t i o n a l
d e s ig n o f t h e c am pa ig n p l a n a g a i n s t t h e b e t t e r ju dg me nt o f E g y p t i a n m i l i t a r y
T h e E g y p t i a n A r m y d i d n o t h av e t h e r e s o u r c e s t o a t t a c k an d
m a i n t a i n t h e b r i dg e h e ad w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a i r d im e ns io n
o v e r t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . 4 3 T h e r e f o r e , t o g e n e r a t e t h e a rm o r n ee de d f o r t h e
a t t a c k , t h e E g y p t i a n s r e d uc e d t h e w e st bani o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t o
100
t a n k s . 4 4 T he E g y p t i a n s a t t a c k e d o n a t o t a l o f s i x a xe s s p re a d o v e r 100 m i l e s
o f f r o n t , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a nd d i s s i p a t i n g c o mb at
s t r e n g t h .
45
T h i s
l a c k
o f
f i r e p o w e r a l l o w e d t h e IDF t o u s e
t a c t i c a l
i n t e r i o r
l i n e s a nd a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n t o d e s t r o y eac h a t t a c k i n t u r n .
B ase d o n s t r a t e g i c i n t e l l i g e n c e p r o v i d e d b y t h e A m er ic an s , t h e ID F knew
t h e a b o r t i v e E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s o f
I4
O c t o b e r h a d c l e a n e d t h e w e s t b a nk o f
a r m or e d o p e r a t i o n a l T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e
4
t h e w ea ke ne d E g y p t i a n
p o s i t i o n , t h e ID F p r e p a r e d t o la u n c h t h e l o n g a w a i te d and t h o r o u g h l y p la n n ed
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e a c r os s t h e c a n a l . A p p l y i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f ma65, t h e
I s r a e l i s p l a c e d s i x a r r o r e d b r i g a d e s a nd t wo i n f a n t r y b r i g a d e s a t t h e
c r o s s i n g c i t e s 4 7 as a s t r i k e f o r c e t o t r a p a nd d e s t r o y t h e enemy c e n t e r o f
g r a v i t y , w h i ch was e i t h e r o f t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m i e s now o n t h e e a s t b a n k.
' T a k i n g a d v a n t a g s
o f t h e e ne my l a c k o f E g y p t i a n i n i t i a t i v e on t h e e a s t ba nk ,
t h e I s r a e l i s u se d o n l y t wo a rm or ed b r i g a d e s t o p i n t h e e n t i r e t w o arm y
b r i d ge h e a d i n
a r i s k y b u t e f f e c t i v e economy o f f o r c e m eas u re . P i t t i n g
s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t w eak ne ss a t a d e c i s i v e p o i n t wi th an i n d i r e c t d pp rO dC h, t h e
I s r a e l i s m assed e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e i r a v a i l a b l e c om ba t p ow er o n o ne a x i s .
( S e e Map 10, p a g e
7 3 )
On
I 6
O ct ob er I s r a e l i t a n k s su cc ee de d i n c r o s a i n g t h e c a n a l a t D e v e r s o i r ,
b e tw e e n t h e E g y p t i a n 2 nd a nd 3 r d Arm y. T he p r e - w a r E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n
t o c o u n t e r s u ch
a
c o n t i n g e n c y
w a r
a c o n c e n t r a t e d a r m o re d c o u n t e r a t t a c k
a t
t h e p o i n t o f p e n e t r a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f o r c e s d e s i g n a t e d an d t r a i n e d
f o r t h i s b ra n ch o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n w er e d e s t r o y ed i n t h e
1 4
O c t o b e r
F a i l i n g t o g ra s p t h e m a gn i t ud e and d an ge r o f t h e I s r a e l i s t r i k e ,
t h e E g y p t i a n s d i r e c t e d t h e 2nd Army t o d e s t r o y t h e I s r a e l i b r i d g e he a d on t h e
e a s t s i d e o f t h e c a n a l b y a t t a c k i n g fr o m t h e n o r t h . The 2 5 t h A r m Ede, 4 t h e
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E g y p t i a n 3 r d Army b e lo w D e v e r r o l r , a t t a c k e d t h e I m r a s l i b r i d g e h e a d f ro m t h e
5 0 ~ 1 t h . ~ ~he p o o r l y c o o r d in a t e d a t t a c k s r e s u l t e d I n a c o n fu s e d , h a l f - h e a r t e d
e f f o r t . The 2nd E g y p t i a n Army a t t a c k e d w i t h l a r g e , b u t
hot.
f o r c e s .
H ow eve r, v a l i a n t d e f e n s i v e e f f o r t s b y ID F p a r a t r o o p e r s c he ck ed t h e E g y p t l a n
a dv an ce . The p o w e r f u l I s r a e l i e n p l o i t a t i o n f o r c e ( Ma ge n' s D i v i s i o n ) r e a c t e d
r a p i d l y m o vi ng f ro m i t s a s % e n b ly a r e a s t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n d e f e n s l v e p o s i t i o n s
f r o m w h ic h t h e y a mb us hed t h e E g y p t i a n 2 5 t h Armor B r i g a d e . T h e c o n c e n t r a t e d
f i r e
o f
3 t a n k b a t t a l i o n s a n n i h i l a t e d t h e E g y p t l a n brig ad^.^' T h e E g y p t i a n
c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a g a i n s t t h e I s r a e l i b r i d g e h e a d f a i l e d a nd t h e p r e - w a r E g y p t i a n
o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c r u m b l e d a s I s r a e l 1 t a n k s r u m b le d t o t h e we st ba n k o f t h e
Su e z C a n a l .
( S e e
Map I O A / l O B , p a g e 7 4 - 7 5 )
By 18 O c t o b e r , I s r a e l i a rm or h a d d e v a s t a t e d enemy r e a r s e r v i c e s on t h e
w e st b a nk , d e m t r o y l n g c o n vo y s , h e a d q u a r t e r s , g u a r d u n l t r , an d t h e d e a d l y
S A M
b a t t e r i e s . W i t h E g y p t i a n a i r d e f e ns e c o v e r d e s t r o y e d a nd m an eu ver
r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e b a t t l e on t h e e a s t b an k, t h e I s r a e l i 6 p u rs u ed t h e k i n d o f
war a t w h i ch t h e y e n e e l le d . A rm or t h r u s t s I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c l o s e a i r
s u p p o r t b a g g e d e i g h t th ou sa nd E g y p t i a n p r i ~ o n e r s . ~ 'y n i g h t f a l l t h e I s r a e l i s
s p l i t i n t o tw o d i v i s i o n s on t h e we s t b an k, o n e u n de r M a j . B en . S h a r o n h e a d i n g
n o r t h a nd on e u n d e r
M a j .
Gen. A dan m o v i n g s o u t h a nd w e s t t r a p p i n g t h e
E g y p t i a n 3 r d Arm y on t h e e a s t b a n k.
On 19 O c to b er , when t h e S o v i e t U n io n b e g a n t h e C o nc e r t e d e f f o r t t o h a l t
t h e w ar , t h e E g y p t i a n a rm y and S y r i a n f o r c e s w er e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o l l a p s i n g .
On
2 2
O c t o b e r t h e
U N
d e c l a r e d
a
c e as e f i r e . By 24 O c t o be r t h e E g y p t i a n 3 r d
Army c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o r e i n f o r c e d d i v i s i o n s e q u a l l i n g 45,000 men and 250
t a n k s was c o m p l e t e l y c u t o f f , w i t h o u t f o o d
o r
w a t e r , d o m i n a t e d b y enem y a r m o r
an d o u t o f r a n g e o f a i r d e f e n s e c o v e r a g e . The E g y p t i a n 2 nd A r m y ' s l i n e s o f
c o m m un ic a ti o n s w er e p r o t e c t e d f ro m S h a r o n ' s r e v i t a l i z e d a rm or d i v i s l o n b y
o n l y a t h i n E g y p t i a n t a n k s c r e e n . T hu s, t h e ID F h a d o v er c om e t re m e n do u s o d ds
and c o m p le t e s u r p r i s e t o a c h i e v e a s t u n n i n g m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y w h i ch was cu r b e d
o n l y b y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s u p e rp ow er s.
4 n a l u s i . s
. .the_ 9 7 3 ._nr.ab: srae_ LM,r
The a n a l y s i s o f t h e 1973 A r a b - I s r a e l i War p r e s e n t s an i n t e r e s t i n g
c o n t r a s t t o t h e G e rm a n -S o vi et E a t l t e r n F r o n t c am p a ig n s. W h i l e t h e Germ ans a nd
t h e S o v i e t s f o u g h t an a b s o l u t e w a r w i t h t h e u n l i m i t e d a im s o f a n n i h i l a t i o n ,
n e i t h e r t h e E g y p t i a n s n o r t h e I s r a e l i s c o u l d f i g h t su ch an e x t en d e d b a t t l e .
B o t h s i d e s f o u g h t t h e '73 War f o r l i m l t e d e nd s,
wi th
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u a t c h f u l eye of t h e s u p e r p o we r s , n a m e l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n .
In
s e a r c h i ng f o r t h e a n e w e r s t o t h e q u e s t io n s p or e d b y t h e s tu d y i t
m u st b e k e p t i n m i n d t h at a n y o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n h a d t o t a k e t h e p o s s i b l e
r e r p o n i e s o f t h e n u p e r p o w e r s i n t o m i nd . In a l m o s t e v e r y r e a l m , t h e s e o u t s i d e
i n f l u e n c e s h el d g r e a t s w a y , e i p e c i a l l y
i n
t h e a r e a s o f k u s t a i n m e n t , f o r c e
g e n e r a t i o n a n d i n t e l l i ge n c e . T h e a n t a g o n i s t s w e r e , t h e r e f o r e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
a l l i e d w i t h o n e m u p e r p o w e r a n d u n d e r p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e o t h e r .
O n c e a g a i n , t h e a n a l y s i s w i ll c e n t e r o n a n s w e r i n g t h r e e b r o ad q u es t io n s
1 .
W h at m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n m u st b e p r o du c e d i n t h e t h e a t e r
of
war or
o
e r a t i o n r t o a c h i e v e t h e s t ra t e g i c g o a l ?
( t h e l i n k a g e of s t r a t e g i c e n d s a n d m i l i t a r y m e a n s 1
2.
W h a t s e q u e n c e o f a c t i o n s is m o s t like ] t o p r o d u c e t h a t
c o n d i t i o n ?
(the
o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n h a t r e s u l t s f r o m b a l a n c i n g
e n d s , w a y c , m e a n 8 a n d r i s k )
3. H o w e h o u l d t h e r ~ s o u r c e s f t h e f o r c e b e a p pl i e d t o a c c o m l i s h
t h a t s e q u e n c e
of a c t i o n s ? ( t h e , o e r a t i o n a l l e v e l c o m
1
at p o w e r
e l e m e n t s t h a t e n a b l e o p e r a t i o n a l d es ign
E W . 1 .Ways,. M e a n s
and_
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F o r e m o s t , I s r a e l i p o l i t i c al e n d s d e m a n d e d t ha t 110 w a r t a k e p l a c e b u t t h a t
i f
i t d i d , I s ra e l i f o r c e s m u s t g a i n t h e i n i t i a t i v e w i t h o u t r i sk s . I s r a el i
s t r a t e g i c e n d m d e m a n d e d a s h o r t , a g g r e r s i v e , a nd d e c i s i v e w ar t o p r e v e n t
I s r a e l i e c o n o m i c i l l s f r o m b e c o m i ng t o o g r e at . E c o n o m i c a l l y , I s ra e l c o u l d n o t
m a i n t a i n a s t a n d i n g a r m y e q ua l t o t h e t h e c o m b i n e d s t r e n g t h o f t h e A r ab s .
I n s t e a d , t h e y b a s e d t h e i r d e f e n s e o n a w e l l - t r a in e d , h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d ,
e x p a n d a b l e ar m y a v a i l a b l e
in
72 h o ur 6 . I s r a e l i d e f e n s e p o l i c y c e n t e r e d o n
d e t e r r i n g w a r b u t t h e i r d e f e n s e p l a n a l s o h a d t h e e l e m e n t of p r e v e n t i n g t h e
A r a b s f r o m c a p t u r i n g t e r r i t o r y w h ic h t h e y c o u l d u s e a s a p o l i t i c al b a r g a i n i n g
c hi p. 52 O p e r a t i on a l d e s i g n , t h e r e f o r e , f o c u s e d o n a b s o r b i n g t.he i n i t i a l W a b
a t t a c k w h i l e r a p i d l y t r a n s i t i o n i n g to t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
I t
w a s e s s e n t i al
t h a t t h e I D F c a p t u r e A ra b t e r r i t o r y t o
u s e
a s a b a r g a i n i n g t o o l i n a n y
n e g o t i a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g a c e a s e f i r e .
H i s t o r i c a l l y , k e y i n g r e d i e n t s i n s u c h c a mp a i g n p l a n s W e r e s u p e r i o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e , e a r l y m o b i l i z a t i o n a n d p r e e m p t i v e a i r s t r i k e s . I r o n i c a l l y ,
I a r a e l ' s v i c t o r i e s, e s p e c i a l ly t h e ' b 7 W a r , h a m p e r e d s u c h a c ti o n s . T h e s e h ad
p l a c e d t h e m i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a g g r e s s o r in t h e w o r l d c o m m u n i t y ' s v i e w
w h i l e A r a b a w e r e s e e n a 6 b o t h h a p l e s s a nd h e l p l e s s a g a i n s t t h e ID F. H o w e v e r ,
I s r a e l
c o u l d
n o t
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t h e s e w a y s for f e a r of p o l i t i c al r e p e r c u s s i o n s w i th
its
o n l y a l l y , t h e US.
A S
a r e s u l t , t h e d e f e n s e s t r a t e g y o f I s r a el c o n t a i n e d m a n y
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s .
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lo o v e r c o m e t h e s e p o l i t i c a l r e s t r a i n t s , t h e I s r a e l i s c h o s e t o u s e a
s t a t i c l i n ea r d e f e n s i v e l i n e a l o ng t h e S u e z C a na l . T h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l Ba r - Le v
i ne p r e s e n t e d t h e I D F w i t h a n o p e r a t i o n a l d i c ho t o my . 5 3 T h e q u i e s c e n t ,
d e f e n s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e l i n e p o r t e n d e d a t t r i t i o n w a r f a r e , t h e o p p o s i t e o f
S u C C e s s f u l I D F d o c t r i n e . T h i s C r e a t e d d i s s e n s i o n o v e r w h e t h e r t o a d h e r e t o
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h o l d t h e S ue r . F a i l u r e to a c t i v a t e t h e al e r t p l a n i n t e n d e d to p r o t e c t the
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d i p l o m a t i c i n f l u e n c e . P o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e k e p t t h e I DF f r o m t a k i n g p r c d e n t
s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s f o r f e a r t h e i n t e r n a t l o n a l c o m m u n i t y , a n d e r p e c i a l l y t h e
U S ,
w o u ld r e g a r d t h i s a c t t o n a s t h e h a rb i n g e r o f I s r ae l i p r e e m p t i v e s t r i k e s.
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o p p o s i n g A r a b a c t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , e n d 6 a n d m e a n s w e r e n o t b a l an c e d . T h e
i n a b il i t y t o r e c o n c i l e t h e r is k s w i t h t h e m e a n s an d e n d s a l m o st p r ec i p i ta t e d
d i s as t e r. F o r t u n a t e l y , A r a b m i s t a k e s , m o s t l y E g y p t i a n , a l l o w e d t h e I D F t o
r e c o v e r a n d , a f t e r s h o r t bu t v i c i o u p a t t r i t i o n b a t t l e m , r e t u r n t o a n
o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b a s e d o n t h e i r d o c t r i n e of m a n e u v e r .
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t h e i r e r r o r s , t h e I s r a e l i s e f f e c t i v e l y e m p l o y ed a l l f o u r e l e m e n t s o f
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c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d , t h u s , d i d n o t e m c e e d t h e i r c u l m i n a t i n g p o in t . I s r a el
c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d n a m se d a g a i n s t t h en . F i n a l l y ,
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o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a s s i s t e d t h e I s r a e l i o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t l o n .
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i d e n t i t y t h e E g y p t i a n c e n t e r o f g r av i ty . T h e m a j o r g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t s w e r e
t h e t w o a r m i e s o n t h e e a s t b a n k , 2 n d E g y p t i a n A r m y i n t h e n o r t h a n d 3 r d
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d e f e a t e d o r t r a p p e d , t h i s w o u ld l e a d t o a n I s r ae l i v i ct o r y . H o w e v e r , m a k i n g
t h e s e a r m i e s v u l n e r a b l e w a s n o e a s y t a sk . D e f e a t i n g t h e m d e m a n d e d th a t t h e
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a n t i t a n k w e a po n s . T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , t h e ID F a t t a c k f i r s t h a d t o d e f e a t t h e
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p o w e r t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e E g y p t i a n c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i nd i r e ct l y . T h i s d e m a n d e d
t h e c r e a t i o n of a n I s r a e l i f o r c e of s o m e s t r e n g t h .
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t o t h e b a s e H e r e t h e m o b i l i z e d a r m or a n d i n f a n t r y r e s e r v e b r i g a d e s r u s h i n g t o
t h e S i na i . O n c e t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e w a s r e a d y , t h e I s r a e l i s h e l d t h e
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f o r m i d a b l e e n e m y d e f e n s i v e p o s i t io n s . T h i s p a u s e i n a g g r e s s i v e o p e r a t i o n s
a l l o w e d t h e I s r a e l i s t o r e a d y t h r e e f r e s h d i v i s i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
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i n s u r e t h e y d i d n o t r e a c h t h e i r d e f e n s i v e c u l m i n a t i n g p o in t . T h e t o t a l
s u r p r i s e g a i n s d by t h e A r a b 6 d i r e ct l y a f f e c t e d t h e I s r a el i a c t i o n s t h r o u g h ou t
t h e w ar . H a v i n g l o st t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n t h e S l n a i , t h e ID F r e s p o n d e d p o o r l y ,
a t t a c k i n g E g y p t i a n i n f a n t r y w i t h l i t t l e c o m b i n e d a r m s i n t eg r a ti o n . D u r in g t h e
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C o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of d e c i s i v e p o i n t s g r e a t l y c o n t r i b ut e d t o t h e i r
s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig n . T h e I D F h a d i d e n t i f ie d t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s
f o r t h e b a t t l e o f Si n a i a s t h e G i d i an d H i t l a p a s s e s a n d a c r o s s i n g s i t e o n
t h e S u e z C a na l . I s r a e l i p l a c e m e n t o f a r m o r force. p r o t e c t e d t h e d e c i s i v e
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s e a m b e t w e e n t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m ie s . T h i s i n f o r n a t i o n , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e
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s t r a t e g y o f t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n a n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r i o r l i n e s t o s h i f t its
s t r a t e g i c c e n t e r o f g r a vi t y . S t r a t e g i c a l l y , t h e A r a b s o p e r a t e d o n e n t e r i o r
l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n s a nd t h e IDF o n i n t e r i o r l i ne s . F u n d a m e n t a l l y , t h i s
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t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s s u b o r d i n a t e c o m m a n de r s .
T h e I s r a e l i s w e r e l e s s s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e i r i n i ti a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
n e x t e l e m e n t o f c o m b a t po w e r , n a m e l y m a ne u v er . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e
I D F
s u f f e r e d
s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o m a n e u v e r i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e w a r
r e s u l t i n g in m a n y u n n e c c s s a r y c a s u a l t i e s , b u t t h e I D F l e a d e r s h i p q u i c k l y
s o u g h t s o l u t i o n s t o t h e i r s h o r t c o mi n g s . P r i m a r i l y t h e I DF w a s n ot f o r c e
s t r u c t u r e d f o r a c o m b i n e d a r m s e f fo r t . T h e I s r a e li c o m m a n d e n v i s i o n e d a f l u i d
t a n k b a t t l e w i t h c l o s e a i r s u p p o r t
on
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t a n k m f o r w a r d w i t h o u t t r a n s p o r t e r s u p p o r t , w i t h l i t t l e a m m u n i t i o n , a n d
i n a d e q u a t e c r e w s . A r t i l l e ry , a c r i t i c a l p a rt o f t h e c o m b i n e d a r m s t e a m ,
r e c e i v e d l i t t l e p r i o r i t y i n m o v i n g f o r w a r d . T h o u g h t h e I D F p r e s s e d f o r a
f r e e - w h e e l i n g t a n k b a t t l e in t h e S i n a i d e s e r t , t h e m a n e u v er b a t t l e d i d n o t
d e ve l o p. I n s t e a d, e f f e c t i v e E g y p t i a n i n f a n t r y , in a t a c t i c a l d e f e n s e a n d
e q u i p p e d w i t h a n t i t a n k g u n s an d missiles, o p p o s e d I s r a e l i a rm o r . S o o n , t h e
IDF d i s c o v e r e d t h e e n t i r e S u e z f r o n t w a s o n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e n s e .
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d i s l o d g e t h e e n e m y i n f an t ry . 5 1 C o m m a n d e r s h a s ti l y t h r e w I D F r e s e r v e u n i t s
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i n t o t h e f i gh t . A s a r e r ul t , t h e b a t t l e b e c a m e d e c e n t r a l i z e d a nd c o m m a n d
d i r e c t i o n w a s l o s t .
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a r m s m a n e u v e r a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e wa r:
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f a c i l i t a t e t a n k m ob i l i ty , t h e I D F n e l e c t ed o t h e r e l e m e n t s th a t
a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t o f ? h e a r m o r e d t e am . T h e f a c t
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e x p e r t m a n e u v e r o p e r a t i o n s . S o m e e n a m p l e s o f t h e i r r e v i t a l i z e d m a n e u v e r
p r o w e s s b e a r d i s c u s s i o n . T h e e c o n o m y
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f o r c e s s i n c e t h e y w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y p a r a l y z e d by i n c e s s a n t I s r ae l i m a n eu v e r .
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c r o s s i n g w r e c ke d t h e E g y p t i a n d e f e n s e s o n t h e w e s t b a n k o f t h e c a na l . T h e
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u s i n g c o m b i n e d a r m s t o g r e a t e f f e c t . T h e t a c t i c s o f t h e ' ar mo re d a n v i l ",
w h e r e b y a r m or e d i n f a n t r y a nd a r t i l l e r y s l o w e d a n d c h e c k e d t h e a t t a c k e r e
w h i l e m o b i le , h a r d h i t t i n g c o u n t e r a t t a c k i n g a r m or f o r c e s s t r u c k t h e e n e m y
f l a n k s , d e s t r o y e d t h e E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s o f 1 4 O c t ob e r a n d t h e E g y p ti a n e f f o r t s
a g a i n s t t h e I D F cr os c ci n y s i t e on t h e c a n a l .
I s r a el i u s e of f i r e p o w e r p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e a b s o l u t e n ec e s s i t y t o
h a v e f i r e s u p e r i o r i t y i n o r d e r t o s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n si t i o n. O n t h e s o u t h e r n
f r o n t , t h e I s r a e l i s c o u l d
o n l y
t r a n s i t i o n a f t e r t h e y a c h i e v e d f i r e p o w e r
d o m i n a n c e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , I s r a el i f i r e p o w e r c a p a b i l i t y w a s i n i t i a l l y
i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e w a r t h e A r a b s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e IDF. A s a r e s u l t o f t h e
1 9 6 7 w a r , t h e I DF h ad v e s t e d m u c h o f its f i r e p o w e r i n its a i r f o r c e a 5 a n
i n t e g r a l p a rt o f a t a n k - a i r p l a n e t e a m t h a t h a d b e e n
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a n t i t a n k m i 5 s i l e s a n d a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e
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of i n s u f f i c i e n t a r t i l l e r y t o s u p p r e s s t h e e n e m y a n t i t a n k n e s ts . U n a b l e t o
s t o p t h e s e
missile
a t t a c k s o n t h e t a n k s , t h e I D F a 1 5 0 f o u n d i t s el f w i t h
i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f a n t r y f i r e p o w e r t o g o i n a n d r o o t o u t t h e e n e m y i n f a n t r y m e n .
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IDF
b a t t e r ed i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e a n t i t a n k
n e s t s p r e c i s e ly a 5 t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o na l d e s ig n h a d e n v i s i o n ed .
57
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m o st t e l l i n g a d v a n t a g e t h e I s r a e l i s e n j o y e d w a s t h e i r e x p e r t a i r - g r ou n d
i n t e g r at i o n . T h e a i r c r a f t p r o v i d e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f i r e s r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t
t h e o p e r a t i o n a l g r o u n d p la n. B o t h t h e a i r a n d g r o u n d e f f o r t w e r e
c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d c r i t i c a l to t h e m a n e u v e r s u c c e s s of t h e I s r a e l i m ai n a t t a c k
o n t h e w e st b a n k of t h e c s n a l. I t w a s n o t u n ti l t h e I D F s t o p p e d t h e d i r e c t
a t t a c k s o n t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m i e s a n d m a ss e d t h ei r a v a i l a b l e f i r e p o w e r at
t h e d e c i s i v e p o i nt
of
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b a c k i n t o t h e f i g h t . W h e n t h e y r e g a i n e d t h e u s e o f t h i s k e y e l e m e n t o f
f i r e p o w er , t h e y o v e r c a m e t h e E g yp t i a n d e f e n s e s a nd s u c c e e d e d i n t h e i r
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n .
I s ra e li a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t o f p r o t e c t i o n a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d i t 5
c r i t i c a l i t y . I n i t i a l IDF a c t i o n s d i d l i t t l e t o p r o t e c t t h e i r f o r c e . L a c k i n g
r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r e n e m i e s , t h e y a t t a c k e d w i t h o u t a n a d e q u a t e c o m b i n e d a r m s
t e am . U n c o o r d i n a t e d a t t a c k s le d t o c o n f u s i o n , m i s s e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s e s i n m e n a n d e q u i p m e nt . O n c e t h e c o m m a n d r e a l i z e d t h e i r
m i s t a k e s , t h e y s t o p p e d t h e ir a t t a c k s a nd w a i te d o n t h e d e f e n s i v e n e a r t h e
c r i t i c a l S i na i p as se s. U s i ng e c o n o m y o f f o r c e m e a ~ u r e s , h e I D F e f f e c t i v e l y
s c r e e n e d t h e E g y p t i a n s.
I n
t h i s m a n ne r , t h e
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p r o t e c t e d t h e i r f o r c e s w h i l e
a c c e p t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g t h e r e s e r v e f o rm a ti o n s. A f t e r t h e y w e r e s t r o n g
e n o u g h f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n , t h e I DF c o n c e n t r a t s d t h e i r f i r e p o w e r
a n d a t t a c k e d o n
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s i n g l e a n i s w h i c h e n a b l e d t he m t o b e t t e r p r o t e c t t h e i r
f o r c e s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e E g y p t i a n a i r d e f e n s e b e lt w a s
v i ta l i n a l l o w l n g I s r a e l i a i r p o w e r t o c o v e r t h e m ov e m e n t o f g r o u n d f o r c e s .
L a s t l y , i n t e l l i q e n c e a n d d e c e p t i o n p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n t h e u u e o f
o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t p o w e r i n t h i s wa r. T h e l a s t t w o e l e m e n t s o f
o p e r a t i o n a l c o m b a t p o w e r , I s r a e l i d e f e n s e p l a n s a n d d e c i s i o n s d e p e n d e d o n
a c c u r a t e i n t e l l i ge n c e . A m a z i n gl y , I s r a e l i p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r e n e m y p l a c e d
t h e m a t r i s k. F a i l u r e t o d i s c e r n t ha t t h e A r a b s c o u l d p o s t u r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r
l i m i t e d a i l i t a r y n o l u t i o n m t o p o l i t i ca l e n d s w a s
a
s t r a t e g i c f a i l u re . F a i l u r e
t o a c c o u nt f o r c h a n g e s in E g y p t i a n force s t r u c t u r e, n o t a b l y t h e a d d i t i o n a l
m o d e r n a n t i t a n k a n d a n t i a i r c r a f t s y m t s m s , a n d h o w t h e s e c h a n g e s d e t e r m i ne d
E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n , n e a r l y r e s u l t e d i n c a l a m i t y . T h e I DF b e l i e v e d
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t h e A r a b s c o u l d n o t a t t a c k w i t h o u t m a r k e d l y i m p r o v e d a i r f o r c e s a n d i n c r e a s e d
m a n e u v e r c a p a b i l i t i e s
i n
a r m o r e d w a r f a r e .
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t h e I s r a e l is c h a g rl n , t h e
E g y p t i a n s h a d m a d e g r e a t s t r i d e s
in
o v e r c o m i n g t h e s e w e a k n e s s e s a n d w e r e
m i l i t a r i l y c a p a b l e o f g a i n i n g l i m i t e d s t r a t e g i c e nd m. T h e l a c k o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s i s a l l ow e d t h e I D F t o b e s u r pr i s e d.
T h e A r ab p l a n e n v i s i o n e d a s ~ c c e s i f u 1 r o s s i n g , c a p t u r e o f t h e B ar -L ev
l i n e a n d o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e e a s t b a n k . T h u o , a k e y to t h e h r a b p l a n w a o
d e c e p t i o n w h i c h g a i n e d f o r t h m m a n i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l e d g e o v e r t h e
I D F .
I n t e l l i g e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n w a s c r u c i a l to a n t i c i p a t e d I s r a e li d e f e n c i v e
r e a c t i o ns d e s ig n e d t o r e d u c e t h a risks o f t h e n m u s e c u r i t y i i t u a t i o n t h a t
f a c e d I s r a e l .
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p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , I s ra e l w a s n ot a b l e t o c on d u c t
p r e e m p t i v e s t r i k e s f o r f e a r t h e y w o u l d b e l a b s l e d t h e a g g r es s o r.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e I D F S o u t h e r n C o m m a n d
established
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a l e rt s t a g e s f o r t h e S i na i . U n f o r t u n a t e l y
for
t h e I w a e l i s , a t t h e c ri t ic a l
t i m e , t h e I s ra e li c a b i n e t w o u ld n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e i n i t i a t i o n of t h e s e p r u d e n t
a l e r t m e a s u r e s a n d a g g r e s s i v e a c t io n s .
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r e p o r t e d b y I s r a e l i w a r
c o r r e s p o n d e n t Z e ' e v S c h i f f i
" In t h e f a ce o f t h i s [ de ci si on l, an o r de r w a ~ s s u e d
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f e a r t h a t a c h a n g e i n t h e d i s p o s i t i o n of
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A r a b s t o a c t . I s r a e l i t a n k s , a u a r e s u l t , w e r e n o t i n p o s i t i o n at
t h e c a na l w h e n t h e
f i
h t i n g b e g a n , a n d t h e m a i n a r n o r e d u n i t s w e r e
t o t h e r e a r , i n c e n t r a l ina i." JE
F o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e IDF, t h e l e a d e r s h i p r e c o v e r e d a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d
d e c e p t i o n p l a y e d a k e y r o l e i n t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . I n t e l l i g e n c e s o u r c e s
q u i c k l y g a t h e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e n e w w e a p o n s a n d t a c t i c s t h e E g y p t i a n s
w e r e u s in g . T h i s d a t a, c o up l e d w i t h c o m b a t e x p e r i e n c e , e n a b l e d t h e t a c t i c a l
a n d o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r B t o d e v i s e m e t h o d s t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e a n t i t a n k
m i 6 5 1
l es . S u c c e s s f u l i n t e l l i g e n c e a l s o p r o vi d e d t h e a i r f o r c e w i t h
i n f o r m a t i o n o n E g y p t i a n a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s a nd c o m n a n d l c o n t r o l s y s t en c .
U s i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e
f r o m
A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s , I s ra e li a n a l y s t s r e p o r t e d t h e
a b s e n c e o f c r e d i b l e E g y p t i a n a rm o r r e s e r v e s o n t h e w m i t ba n k , t h e c o r n e r s t o n e
r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h a t c a r r l e d t h e I D F a c r o s s t h e
c a n al . H o w e v e r , t h e c r i t i c a l h a n d m a i d e n of i n t e l l i g e n c e w a r d e c e p t i o n .
U s i n g M a j. G e n . S h a r o n ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e i n f o r n a t i o n c o n c e r n l n g t h e w e a k l y
d e f e n d e d b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e E g y p t i a n 2 nd a n d 3 r d ( Ir ni er , t h e
IDF
S o u t h e r n
C o m m a n d q u i t k l y s e l e c t e d D e r v e r s o i r a s t h e c r o s s i n g s i te . T h e I D F
c o n c e a l e d
i t 5 i n t e n t i o n t o c r o s s t h e c a n a l at D e r v e r s o i r , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e
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E g y p t i a n s w e re l u l l e d t o s l e e p and f a i l e d t o p r o t e c t t h i s d e c i s i v e p o i n t .
Th e m ost s p e c t a c u l a r d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t was t h e u se o f t h e eco nom y o f f o r c e
b r i g a d e s a g a i n s t e a ch E g y p t i a n b r i d g e h e a d . E dc h l e r a e l i b r i g a d e commander
k e p t o n e o f h i s t h r e e a v a i l a b l e b a t t a l i o n s c o n s t a n t l y m ov in g b e f o r e t h e e a s t
b an k E g y p t i a n p o s i t i o n s . The o t h e r t w o b a t t a l i o n s r e s t e d , r e c o v e r e d a nd
r e p a i r e d t dn k s , and o t h e r w i s e p r e p a r e d t o go i n t o a c t i o n a t a m om en t' s
n o t i c e . T hese d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s c o m p l e t e l y f o o l e d t h e E g y p t i a n d i v i s i o n
c om ma nd er s on t h e e a s t b a n k . When t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l c om m an de rs
a t t e m p t e d t o w i th d r a w b a d l y ne ed ed p o r t a b l e a n t i t a n k w e ap ons t o t h e w es t b an k
t o c o u n te r t h e I s r a e l i c a n a l c r o s s i n g , t h e E g y p t i a n t a c t i c a l com m anders on
t h e e a s t b an k v e h e m e n t ly p r o t e s t e d . T he se d i v i s i o n c om ma nd ers r e f u s e d t o
t r a n s f e r t h e i r a n t i t a n k weapons f o r f e a r o f
a
m ajo r I s r a e l i a t t a c k on t h e i r
p o s i t i o n s .
5 9
F o r c e
g e n e r a t i o n and s u r t a in m e n t e f f o r t s may be t h e mos t c r i t i c a l
c a p a b i l i t i e s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l commander h a s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
t i m e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d e f e n s i v e t o t h e o f f e n s i v e . The
l a c k o f f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n and s u s t a i n r e n t m eans may b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a war
t h a t h as l i m i t e d s t r a t e g i c e n ds an d i s c o n t r o l l e d b y s up er p ow er i n f l u e n c e .
The I D F ' s s m a l l s t a n d i n g f o r c e s a nd t h e r e q u i r e m e n t
t o r e l y
on l i m i t e d
r e ~ e r v e s i n i t i a l l y d e l ay ed l r r a e l i f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n e f f o r t . 6 . A d d i t i o n a l l y ,
I s r a e l l a ck e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l b a s e t o p r o v i d e e n d l e s s r e s o u rc e s f o r modern
w a r . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a s
a r e s u l t o f t h e 1970 c e a s e f i r e a g re e me n ts e n d i n g t h e
War o f A t t r i t i o n , I s r a e l h ad l i m i t e d s t o c k s o f m a t e r i a l a nd de pe nd ed l a r g e l y
on
US
a s s i s t a n c e .
C o n s eq u e n tl y , I s r a e l ' s s t o c k o f w a rm a ki ng m a t e r i a l s was s o l o w t h a t
w i t h o u t US h e l p t h e i r s t r a t e g i c c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t w ou ld ha ve a r r i v e d w i t h i n
d a y s . A m t h e i o l e I D F i u p p l i e r , t h e US f a c e d
a
7000 m i l e r e s u p p l y f l i g h t
l i n e w i t h t i m e w o rk in g a g a i n s t t h e I s r a e l i s . F o r t u n a t e l y , I D F f o r c e
g e n e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y ma1 en ha nc ed b y t h e i r r e m a r k a b l e a b i l i t y t o c on d u c t
b a t t l e f i e l d r e c o v e r y o f t h e i r e q u i pm e nt a s
well
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use
o f C a p t u r e d
m a t e r i a l .
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b a t t l e d amaged t a n k s ha d b ee n r e p a i r e d and f i v e
a d d i t i o n a l a rm or e d b r i g a d e s moved i n t o S i n a i . 6 0 I n t h e S i n a i t h e s e s k i l l s
a l l o w e d t h e econom y o f f o r c e m i s s i o n t o s u r v i v e w h i l e t h e
I D F
f o u g h t i t s
d e c i s i v e b a t t l e
i n
t h e G o ld n H e i g h t s . Upon c o m p l e t i o n o f t h a t b a t t l e , t h e
I D F , w i t h US s u p p o rt , h ad g en er at m d s u f f i c i e n t com ba t po we r t o f o r e s t a l l i t s
d e f e n s i v e c u l m in a t i n g p o i n t dn d a l l o w t r a n i i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n s e on i t s own
t e r m s .
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l h e I s r a e l i s h ad
some
tunas m a m s n t s , b u t t h e y r e c o v e r e d . I n i t i a l l y
s u r p r i s e d a n d u n p r s p a r e d o p s r a t i o n a l l y a n d t a c t i c a l l y t o d u a l w i t h t h o n o w
E g y p t i a n t h r e a t , t h e 1 DF f l o u n d e r e d , u n a b l s t o g r a s p t h at E g y p t s o u g h t o n l y
l i m i
t e d o p e r a t i o n a l a n d s t r a t e g i c g o al s . A f t e r t h e m i s t a k e n c o u n t e r a t t a c k s
o f
8 9 O c t o b e r , t h e ID F w e nt o v e r t o t h e d s f s n s i v e i n t h e S i n a l a nd s h i f t e d
m o s t o f its r e s o u r c e s t o d e f e a t t h e S y r i a n s o n t h s G o l a n H e ig h ts . n e a n w h i l s ,
t h e I DF S o u t h e r n C o m m a n d t o o k t h e m s a s u r e o f t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d , a f ts r c a r e f u l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l e l e m e n t s o f o p s r a t i o n a l d e s i g n , d e v e l o p e d a
f r e s h c a m p a i g n p l an . W i t h i n a
WEE^,
t h e
IDF
c o n d u c t e d an o p e r a t i o n a l
t r a n s i t i o n o n t w o f r o n t s , f i r s t d e f s a t i n g t h e S y r i a n s a n d t h R n c r o s s i n g t h e
S u e z C a n a l t o d e f e a t t h e E g y p t ia n s . T h l s
c d s o
s t u d y a l s o s h o w s t h e
c r i t i c a l n e s s o f t h e t h r e e r e q u i r s r e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a ns i t i on . F i r s t , t h e
I s r a e l i s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y s u c c e ss f u l i n b a l a n c i n g s n d s , n r y i , m s a n s a n d
risk
t o p r o d u c e t h e m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l sd t o t h e i r s t r a t e g i c s u c c e ss .
S e c o n d , t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l d e r i g n pr o d u ce d t h e s e q u e n c e
of
a c t l o n s t h a t
a c h i e v e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e n d st a te . F i n a l l y , t h e y g e n s r a t e d o p e r s t i o n a l l e ve l
c o m b a t p o w e r r e s o u r c e s a n d u s s d t h e m to s e t t h s c o n d i t io n s f o r S U C C ~ S B .
.. 1 1 . .- -._ -
.
..... . . C o n c l u s i o n s.
T h i s s t u d y h a s t s s t s d t h s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , a t t h s o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l ,
t h e r e a r e e i s e n t i a l elsmsnts o f o p s r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n p l a n n i n g t h at t h e
c o m m a n d e r m a y
use
a s a g u i d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t i o n s h e must t a k e t o
u l t i m a t e l y p u r s u e a p o s i t i v e a i m t h r o u g h a c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .
A
r e v i e w o f t h e
t h e o r y o f t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e , a s p r e s e n t e d b y C l a u s s w i t r , a n d
US
A r m y
d o c t r i n e , o f t a k i n g t h e o f f e n s i v e a f t e r a s u c c s s s f u l d e f e n s e , i n d i c a t e s
c l e a r l y t h at a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n m u s t t a k e p l a c e . W h a t is m i s s i n g i n
b a t h t h e o r y a n d d o c t r i n e i6 a d i s c u s s i o n o f h o w t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r
p o s t u r e s h i s f o r c e t o c o n d u c t t h i s t r a n s i ti o n . T h i s s t u d y p r o v i d e s a s t a r t
p o i n t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r b y i d s n t i f y i n g
soms
e i i e n t i a l e l e m e n t s
t h a t malie o p s r r t i o n r l t r a n s i t i o n a s u c c e s s .
T h i s a n a l y c i s p o i n t s o u t some e s s e n tl a l e l e m e n t 6 o f o p e r a t i o n a l
t r a n s i t i o n t h at t h e c o m m a n d e r ma y uas t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n se . F i r s t , it
i s i m p e r a t i v e t h at e n d s , w a ys , m e a n s a n d r i s k b e i n h a r m o ny . S e c o n d , t h e
c a m p a i g n p l a n mu s t b e b a s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p l y i n g t h s k e y e l s m e n t s o f
o p e r a t i o n a l d e si g n. F i n a l l y , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r m u s t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t ,
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m a t u r e a n d s k i l l e d o p e r a t i o n a l l ev e l c o m b a t p o w e r f o r t h e s c a l e of
o p e r a t i o n s d e m a n d e d b y t h e d i r e c t e d e n d s . T h e h i s t o r i c a l c a s e s t u d i e s
p r o v i d e some c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o t h e i m pa c t o f f a i l u r e a n d s u c c e s s
i n
t h e s e
t h r e e a r e a s t h a t m a y b e n e f i t f u t u r e c a m p a i g n p l a n n e r s a n d o p e r a t i o n a l
c o m m a n d e r
5.
F i r 6 t , i t is i m p e r a t i v e t h a t e n d s , w a y s , m e a n s a n d r i s k s b e i n h ar m o n y .
T h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e t h e a t e r a n d t h e s t r a t e g i c g o a l s m us t b e u n d e r s t oo d b y
t h e s t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l e a d e rs h i p . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n
m u st b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d a p p r o v ed b y s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s , u n d e r s t o o d a n d
e x e c u t e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l s t a f f s a n d p r o p e r ly e x e c u t e d b y t h e t a c t i c al
l e a d e r s . ( S e e A p p e n d i x I p a g e
4 1 )
S e c o n d , t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n s m u st b e b a s e d o n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e
f o u r t h e o r e t i c a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n . T h e c o n c e p t of c e n t e r o f
g r a v i t y is a n e s s e n t i a l p l a n n i n g t o o l a n d t h e c o m m a n d e r s h o u l d f o c u s
o n
a n
i n d i r e ct a p p r o a c h t o d e f e a t i n g t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g
a n d b u i l d i n g u p h i 6 o u n c e n t e r of g r a v i ty . T h e i de a o f t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t
is a l s o i m p o r t a n t s i n c e t h s c o m m a n d e r ' s t a s k
is
to i n c r e a i e h i s r e l a t i v e
c o m b a t p o w e r b y w e a r i n g d o w n t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y a n d h a s t e n i n g t h e
e n em y 's c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . C o n c u r r e n t l y , t h e c o m m a n d e r
must
g e n e r a t e
o p e r a t io n a l r e s e r v e s f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e a nd 5 1 0 w
his
o w n c u l m i n a t i n g
p oi nt . L a s t l y , t h e c o n c e p t s o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e s o f
o p e r a t io n l s u p p or t g i v e f o r m t o t h e c o n f i n e r o f t h e c a m p a i g n ' s t h e a t e r of
o p e r a t i o n s . D e c i s i v e p o i n t 6 a r e d e t e r m i n e d b a se d o n t i m e , s p a c e , m a s s a n d
m o m e n t u m a n a l y si s . L i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t a r e t h e o u t c o m e s of t h e
s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n
of
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p ro v i d e d b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g c e n t e r o f
g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n ts , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e c o n o m y o f f o r c e , an d t h e
d e c i s i o n f o r a d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t a p p r o a c h .
(See
A p p e n d i n 2, p a g e 4 4 1
T h e c a n p a i g n p l a n d e v e l o p s d is d e p e n d e n t n o t o n l y o n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e
e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b u t a l s o t h e r e l a t i v e w o r t h o f t h e c o m b a t
p o w e r a v a r l ab l e . T h e a b i l i t y o f t h e . g i v e n f o r c e s m a y b e a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e
e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r I T h e c a s e s tu d i e s p r o v i d e s o m e c l u e s c o n ce r n i n g t h e
r e q u i r e d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r ' s c o m b a t
p o w r
i n e n s u r i n g
s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . T h e t a c t i c a l l ev e l e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t
p o w e r t h a t also h a v e o p s r a t i o n a l i m p a c t a re : l e a d e r sh i p , m a n e u v e r , f i r e p o w e r
a n d P r o t e c t i o n . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s a l s o i n d i c a t e t h at i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n
p l a n s , f o r c e g e n e r a t io n of o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e B a n d s u s t a i n m e n t o p e r a t i o n s
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h av e an i m pa c t o n o p e r a t i o n a l c o r b a t p o w er . F i n a l l y , p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
f o r c e s and t e r r a i n f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n was e s s e n t i a l t o b o t h t h e
G e r m a n s a n d t h e l s r a e l i r .
F i r s t , we w i l l r e v i e w t h e i m p a c t o f l e a d e r s h i p on s u c c e s s fu l d e f e n s e a nd
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n and t h e l e a d e r r h i p s k i l l s a r e r e q u i r e d . I n e v er y
i n s t a n c e , q u a l i t y l e a d e r s h i p en a b le d s u cc es s and p o o r l e a d e r s h i p l e d t o
d e f e a t . Q u a l i t y l e a d e r s h i p demands c o h e s i o n and h a r r o n y of e f f o r t
a t
e v e r y
l e v e l o f war. W h i le t h i s n ay b e v i r t u a l l y i m p o ss i b l e t o a ch ie v e, t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l co nn a nd e r h as t h e d u t y t o t r y c o n s i s t e n t l y t o m eld t h e d i s p a r a t e
l e v e l s o f l e a d e r s h i p i n t o
a
c o o r d i n a t e d i n s t r u m e n t o f n a t i o n a l p ow er.
M a n s t e i n s e t s
a
f i n e e na mp le o f how t h i s
m a y
b e a c co m p li sh e d u n de r t r y i n g
c ir cu m s t an c es . O p e r a t io n a l l e a d e r s h i p i s c o np le u , r e q u i r i n g
a
t h o r o u g h
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e nd s, w ays , n e a ns a nd r i s k , c o u p l e d w i t h a k n o w l e d g e O f
m i l i t a r y t h e o ry and v i s i o n . C e n t r a l t o l e a d e r sh i p i n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n u i t i o n
i s k no win g when t o ac c e pt and when t o d e c l i n e b a t t l e . As Q e r r a n and 1 5 r a e l i
a c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e , e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p e mp ha size s s u p e r io r , a c t i o n
o r i e n t e d , i n d e p e n d e n t command s t y l e s . G e r r a n a nd I s r a e l i l e a d e r s t o o k r i s k s ,
u n le a s he d t h e i r s u b or d in a te m b y g i v i n g t h e r m i s s i o n t y p e o r d e r s and a l t e r e d
t h e p l a n b a se d o n s u b o r d i n a t e i n p u t . Com manders who h a v e i n n e r c o n f i d e n c e ,
in de pe nd en ce , i n i t i a t i v e , p a t i en c e and t i r i n g t en d t o b e a b l e t o u n d er ta k e
b o l d , r i s k y b a t t l e s o f d e c i s io n . J u s t a s
success
o p e r a t i o n a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e
c u m u la t iv e e f f e c t o f
a
s e r i e s o f s u cc e ss e s
i n
o r c h e s tr a te d b a t t l e s , t h e r e i s
a
c u m u l a t iv e e f f e c t o f o b s t i n a n c e , d is sP n Sl On and l e a d e r s h i p m i s t a k e s t h a t
c a n p r o d u c e d e f e a t .
The se co nd e l e m e n t o f o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l co mb at power i s m an eu ve r. No
o p e r r t r o n a l p l a n s u f f i c e s i n e v e ry d e t a i l f o r an e n t i r e c am pa ig n) c ha ng es
w i l l
b e r e q u i r e d an d t h i s demands f l e w i b i l i t y . E v e ry l e v e l o f war must h av e
com manders w i t h t h e f l e w i b i l i t y o f m in d t o s e i z e O p p o r tU n i t i R E f o r
t r a n s i t i o n . T h e r e f o re , b ra n ch e s and s e q u e ls a r e i n t e g r a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l
d e s i g n and a r e t h e b a s i s f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . I n o r de r t o r a p i d l y
p u r s u e b r a n c h e s a nd s e q u e l s , t h e c o nm a nd e r
murt
h av e n an eu ve r f o r c r s t h a t a r e
q u i c k o f m in d a nd a g i l e i n n a n eu v er . B o t h t h e G e r n rn and I s r a e l i s h ad
p r e p a r e d f o r t h e r r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s , t h e Germans b y t h o ro u g h
r e c o n n a i s s a n c e an d k n o ul e d g e o f t h e a r e a
o f
o p e r a t i o n s , r o a d and r a i l n e t
d e v e lo p m e n t , a nd b u i l d u p o f s u p p l y d e p o t s a n d t h o 1 B r a s l i s C O n 5 t r U C t i O n o f
r o a d s , b r i d g e s , a nd c r o s s i n g s i t e i m p r ov e m e n ts a l o n g t h e Suez C a na l c o u p l e d
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w i t h e n t e n s i v e r e h e a r S a l 6 o f a s s a u l t c r o s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s . B o t h t h e G erm ans
and t h e l r r a e l i s h ad p r o pa r e d f o r t h o i r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s , t h e Germans
b y t h o r o u g h k no w lo d ge o f t h e a r e a o f o p e r a t i o n s , r o a d an d r a i l n e t
d ev e lo pm e nt , a nd b u i l d u p o f s u p p l y d e p o t s and t h e I s r a e l i s b y t h e i r
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s , b r i d g e s and c r o s s i n g s i t e i m pr ov em e nt s a l o n g t h e Suez
C a n a l . These s k i l l s a r e e s s o n t i a l i n a l l o w i n g t h e c ommander t o r e a c t
p o s i t i v e l y t o u n c e r t a i n t y , c h an ce and f r i c t i o n . These a t t r i b u t e s e w p la i n how
i n a l l f o r c e 6 n u ch a 0 d e p l e t e d G e rn an P _ a ~ ' g r - f o r n a t i o n s and Israeli armor
b r i g a d e s w e re a r e a b l e t o h a ve a c u m u l a t i v o i m p a c t f r r b ey on d t h e i r s i z e .
O p e r a t i o na l t r a n s i t i o n demands f o r c o r t h a t a re c a p a b le o f r a p i d t a s k
o r g a n i z a t i o n c ha ng os , a b l e t o t h i n k on t h e move, and c o m p et en t i n t h e
m an eu ve r o f b o t h co mb at f o r c e s a nd l o g i s t i c s e le m e n ts ,
T he n ew t p o i n t i n o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l m aneuver i s f i r e p o w e r . F i r ep o w e r
a t
t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l f o cu s e s on
two
d i m e n s i o n s , a i r a n d g r o u n d f i r e p o w e r .
G roun d f i re p o w e r i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t w eakness
a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t . M a n s te i n ' s d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i s o l a t e d e le m en ts o f
t h e a t t a c k i n g S o v i e t a r m ie s ~ 6 i O d i r e p o w e r a g a i n s t w ea kn es s a s d i d t h e ID F
e f f o r t s a g a i n s t D e v e r s o i r . C r i t i c a l t o m as sin g f i re p o w e r was t h e
s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f l a r g e f o r m a t i o n s and t h e i r s im u l ta n e ou s o r s e q u e n t i a l u s e
i n b a t t l e t o a c h io v o s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s . A ga in , 4 t h Pan-zer. A rm y 's a c t i o n s
f r o m t h o end o f F e b r u a r y t o 1 4 M a r c h s e r v e a s an e na m pl e o f m o v i ng l a r g e
f o r m a t i o n m o v o r v a s t d i s t a n c e s t o mass f i r s p o w e r . I l s d i s c u s s e d a bo ve , t h e
a b i l i t y o f t h e c om ma nder 's f o r c o r t o maneuvmr i s
c r i t i c a l
t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f f i re p o w e r i n t h o g ro un d d im m ns io n a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l . Our a n a l y s i s
a l s o r e f l e c t e d t h e im p o rt a nc e o f f i r e po w o r i n t h e
a i r
d im ens ion . German use
o f t h e l r a i r f l e e t s p ro v id o d i n t e l l i g e n c e and o p e r a t i o n a l f i r e s .
F u r t h er m o re , ID F u so o f a i r p o w or was i n 6 t r u n e n t a l i n t h e i r v i c t o r y s i n c e b o t h
e le m en ts r e q u i r e d t h e s u pp o rt o f t h e o t h e r t o be e f f e c t i v e . Fo rc e s t h a t
o p e r a t e i n t h e a i r d i m e n s io n a r o more r e s p o n s i v e and a r e t h e r e f o r e
o p e r a t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
The f o u r t h o l e b e n t o f c om ba t p ow er
a t
t h e o p e r a t l on a l l e v e l i s p r o t e c t i o n
o f
t h e f o r c e . T h l s u i m p l e c o nc e pt is one o f t h e most d i f f i c u l t d y n d n ic s t o
c o n t r o l a t t h o o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l . P r o t e c t i o n i s o n l y p o s s i b l e when
l e a d e r s h i p , m an eu ve r, f i r e p o w e r , i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n and s u s t r i n m e n t a r e
f u n c t i o n i n g p r o p e r l y . T he re a r e t w o e s s o n t i a l i d ea s i n p r o t e c t i o n
a t
t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l 1 t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t 5 m ust b e h e l d t o make t h e d ef e ns e work
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and t h e c o u n t o r o f f e n s iv e f o r c e s m ust be s a fe g ua r de d . C r i t i c a l t o t h i s s c he re
i s k no win g when t o a c ce p t b a t t l e and when t o d e c l i n s b a t t l e . B ot h t h s
Germans and t h e I s r a e l i s r e fu s e d b a t t l e t o s s t t h e s t ag e f o r s u p e r i o r i t y a t
t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t . When c h o o s i n g t o e ng a ge t h e ensm y, t h e c o n ra n d er r u s t
c o n d uc t c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n s t o a l l o w t h e enemy n o r e s p i t e . M a n s t e i n ' s
u n r e l e n t i n g p u r s u i t
o f
t h e S o v i e t s t o B s l g o r o d c r e a t i n g a c a s c a d i n g e f f e c t .
C o n t i n u i n g I D F a rm or p r e s s u r e on t h e E g y p t i a n b r i d g eh e a d s f r o n t h e f r o n t an d
i n t h e r e a r c au se d E g y p t i a n com manders t o w a i t s resources i n d s s pe r a t e
a t t a c k s . I n t h e c o nd uc t o f t h e d e f en se , t i m e l y w i t h d r a w a l i s ne sd sd t o r ed u c e
e x p o s u r e a n d
l i m i t
dam age. H o s t o f t e n t h i s r e q u i r e s d e p t h a nd t h s c o n du c t of
a
m o b i l e d efP nS R a s c o n d uc t e d b y M a n s t e i n . L o g i s t i c a l B U p p or t m us t b e
p r i o r i t i z e d t o c om m it t ed f o r c e s and a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i r e t he s e sans
r e s o u r c e s m ust b e f oc u se d o n t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e . M a n s t e in r u t h l e s s l y
a d h e r e d
t o
t h i s i d e a . The
IOF
a cc om p li sh ed t h i s t h r ou g h t h e r o b i l i z a t i o n o f
r e s e r v e s . A t t h e same t im e , d e c e p t i o n p l a n s r u s t a l1 0w t h e c o rn a nd o r t o r e s t
h i s own fo r c e s . N o re o ve r, d e c e p t i o n p l a n s r u s t i n s u r e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l
r e s e r v e s r e m a in h i d d e n.
NOH t h a t M U h a v e l o o k e d
a t
t h e f o u r e l s r e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l c om bat pow er
t h a t i m p a c t t h e c om m an de r' s p l a n s
MU
w i l l e xa m in e t h e i n p a c t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
d e c e p t i o n , f o r c e g e n e r a t i on a nd s u s t a i n n e n t o n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n e i t i o n .
E x p e r t i n t e l l i g e n c s g a t h e r in g a n a l y s i s an d d i s s e r i n r t l a n
15
E s s e n t ia l t o
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . P r op e r a n a l y s i s and u n d s r s ta n d i ng o f t h e c e n t s r o f
g r a v i t y and t h e c u lm i n a t i n g p o l n t a r e u s e f u l o n l y I f t h e C onnandR r i s
t h o r o u g h l y a wa re o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t h s a t e r . T h i s dunandm t h o r o u g h
o p e ra t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e p re p a ra t i o n o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l d
(OIPB).
The
O I P B
d i s c e r n s f o r t h e c om ra nd er t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s , p r o b a b le e n er y l i n e s o f
o p e r a t i o n s a nd s u p p o r t b as ed on t e r r a i n a nd i n t e n t i o n s . A l s o , t h e b e s t
f r i e n d l y l i n e s o f
operation
and s u p p o r t a r e d e t e r m i n e d ba s s d o n t s r r a i n and
e n e m y i n t e n t i o n s . Key e le m e nt s o f a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e u n d e r s t an d i n g t h e m in ds
o f the commanders o f t h e m a j o r enemy f o r c e s , a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
e ne ny command s t r u c t u r e and d e c i r i l o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s , a nd f i n a l l y , t h e
p r o b a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e nd s, w ay s, m eans a nd r i s k o n t h e e n e ry s i d e .
F a i l u r e t o d e te c t t h e enemy m ain e f f o r t
o r t o
d i s c e r n t h e t r u e enemy
i n t e n t i o n e a r l y w i l l menace t h e f o r ce . H i t l e r ' s ~ i s u n d e r s t r n d i n g + S o v i e t
i n t e n t i o n s and c a p a b i l i t i e s p la g ue d M a n s t e i n 's e f f o r t i t o c r e a t e a w o rk ab le
c a m pa ig n p l a n . L i k e w i s e ,
IDF
m i s c a l c u l a t i o n o f A rab i n t e n t and c a p a b i l i t i e s
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a l m o s t l e d t o d e f e a t . O n l y b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g e n e m y a n d f r i e n d l y i n t e n t i o n s
w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k
o f
t h e e l e m e n t s
of
n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d e n e m y d o c t r i n e c a n
t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r h o p s t o s u c c e e d i n o p o r a t l o n a l t r a n s i t io n .
D e c s p t i o n is c r i t ic a l t o t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n s i n c e e c on o m y
o f
f o r c e e f f o r t s
a r e e s s e n t i a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . D e c e p t i o n p l a n s m u st r e i n f o r c e a n d
m a n i p u l a t e e n e m y p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . To a c c o m p l i s h t h a t, t h e
d e c e p t i o n m u s t b e b e l i s v a b l e t o t h e e n em y . P r o p e r d e c e p t i o n i n v o l v e s n o t
o n l y i n e x p e n s i v e m e a n s s u c h a s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d e l e c t r o n i c d e c e p t i o n , b ut
m u s t a l s o i n c l u d e t h e m o v e m e n t a n d a c t i o n s o f fo rc es . T h u s d e c e p t i o n e n t a i l s
t a k i n g r i s k s i f t h e e n e m y is t o b e li e v e t h e r u s e . M a n s t e i n m a n i p u l a t e d S o v i e t
p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s
b y
a l l o w i n g t h e p e n e tr a t i o n
t o
d e v e l o p a nd
l05e
s t ea m . V a t u t i n w a s c o m p l e t e l y f o o l e d s i n c e G e r m a n o p e r a t i o n s c o i n ci d e d w i th
h i s o w n p la n. T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f K h e r k o v is a n e x a m p l e of a n a c c i d e n t a l
d e c e p t i o n t h a t " pr ov ed ' t h e Q e r m a n s w e r e w i t h d r a w i n g t o t h e D n e ip e r .
F o r
t h e
G e r m a n s , t h e m o s t p l a u s i b l e d s c e p t i o n w ad t h e o n e t h a t c o n f i r m e d t h e S o v i e t
b e l i e f i n t h e ir p l a n , w h i c h w a s e a s i l y d o ne .
I D F
d e c e p t i o n w a s t a c t i c a l i n
n a t u r e b u t i t s p l a u s i b i l i t y l u l l e d t h s E g y p t i a n s t o s l e e p s i n c e t h e y f a i l e d
t o s h o r e up t h e seam b e t w e e n 2 n d a n d r d Army.
T h e f i n al t w o c a p a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n a r e f o r c e
g e n e r a t i o n a n d s u s t ai n m s nt . T h e s e t w o c a p a b i l i t i e s h a v e b ut o n e p u r p os e i n
r e g a r d t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n , t h a t
i5
t o g e n e r a t e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s
f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . E v e n w i t h l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s , o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s
m u s t s o m e h o w b e g e n e r a te d i f a d e c i i i v e s t r o k e
is
t o b e m a d s t h r o u g h
o p e r a t i o n a l t r a ns i t io n . M a n s t e i n a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s b y s t r i p p i n g a r m o r f r o m
h i s s t a t i c f o r m a t i o n s a n d h u s b a n d i n g 4 t h P~nme~
Army
f o r t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . l h e l s r a s l i s u s e d e c o n o m y
of
f o r c e m e a s u r e s a nd r a p i d
n a t i o n a l m o b i l i z a t i o n t o g e n e r a t e r e r e r v s s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r an s it i on .
E v e r y a s s et m u s t b e u s e d s f f i c l e n t l y t o s t r i k e t h e s n e m y c e n t e r
of
gravity.
I n t h i s wa y , t h e r e was r u f f i c i e n t mas5 w h e n o p e r a t i o n 6 1 t r a n s i t t o n o c c u r r e d
s o t h at t h e f o r c s h a d de c i s i v e i np a c t. F o r c e g e n e r a t i a n a n d s u s t a i n m e n t t a k e
o n d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l le vs l. T h e a s s e ss m e n t o f t h e
c o m n a n d s ' a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a t e f o r c e s a n d k e e p t h e m s u p p l i e d w i ll g r e a t l y
i n f l u e n c e t h e a n a l ys i s of t h e e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a nd d i c t a t e
w h e t h e r
o r
n o t a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n
is
a c h i e v a b l e . O p e r a t i o n a l
t r a n s i t i o n is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o a f o r c e ' s l o g i s t i c a l p o w e r . (See Appendix 3
a n d 4, p a g e s
47
t o
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F i n a l l y , w e h a v e c o m e f u l l c i r c l e a n d a r r i v e b a c k at t h e o r i g l n a l t h e s i s
o f t h i s m o n o g ra p h 1 a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e r e a r e e i s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f
o p e r d t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h at t h e c o m m a n d e r n a y u s e a s a g u i d e
to
d e t e r m i n e t h e
a c t i o n s t h a t m u st b e t a k e n t o u l t i m a t e l y p u r s u e t h e p o s i t i v e a i m, t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . T h e s t u d y h a s e n a m i n e d t h e o r y , d o c t r i n e a n d h i s t o r i c a l
c a m p a i g n s . T h e o r y a nd d o c t r i n e d i r e c t u s t o u n d e r t a k e a n o p e r a t i o n a l
t r a n s i t i o n i n o r d e r t o b e v l c t o r i o u s . H i s t o r y p r o v i d e s u s some e x a m p l e s o f
s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a ti o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s a nd f r o m t h e s e w e h a v e g l e a n e d e s s e n ti a l
e l e m e n t s t h a t h e l p t h e c o m m a n d e r m a k e c r i t i c a l c a m p a i g n d e c i s io n s .
F i r s t , e n d s - wa y s - me a n s - ri s k m u s t b e h a r m o n i z e d 60 t h a t s t r a t e g y ,
o p e r a t i o n a l a r t , a n d t a c t i c s a r e s y n c h r o n i z e d t o w a r d s t h e u t r a t eg i c g o a l s .
S e c o n d , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r m u s t u n d e r s t a n d a nd a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f
o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a s m a n i f es t e d b y t h e i d e a s of c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ,
c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e n o f o p e r a t i o n r l s u p p o r t . T h i s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p l i c a t i o n p r o d u c e s a w o r k a b l e , i n i t i a l c a n p a l g n p l a n t h a t
h a s a s i t s f o c u s t h e s e t t i n g of t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n
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t h at a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s c a n b e ta k e n. S u c c e s s i v e o p e r a t i o n s
a n d p r o p e r s e q u e n c i ng a r e i m p o r t a n t t o o p e r a t i o na l t r a n s i t i on s i n c e t h e s e
a c t i o n s h a s t e n e n e m y c u l m i n a t i n a n d m a y f o r e s t a l l t ha t o f f r i e n d l y f o r c e s .
L a s t l y , t h e c o n c e p t s o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e i o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t
g i v e f o r m t o t h e s a nd b o x t h a t is t h e c a m p a i g n 's t h e a t e r o f o p e r a t i o n s .
D e c i s i v e p o i n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b a a e d o n t i n e , s p a c e , m a s s a n d m o m e n t u m
a n a l y s i s . O p e r a t i o n a l skills i n t h i s a r e a a r e c l o s el y l i n ke d t o t h e a c c u r a c y
o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l le v e l i n t e l l i g e n c e p r e p a r a t i o n
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I s
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u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t i m e a n d s p a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e mo v e me n t o f t h e f o r c e s
t h a t m a k e u p t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y . T h l s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o v e m e n t
t i m e s d e m a n d s a c o n c o m i t a n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i v e a g i l i t y o f f r i e n d l y a n d
e n e m y l o r m a t i o n s a n d t h e i r a t t e n d a n t v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s in m o v e m e n t. T h e
m a r k e d l y g r e a t e r a g i l i t y a n d m a n e u v e r mki116 o f b o t h t h m G e r m a n s a nd t h e
I s r a e l i s p r o v i d e d t h e m a n a d v a n t a g e i n s p e e d
o v er
t h e i r e n e m i e s . L i k e w i s e ,
t h e i r a i r p o w e r p r o v id e d g r e a t e r a g i l i t y i n O p e r a t i o n a l f i re s . T h u s , t h e y
c o u l d m o v e to d e c i s i v e p o i n t s m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n c o u l d t h e i r e n e m i e s. T h e
d e t e r m i n at i o n o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t i is t h e n p o s s i b l e a n d t h i s p r o v i d e s t h e
o p e r a t i o na l c o m m a n d e r t h e i n f o r m a t io n n e e d e d t o d e r i g n a t e t h e l i n e s of
o p e r a t i o n a n d s u p p o r t .
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c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a r e a s w h e r e e c o n o m y of f o r c e o p e r a t i o n s a r e t a ke n .
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l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n a r e a l s o i m p o r t a nt w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e l o c a t i o n a n d
m o v e m e n t c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y a n d h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e
c u l m i n a t i o n p o i n t i m p a c t s b o th s i de s . T h e a n a l y s i s of t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s o f
t h e e n e m y a n d f r i e n d l y c e n t e r s o f g r a v i t y a s e l s t s i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r
o r
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a t t a c k i s d i v e r g e n t o r c o n c e n tr i c . L i n e s of o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t a r e t h e
o u t c o m e s o f d e c i s i o n s b a s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i ng t h e e s s e nt i a l e l e m e n t s
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c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d e c o n o m y o f f o r c e a r e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e d e c i s i o n o n a
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a n d p r n t e c t io n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n o p e r a t i o n s , g e n e r a t i o n
o f
o p e r a t i o na l r e s e r v e s a nd s u st a i n m e n t c a p a b i l i t i e s i m p a c t t h e c o m m a n d e r' s
u s e o f h i s c o m b a t p ow er . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s p r o v i d e a d d i t l o na l i n f o r m a t i o n
c o n c e r n i n g s o m e a s p e c t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r e l e m e n t s s t u d i e d t h a t a r e of u s e t o
o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n e r s .
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v i r t u a l l y e v e r y w a r f i g h t i n g m e a n s , b u t t h e y w e r e s u c c e s s fu l . F i r e s u p p o r t ,
f o r c e s t r u c t u r e , s t r e n g t h , a m m u n i t i o n , f u e l r e s u p p l y a n d I n f a n t r y m o b i l i ty
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w a s p o o r . T h o u g h v u l n e r a b l e i n m a n y e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r , w e a k , e m al l
f o r m a t i o n s a c h i e v e d g r e a t r e s u l t s. T h e c a s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t G e r m a n a n d
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o d ds . A d d i t i o n a l l y , G e r m a n a nd I s r a e l i f o r m a t i o n s h a d g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e
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v u l n e r a bl e . T h e w e a k n e s s m u st b e l i n k e d t o n e u t r a l i z i n g o r d e s t r o y i n g t h e
e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i ty . T a c t i c a l m a n e u v e r
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o p e r a t i o n a l m a n e u v e r f o r d e c i s i v e r e a u l t s .
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l e ve l c o m m a n d e r s t o s y n c h r o n i z e t h e a c t i o n s of g r o u n d m a n e u v e r a n d f i r e p o w e r
m e an s . T h i s s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n s h o u l d p r o d u c e a d e c i s i v e r e s u l t . T h e p r i m a r y
p u r p o s e o f f i r e p o w e r is t o p r o v id e t h e m a n eu v e r f o r c e f r e e d o m of a c t i o n a n d
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s k i e s f o r a i r a t t a c k s t o c o m p l e m e n t g r o u n d a c t i o n s ) . D u e to t h e i n c r e a s ed
s p e e d , a g i l i t y
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t h e c o m m a n d e r m u s t s o m e h o w c r e a t e a s i t u a t i o n a n a l o g o u s t o a n o p e r a t i o na l
p a u s e . To b e u s e f u l i n p l a n n i n g , t h e " p a u s e " m us t b e c o n d u c t e d i n a
c o n t r o l le d m a n n e r t h at a s s e s s e s r i s k s t o t h e f o r w a r d u n i t s a nd h a s a v i s i o n
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t h e f r i e n d l y a n d e n e m y c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . M a n s t e i n d i d t h i s b y w i t h d r a w i n g
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o p e r a t i o n a l
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.
. . . . . . . . . . . ...........
......... ..
P r o t e c t _ o n
f Knhac
hen
to k e p t Battle and
hen to
k l i w M t l e
f Oeny
nq
any Respite through h ti nu ou r m a t i m s
f
k e p t i m Plans to Cmceal
Intent of
Dperatimal Defense and h t w d f m r i v e
t Hidden Operational Resnves
f
1,qistical Suppwt to b i t t o d Facer but hiwi t i r ed to h t w o f f m r i w
f Tirely
Yithdrml
+
Eupmre
and
Dauqe Liiitatim
f M i l e Defmu
t
Adequate Enqinew Aswts to Provide Survivability
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. ... . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _.
.. ....................
-.
. . . . . .
t 4 9 1
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E s s a a t ~ n t i a l E l e m e n t s o f C o m b a t
P o w e r .
.-
-
.
.- ............................ -.
................ ......................................................
....... n t e l 11q p f i c ~ ~
t Supwiat
Ob~vitim/llequisitim--lhalyris/lktirim-dctimycle
t
lntellignrci
ilacro
Uien of
Elemtr
of
P t i m a l
P a w m
Both SidK
-(hdrctmdinq
o f 1
*ind
of
th ujr mny
c o u n d R 5
wmy
cDvv ld
and
cmtrol prorbn and &xirim uking praerrss
-enmy vim d
mdr-~ryr-wann--risk
-Tactical Intelligmo halyric
* Expwt lntellignce Cullectic, lhalyrlr and Disminatim
....... ...........................................................
........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t
Brlievabls to Eney
. . . . -......
__.
.... -.- .......................
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................
.............
.................................
....
Force
ie?e_r?,t fi.
3.M..
Wrtai.nrea
Wade Ib Rwavcn
gff ic imt UM
of
a11
Reravca to
StrikB a t
Enny h t e r
of
Gravity
H l u l - - P I I - f w l - f i r - - T m ~ t - A o t r c t iFacn
W i t t e d
to Fawd Opfnse
md h t w d f m r i v e Farces
*BaluxeMr
o f Cavitted FKCRI with wiremtr of
FKCES fw
Opwatimal
Iranritim
* h a t i c of
"Opwatical Pauu' Situatlm
to
Gnwrto
ad
Sustain Opwatimally S ignillrant Recwves
a i l i t y to RO~K I , Rwmstitute and Refit Focn hat we Witted to
FrHard Detmu the Cu ntwoffrrive, Especially &en Opwatims
are
d
*Careful
W i n a t i m s of
Fwcn to kin
Suffit int Nass
f a k i o i w
l q r t
fLs t a inmt of
@A
md
L 5 s thrDughout the Rvctim
and
apth af tho
wefa t i s
by i
*
Mming
La)istirr
I EstabliJHpnt
of LEE
in
apth
f Regulating Cmwqtim
* Estrblinhing Rltwnate Gavces o f Supply
..................... .......
.-
....-- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. -
......................... ...... ...... ........................
. . . . . . . . .
7/23/2019 Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion
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.
..
. ...
. ... .....
..
...
.
.
...
.
..
.
.
...
.....
. .... ...
.
...
. ...
.. . .
...
.
...
.
..... . .....
.
Appendilcppendilc 4:: E s i e n t i a is i e n t i a i E l e m e n t sl e m e n t s o ff O p e r a t i o n a lp e r a t i o n a l R e s e r v e se s e r v e s
T h o u g h a d e s c r i p t i o n
o f
o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s w a s n o t t h e i n t e n t of t h i s
m o n o g r a p h , t h e
c a s e
s t u d i e s p r o v i d e s o m e p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g
o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t h a t m a y b e
o f
u s e t o o p e r a t i o n a l p l an n er s .
T h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m ma n d e r' s a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t t h e b a t t l e is d i r e c t l y
l i n k e d t o a n o p e r a t i o n a l r e se r ve . R e s e r v e s m a y h a v e t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y
r e d u c i n g f o r w a r d t a c t i c a l f o r t e s , t a k i n g
risks,
a n d e c o n o m y o f f o r c e
o p e r a t i o n s .
A
l a c k
o f
d e d i c a t e d o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s d e m a n d s e n t e n s i v e a n d
j u d i c i o u s e c o n o m y o f f o r c e o p e r a t i o n s t o g e n e r a t e t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e .
S u c h a c a m p a i g n p l a n d e m a n d s s t r e n g t h o f w i l l s i n c e o t h e r f o r c e s must
i n i t i a l l y a b s o r b t h e e n e m y b l ow s . W h i l e f i g h t i n g o f f t h e e n e m y a t t ac k s ,
e x t e n s i v e d e c e p t i n n m e a s u r e 6 m u st b e t a k e n t o b u t t r e s c t h e m i n ds e t o f t h e
e n e m y so t h at h e b e l i e v e s h e is g a i n i n g s u c c e s s a n d c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t o
h i d e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , r re cr ec y must b e m a i n ta i n e d a s t o
w h e n , w h e r e, a nd h o w t h e f o r c e w i ll b e u s e d . T i m i n g is c r i t ic a l t o t h e u s e
ot
t h e r e s e r v e s , t o o e a r l y a nd t o o s t r o n g r e a c t i o n s
in
t h e f o rm o f
c o u n t e r a t t a c k s d i s s i p a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l Schwer.eunk. t . f o r t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e .
T h u s ,
w h e n t h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t a n d p o in t o f e n e m y c u l m i n a t i o n
is
r e a c h e d , t h e
o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r
is
l e f t w i t h no d e c i e i ve f o r c e u n l e s s h e h a s t a k e n
s t e p s t o r e c o n s t i t u t e a r e se r v e.
T h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s m u s t b e c r e d i b l e a n d c a p a b l e o f t a k i n g t h e
c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e t o a c h i e v e s t r a t e g i c e n d s . T h e s e f o r c e s m u s t b e o f
s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o d e s t r o y e n e my c o m m a n d a nd c o n tr o l o r n e u t r a l iz e t h e
e n e m y m a s s b y d e f e a t i n d e t a i l . R e s e r v e s must b e c o m b i n e d a r m s g r o u n d
m a n e u v e r f o r c e s s u p p o r t e d b y a i r. M o d e r n c o m b a t d e m a n d s a n e l e m e n t o f
" a i r m i n d e d n e s s " i n l e a d e r s a s t h i s is t h e m e d i u m t h a t i n c r e a s e s c o m b a t t e m p o ,
helps
g a i n t i m e , a nd p r o v i d e s s y n e r g i s t i c p o w e r t o t h o o p e r a t i o n a l m a n e uv e r
a nd f i r e s o f s m a l l e r r e s e r v e f o r c e s . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e m u s t h a v e
n u b i l i t y t o m a n e uv e r d e e p t o a c h i e v e d e c i s i v e o p e ra t i o na l o b j e ct i v e s.
1 5 1 1
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E s c s e n t i
a 1
E l
e m e n t 5
a
O p e r a t i o n a l R e s e r v e s
........................................
- ....................
* C o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e
F o r c e s S h o u l d 1
I Be The Bnt ad k t a r f u l F r x c l s
t
Use E#tmilw kep t im
t o
Rotact
Fcrcn
+
Bs B d
ud
Fwcc Supportd
by Air huts
t
Bs W i n d
k r
Fcrutim of &flicimt hrs
to
b e Oltislw
t
Be Self
Cantrined ad
W f
Bqprxting
f w
Anticlprted
Length of
Cgaatim
- fue l
- a m l t i m
-rwovwy
ad
repair capability
mdicrl suppat
i m u n i t r t i a r f rx @rating in
depth
f Have Air ml
B r d
Coadination
+
Be
M i l e
ad
not
w Luge
n to k r i f i t e lql ll ty
i
Be E q l o y e d
I n Seq~mced
Opwatimr to
&In
Mass
4
Have
the Wility
to
lark
Rgmlrr
m the Fly
i Hvs spesd Wvvltqn
over
th hny
in Path the Air
ad bwnd
Dimrims
t
Bypass hny RnistuKe
and
allw Follw
a d
Supprxt Fortes to Reduce
these
Points
t
Bs
Paitionad
IRY
Anticipated
ho
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.. . . . . . . . . . . .
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O_B.DE.R..-42
F
B AT-T-LE-
l n f a r m r t i a n
f o r
t h e t r b l e i c o n c e r n i n g
t h e
o r d e r
o f b a t t l e f a r t h e
1st Gdr kby
4th USRifls C a r p s 4 Dlvs
b t h
Gdu
R i f l e
Carpr=3
Divr
l a d R i f l e D iv
18th Tank Carpulll60 t n k r l
3 Ink
W p l
I
Ibt
R i f l e
Bds
24th Ink Carps l l59
t n k r l
3 I nk
Bdsl
1
Ibt
Rif ls
We
25th Tnk Carpr(l60 t n k r l
3
Ink
Wllr
I
Ibt R i t l e
Bde
126th sep I nk Rqt f l ? t n k r l
I4l1t Sep In k R q t l l J t n k r l
407th Ink k r t
Rqt
3rd Hixod Avirtlm Carps
I2
ea
H-50
IR b t r y s
Totals: 110,796
I P D
SO l n k r
1.523
punrlbortr
1,311 g u n s
40th R i f l e D iv
47th
Gdr
R i f l e D iv
119th R i f l e D iv
321rt
Rifle
Div
333rd R i l l e Riv
346th Rit le Riv
1st Tank Carpsf? 183 tnkrl
3
ea tnk be
I
ea
mt r i l l e b de
8th Cav
Carp523
D i v P 40
t n k r l
54th k c h
Carpdl83
t t n k r l
3 ea rech bds
2 ea tnk regt
l a t h I n k Rqt ?13
tnkrl
l a t h Tank Rqt(? 13 t n k r l
5 ea a r t y rqt5
b tnk de rt r q t s
6 a nt i a ir z t y r q t s
2 w t
r e q t s
2 f f iL
r q t s
3rd
Gds
kiy
14th Gds R i f l e Carp14 Diva
I W t h R i f l e D i v
276th Rlfle Div
5Mh WI R i f l e D iv
W t h
S s p Rif ls We
94th
ep
Rifls
We
I 5 t WI h c h Carp i
3
ea h c h I n f Bdt
2
e t
lnk Roqt
2 h d Ibr Rills Bde
24Jld Ssp Ink Roqt
111th S s p I nk Rqt
119th s p Ink R q t
1st Hi iod Av iat ion Carps
5 ea
a r t y rqtr
8 ea
tn k d e rt a r t y r q t s
4 e t lntitir ary
rqt5
2 ea
wrt
r o q t s
Tottlrr II0,WO w n
134
tnkr
6 t h
kiy
1 5t h R i f l e Carps
= 3
Div
127th R i f le D i v
l6Gth R i f l e D lv
17th lank Carps (161 ttnkrl
3 tank b h
1 bt r i f l e bde
115th Ink Ws
(56
t n k r l
8Znd Sep I nk
Rqt (13
t11il
?IZth ssp Tnk
We I 3
trYrl
8th
kty
Div
=
9 k t y
Rqtr
3rd H ixod Av ia t im Carp5
5 er tnk dest ar ty
rqt5
2
m
a n ti a ir a rt y r q t s
3
ea
IRL r q t s
5 er
rsp M t r y s
Reinfwcrusnts
5th I n k
nd 6 t h Pry~50,ooO
m
I 5 3 3
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h i s ads? af ht t le
k & N
1912
kq
Cets.hmt Mlljdt.
M,000 6rruns/S0,000
h i n s / 3 0
tnks
6th.l tal in kiy
l i t kiy
C o r p p l
d i v I-
2nd
kiy
Corps I: 3 d iv lco r p r arty
17th
Ry p s 4 d iv l - I
35th
kly Corps3 2.61cwps arty
2nd ky
Corps
ZPth by
C o r p r
3
Div
150
tanks)
2 n R dlvl-1
Alpine
Corps=
4.5 divlcwpr
uty
I ea cav Div I-
4 ea
hvy
arty
b t r y ~
I ea
inf div 1-1 6 e a u r t b n r
48th
R
Corps
Totalrt
100,000
m
2 3 t h i n f
Divl-I 50 tank5
litli
R Div
130 tankrl
621
puns
7th
Luft
Field
Div
3rd M i m kq
BP spns
kp Stahellluft Divl
Grp
5twpfrl
4th kiy
C o r p s l m l
Sth
kiy
CarpS(rBBl
3 41
SSC
Dlv
SBJth inf Div 7th Pz Div
387th
Inf
Div
bth R
Div
30th kiy CorpslFrittw Picol
Bp Pfeiffw
kd
lltn Div
Total1 45,wo
111
301th
Inf
Div
19th
R Div
Total: 65,W Total his RthforceamtsiIl0,W
Corrrlatim 01
Fwcss
8 t h I t a l i a n kiy
initial
R r i n f a c m t s
100,000 m
70,000 IRI
6th
kiy
and Irt
Initial
Riinfwtarents
bards k y
171,000
m
30,000
m
110
tbllidtlkl
Initial
Reinfwcmts
Rl
110,000 m
40,oOO m
lunivl kq 3rd buds kiyl
5
initial
I k i n f w c n t r
th Tnk
k y
200,000
m
30,000
n n
Iota1 liiitial
Re infwcmtr
krnd
Total
220,000 m
&@I
330,M)O m
Total initial
Rrinfwcsmts
Band
Total
371,000
IRI
&C4Oo_m_
431,000 mn
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IRM
a MlRE
h s t e i n ' s h t r o f f n s i v e
W Ef
crr
VPTP ~
Fro? . W v .c V,M
???
nblJ
t&
40th h v I90,uOO w. md 100 l?nks) pth @q. K$z kol .@ m
md Lad )
3 r d hnt Prr,
iOOth Ri f le D i v I h l s t R i f l e D iv 1 2th
lvlk Caps
1Ukd
Rifle O i v
159t h R i f l e D iv 3 tnk
dn
M t h Rif l e D i v 219t h R i f l e D i v 15th Ink Corps
W t h R i f le D iv
270th Rifle Div 3 tnk b d d l lot r i f l e
340t h R i f l e
D i v
3 7 t h R i f l e Bdr 6 t h
Gds
c l v
Cwps
107th R i f l e Div 137th lank Bde 48th Eds Rifle D i v
J03td
Rifle
Div %?nd
lnk
Reqt
6znd Gds Rifle
Div
2 5th h a r d s R i f l e
D iv
111th Rifle
Div
iZPtli Rifle Ede
l a t h R i f l e D iv
4th lank Cap5 150
l a n k r l
179th lank Bde
3
Bd&l ht Rifle
Bde
I l b th Tank
Bde
B l s t
TMk Rqt
l92nd lank Me
59th Sep
l a n k
Reqt
M)th E q
ank Regt
b l s t
Sep Tmk Rqt
150th
lMk Bde
3d Ink b p s 1150 Ta n l s l
2d lank Corps
1175
T a n M
H e i n f a c m t r i
25th kJ5 R i f l e D i v
2 5 k d
Rille
Div
219 t h R i f l e
D i v
1st CZKh
D i v
1 9 th R i f l e
D i v
U t h
I n k
Bde
17th
Rifle
Me
1st
Gd
Cav
Corps
113th Ri f le Div
Total P w m e l i 57,517
len
l a nk S t r m p t h i 9 Jan 165
I4 F e b
=
100
IS
Feb = I10
27 F e b 39
I b
Ihr
22
t 5 5 1
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' h th w s tq n F g t IVitutin)
6th
ply (Khjrl tr iwl
40,000m/40 tanka
15th Rifle Capr
h t h Rifle Div
17hd
Rifle Oiv
EGth RifIo Div
267th Rifle Div
l a t h Rille Div
115th lank ffle
21hd lank Reqt
1st bards pq IKuznetsov)
70,000 en
4th
Ms
Rifle Corps
SSth
Mr
Rifle Div
4lrt MI Rifle Diu
193th Rille
Div
6 t h M5 Rifle Carps
44th Gd Rifle Div
58th 13,Rifle
Diu
78th Rills Div
244th Rifle Oiv
m i l e Boup Popov
IPOpovl
4t h
Ms
lank Carp5
3 Medl ht Rifle
3rd Tank
Carp5
10th I n k
Carps
18th Tank Carp5
57th
Gdr Ri4Ie
Div
N t h Ms Rille Div
5Znd Rifle Div
9th l ank ffle
11th lank Me
J
each
S k i
We5
P w o v ' s
Strenqth
= 55,000
len
l a n k
Strength 25 Jan 212
30 Jan 180
7
F s b
= 140
I6
F s b
I45
21
Fsb
=
25
22 Fsb
a 90
h Feb = 50
3rd
W
b L
MY *@kQ
100,000 vntll0 tanks
14th
Gdr
Rifle Carps
14th Ms
RiflsDiv
90th Wr Rifle Div
hlst WBRifle Div
l a t h
M5
Rifle
Carps
5 R h
Ms
Rifle Div
24kd
Rifle Oiv
279th Rifle Diu
Mth
Ws
Rifle Div
2&th Rifle OIV
N k d Rille Div
2nd Mr Tank
C u p s
2kd Tank Carps
2nd Tank Carps
1st
W
kh Carp
8t h
M5
Cav
Capr
s?trgkw i 1 % ~
r
40,W
m
J21tt
Rifle Oiv
47th
MB
Rifle Div
Ukd Ri fle Div
Zhbth Rifle
Div
Nkd Rifle Div
nd TMk
CUP5
Frp n i -3
m,wo
en
l i t
W r lank Cups 1 1 5 1
25th lank Caps
I5t Odr c l v
Carps
Iota1 Tanks 562
C5 6 1
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RD
t a n 2
(50,oOo
renl
24th
Pz
Cap5
385th Inf Div
387th In1 Div
Zlkd In1 Oiv
32Mh In f Oiv
298th In1 Div
SS Pz
Oiv
'Das
Reich"
1-1
C a p 5
craw
'Rc66dsutKhland" Div
168th In1 Oiv
1-1
BBth In1 Div ( -1
Rewan ts a t 5 other Div5
4th Yz Pray l 7 0 , W
l
5th A r m y Cap5
Ko5 Regirent
111th
In1 Div
15 th Lu f tna l f e F ld D iv
57th
P i
C a p 5
23rd
Pz Div
5s
Pat Div "Vik ing"
17th
Pz
Oiv
Zrd
Pz
Div
16th
Ibt
Div
11th
R
Oiv
mw
IF
mrnE
k n s t i i n ' s C o u n t m f f n i i v e
Jan*
I943
M.9FEW
1st R. pr?r. %,ooo1sn
40th
R
b p i
Hp
30th
llrq
Hp
bp
K r r l r i n g 13d M n O i v l
335th Oiv (-1
3rd
R b p i
7 th Pz Oiv
19th Pz Div
27th
PI O N
nP
Ho lldt
lPLW.M
29th
h y
bpr
6rp 79 12d h a kmy R w t 4
bp k u r i t y Regt 177
&pup k i t h
W t h I n f D iv
336th In f Div
17th Rrry
k p s
6Znd
In1 Olv
30bth
Inf
Oiv
Zplth In1 Div
6 th L u f t u l f s Fid Div
1Bth Pz (&pi
5th
Pz
Div
22nd
Pz
Div
W t h I n f Div
6 rp W l d t
Bp v m
Hvldrdwd
bp
S t l i n b U R
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R ~ i n f p l c y ~ t ra I (an5t iin dur ing February
1743
. .
...
. . . . . . . . .
Rentacerents
LYL Fep
e4
hnl
ss Pz Cups
SS
R D i v
1 s
eich"
SS R Div 'Liebrtmdarte'
298th In f Div
23rd R Div
55
lbt Div 'Viking'
17th R Div
3rd
Pz
D i v
16th lbt Div
11th Pz Diu
RD
Lanl
ss Pz C u p ¶
SS Pz Div "Totmkopf'
( I
lhgt)
C a p R H l S
B a d w t u h l t n d Div
I U t h
Inf
Div
BBth I n f Div
1-1
SS
Pz Div "Totmkopf' 1-1
40th P i C u p 4
19th Pz
D i v
1-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Re ? orc&to
rr
oc
11 Feb
AD Keq lforully L m z l
C a p s Rtu5
SS R Div 'Totmkopf'
I I
Rqtl
320th Inf Div
167th
In f
Div
53
R Div 'Lipbitandarto'
no
.%
5t h
Any
Cups
454th W w i t y D iv
444 th SK ur i t y D iv
KN
Rcginmt
27th
kry
C u p s
15t h Lu f t l u f f e
D i v
l b t h Ibt Div
7Pth In1 Div
Z r d R Div
17th
Any
Carps
h t h PZ DV
1-1
306th In f Div
3 0 h d In f Div
. __
........
It key 4Bth Pz C a p s
30th C u p s
6t h Pz Div 1-1
335th In f Div 302nd In f Div
304th Inf D i v
2 h d
Pz
Div
3rd
Pz
C a p s
17th
Pz
Div
3rd P Div
40th
Pz C w p i
11th R D i v l l Rqt
333rd In f
D i v l
7 t h
Pz D i v
I-
333rd Inf Div 1-1
55 Ibt D i v 'Viking'
no $ I
W t h Inf Diu
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4Lk.R rtE&nl
l s t h
R
Cups
XHth In f Div
17th R Div Bp Schuldt
l a d F l d
Trn9
Div
6s
R
C ups
15th I n f Div
B p S t e i n b i w
kw
M h n f Div
198th In f Div
33Znd Inf Div
hd
kry
7th
Arny
Cups
ZJJth Inf Div
57th l n f Div
4th Pz Div
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' B o r d w t s c h l n d '
Ibt
Div
C a p 5
Hau6
SS
Pz Div ' To tmkq f '
( - )
lb7 th
lnf
Div
168th Inf Div
320th Inf Div
BBth Inf Div (-1
nn
~ o i i i d t
AD
K q f
5 t h kmy Carpr Carps Raur
451th
Sec Div 320th
In1
Div
444th See Div lh7 th
lnf
Div
29th k n y Cups "Bossdwtschlmnd"
15 th Lu f t F ld Div lba th Inf Div
79th
In1 Div
I h t h
h t
Div
15th
In;
Div W t h i n Div,
Bp
k h u l d t
17th
Pz Div Grp K r s i r in g
4
I
Rcq 46th
In f Div
4Bth
R
Carpi
S3Jth
Inf
Dlv
6 th R Div 3 rd R Carps
11th R Div
6Znd Inf Div
55
R Carps 19th R Div
SS Pz Div
'Das
Reich' 3 rd PI Div
SS PI Div ' lo tmkopf ' l - l
40th Pz Carps
SS
R Dlv 'L iebstmdart ' SS tbt Div 'Vikinp'
Bp
5tlinpbaUR 7 th Pz Div 1-1
4bth Inf
Div 1-1
15Srd F ld
Trng Div
1st
Pz May no M N
YJth Pray Carps 24th Pz C u p s
304th Inf Div, Bp k h u l d t K w w k ?M)
Bp Krsirirq, I r8gt 3rd kn Div 414th SK Div
335th Inf Div 115th
SK
Div
3rd
Pz
Carps
111th Inf Dlv
bhd
Inf Div
29th kny Carps
3 rd
Pz Div
l S t h L u f t F l d Div
Grp
P a t h
2Jrd Pz Div
prwth
57th P z Carps
W d nf Div
l b t h Ibt Div
40th k p 6 b p h i t h
381th Inf Div
3 3 t h
In1
Div
17th
kmy
Caps
291th
In1 Div
3 N t h
In1 Div
302nd
In1
Div
6th Pz
Dlv
2nd kry
7th kny
Carps
75th In1 Div
52nd kiy Cap6
57th
In1
Div
332nd Inf
Div
4th
Pz
Div
255th Inf Div
15th In1 Div
17th Pz Div
46th P i Carp5
I N t h
Inf Div
6 th Pz D l V
11th
Pz
Div
SS
PZ
h O S
SS
Pz
b i v "Das
Reich"
'3
Pz
Div ' T o t e n k q f '
SS Pz Div " L i e b r t m d a r t i
39th Inf Div
15Jrd Fld Trnq Div I-
SS
tbt
Div 'Viking'
7 t h R Div
19th Pz Div
3 rd kn Div
2nd&w
7 th kny Carps 1-1
75th In1 Div
J3rd kny
Carps
57th
Inf Div
Wnd In1 Div
255th Inf Div
23rd R Div
m t h Inf Div
Bp
de 5 a l n g r e
17th
kny
Cups
291th
In1 Div
W t h
In1
Div
M2nd
Inf Div
Bp R r q s t a l l s
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Nation
........
-
......... _- . . . . . .
- . . .
. . .
Egypt
Syria J a d a n
......... ...
.
......
. .
-_
...
-. . ..
Soldiers 255,ooO
105,ooO 59,000
Tanks 1,940
2
400
80
0
sp llrtillwy 1,m
40
1115519 Sites Po
XI
M a t Aircraft
Mx) 320
40
.....
....... ........
-. .
.
....... .- .
-.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
..
..
....
Israel
............ _.
... -. ..... ...........
.-
........
Tanks
..............,225
kwxd Fighting vshlclsr. ........
. . I
,515
kwxed Pwmnel Carriers...
...
....500
P ~ s ~ m do Stvlding F a ce , . . . . , , . . .7 5 ,W
Pwmnel at Ful l nobilizatim...........75,ooO
-
......
..... .................................
............
.............................. ........
_-
....
........
Frm, A History
ol
the_ uyll
h y
y
Ze'w
Schiff .
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.-
.
E A P 2--JGViEi PLAN TO D E F E A T G E R R A N S O U T H E R N Y I N G
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..
EAP
t:
23
H O L L I D T H O L D S NUIS R i V E R L I N E l i s t PZ
S T A B I L i i E S DONEi.3
Si'4E2
JZL'IEiS EXPLOIi G A P LEFi BY F A L L OF A6 B
W I i H
biH A R N Y
Si P I C O R P S E V A C U A T E S
K H A R K O V
AFTER BIiTER
S C T T ; E / S O V I E T S
X O ' K I:i
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I
SUEZ C A N A L ,m.\
C A M P A I G N
IN S I N A I
M A P
9 8
O r t i i s , p o l ? .
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M A P
1 0
Beiss, p, 13.
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M 11
P
I (I
I1
G e i r r ,
p.13 .
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Endnotes
I .
US
Department of the Ariy,
@e[m ggy-EL pQ:~,
IFt. Leavenworth, Kansas:
CGSC,
IWb) , p . 1 5 and
p .
139.
2.
C a r l
von Claurewitz, O?-y , edited and translated by M. Honard and P. Paret IPrinceton: Princeton
Il ni ve rs it y Press, 197b1, p.357.
3.
Ibid.
1. Ibid., p.358
5 . Ibid.
b . Ibid., p.370.
7. h i d .
8. FM 100-5, IlleCg ? .~
pa129
9.
Ibid.,
p.129
and 130.
10.
Ibid., p.139.
11. Ibid.,
p.10.
12.
Erich von Manstein, & t - W g o e r l edited and translated
b y A.6.
Powell INovato, Californla:
Presidio Press,
1 9 8 2 ) ,
p 368 The Volga River flank of A6 A was screened by only one division, the lbth
Motorized Infantry Division covering
250
ri les. The defensive frontage of
AG 8
along the Don River and
the Chir Riv er was hel d by Hungarian, I t a l i a n and Ruianian Armies. The bul k
of
the German fornations were
f i gh t i ng t o capture Stal ingrad and the o i l f i el ds of the Caucasus.
13.
Ib id ., p.370. The 6erman sout hern wing con sis ted of 32 divisions covering 435 i i l e s fac ing a Sov ie t
force of
341
divisions.
11. F.Y. von Nellenthin, P??g[-#gt eyl
Inen
Vorki B al la nt in e Books, 1971),
p.250.
IS. Manstein,
p. 383.
48t h Pz Rrny prevente d the enemy from lov in g i n agains t the re ar o f 1st Pz Army
unt i l such
time a n the l at t er had wheeled back f r o i the Caucasus on t o the defensive fro nt faci ng east.
48th Pz
Corps had t o insu re the enery di d not thrust dDwn tho l w r reacher of th e Dan River t o Rostov
and cut of f both 4th Pz Arry and A6 A. The collapse of the Rumanians ieant 57th Pz Corps, con sls tin g of
only
two divisions - 17 th Pz and 23r d
Pz
Div,
was
t o hold against the Soviets. A6 Don could not get
enough
forces t o he lp 4th Pz Army. Even when A6 A offered the help af 3rd Pz Corps,
DKH
denied the nove.
A6
Don pers ist ed and ianagad t o get 7 th
Pz
Div f reed to send to 4 th P Arry , but H i t l er personally
intervened and halte d the move and stati oned the div ls io n i n Rostov. Not u n t i l mid January di d help
a r r i ve i n the form of SS Viking D i v and lb th Not I nf Oiv. During t h is ti ne , the 4th Pz Ariy faced tno
Sovi et armies, the 2nd 6ds Arr y and
t h e
J l s t dray consist ing of
1
tank corps,
3
iec h corps,
3
r i f l e c orp s
and
I
Cavalry Corps.
The
4 th
PI
Army
kept i t s forces concent rated i n v i ta l s t rongpoints
resisting
a t
deci sive points. The infa nt ry ranned there strongpoints while t he armor was dri vin q i n the eneny f lanks
with strong io bi le forces, whi l e other less threatened par ts of the fron t were covered only by f l i i s y
early warning screens.
t781
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I b .
Ibid., p.383. 'Hit l er shored l i t t l e understanding for
thr
old-established 6ernan pr in ci pl e of
leadership and repeatedly sought t o reddle i n the operations of subordinate headquarters by issui ng
speci f ic
orders
of
h i s own...Nothing could b e done about such ord ers when they r el at ed t o th e novenents
of adjacent arny groups or the action to be taken with fornations which were s t i l l DKH reserves.
However, when
they directed that
a
p a r t i c u l a r l i n e
be
hel d t o the las t ran...the force of circunstances
usu all y proved stronger i n the end.'
17.
Paul Carell, h~gwgd -E [ h, (New Vorki B al la nt in e Books, 1971), p.194-195. Although operat ion al
control was sol idi f ie d, strat egic influences on t ac ti cs threatened the operational design. Before
Nanstein gained authority over A D Lanz (12 Febl, Hi t le r had ordered i t s
SS
Pz
Corps t o ho ld Kharkov at
a l l costs. Nanstein f e l t i t operationally indec isive t o hold Kharkovi i f ground were given up , if
reso urces could be husbanded, Kharkov could be retaken eas ily i n the operational counterstroke. AD Lanr
understood how hopeless Hauorer's s it ua ti on
was
i n Kharkov. But, under dlrect orders fron Hl tl er ,
A S
Lanz
ordered SS P Corps t o hold . Rlno st surrounded, Hausser ordered the evacuation on I6 Feb and fought his
way out of the c i t y . Hausser's forces fought doggedly and upset the Soviet tinet abl e, fo rc in g the
diss ipat ion
01
precio us amor t o take Kharkov. I n an unknown sid e advantage, Ha un er 'r heroic stand
also
confi rned the Soviet idea that the 6ernans were indeed withdrawing. Hi tl er placed the
blare
for the
debacle on Lanr and replace d h i n wi th Kerph.
IS.
Nanstein, p.421.
Though A6 B was weak, i t provided
a
v i ta l coord ina t ion l ink w i th A6 Central. This
quick
change i n cornand str uct ure rade fo r some anxious norents as u n i t s l e f t i n c on ta ct t r i e d
t o
t i e i n
nith the newly forned A6 South. A6 South nas faced with trying to rake sense of the d irpos i t ions and
capab i l i t ies
of
the inher i ted fornat ions 50 that
a
coherent plan could
be
developed for
a
f ront that
stretched fron Belgorod to the Black Sea. Sig nal s were hard t o es ta bl is h and RD Lanz was locked i n
conbat a t Kharkov and could not be extracted for repositioning. ' ...although the reMv al
of
HE Army
Group B
corplicated the handling of operations at the nost delicate spot on the Eastern Front, i t s t i l l
served one useful purpose. By br inging Arry Detachment Lanz under Sou t he rn Army Group,
i t
enabled our
headquarters
t o exercise exclu r ive corrand at the decisive place and tine.' This in i t i a l confusion
was
a
significant advantage to the Soviets.' OKH 5aw the need fo r u ni ty of corrand and created l lG South
consolidating
A6
Don and A6
8,
but Hitler refused to consider the placing
of
K l e i r t ' s
400,000
trapped Ion
of A6
A
under Hanstein. Renoval of A6 B war i n i t i a l l y d et ri ne nt al since l i t t l e e f f o r t was given to
proper handover, but German a g i li t y st ab il ize d the situ ati on.
19.
Ibid., pp.426-427. 'Ny purpose i n pu tt in g forw ard these ideas was t o persuade H it le r t o consider
operations on a long-tern basis for once...Yhen I objected that our own divisions were also at the end of
the ir tether, he rep li ed that they would b e brought f u l l y up to str eng th and issued w it h new weapons
duri ng th e ruddy season...He would not recogni ze, however, tha t dur ing tha t
sane
pe ri od the enemy (could1
br ing...1.5 n i l l i o n men to the fro nt. Neither would he adnit tha t wit h the nurber
of
tanks the enery
could produce i n tw o nonths...he could r e f i t about 60 arnoured brigades.'
20. Car el l, p.207 and 200. Popov
was
struck by the SS Viking Div which l ed with
a
devas ta t ing a r t i l l e r y
a t t a c k .
l i t h Pz
D i v
and 333 Inf Div joined the attack cutting Popov's overextended lines of
cowunications. Lacking
follon
and support in fa nt ry forc es and too fa r forward t o tu rn around, Popov
loat h i s supply l ines. Further indi catio ns
of
supply probleas are found i n the fanous quote of Popov,
' A l l wheels are s tand ing s t i l l . '
21. Ibid ., p.209. Since th e 6t h
o f
February the 6erranr had broken the Russian signal codes and were
p r i v y
t o a11 the co nvers atio ns betneen Popov Nob ile Group and Vatuti n. The 6erra ns knew, even before t he
Soviet
regin ental conranders, where the Soviet ba tt ali on s wnre going t o
b e sent. The 6erra ns had pe rfec t
tact ica l in te l l igence that enabled then
t o
sh i f t fo rces and take cak uh te d r i sks w i th the resu l t tha t
they were always ready at the r i gh t spot at the r ig ht t ir e.
17'11
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22.
Ibi d., p.213. On 23 Feb, Popov si gn al le d a11 that remained to
him
was
a
handful of tanks, and
they were out of fuel. He had no a r t i l l e r y l e f t , n ex t t o
no
ammunition, and no food supplies. A5
Vatut in expla ined th is to Sta l in he was rebuffed and Vatutin signalled Popov,
'I
wish to remind you
emphatical ly tha t you dre t o u5e a11 av ail ab le means to you i n order to...annihildte the enerv...I am
holding you pe rsonal ly responsible.'
23. John Erickson,
h-Rg$ddlg-Be rin,
(Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 19831, p.53.
'In
par t i cu l a r ,
the tank forces urgent ly needed increased repa ir fa ci l i t i es ; a l l Front repai r uni ts were
up
with the tank
corps, so tha t the armour i n the rear went completely untended, pa rt ly because the two mobile tank
repair workshops prorired to the Front had not arrived.'
24,
Ibid.,
p . 5 4 .
'The German d ri v e on Belgo rod made th e rei nf or ce ne nt of th e Voronezh
Er.g?
a very urgent
matter. Rokossovskii on the Central
Em?
wa5 ordered t o move the 2 Is t Army south of Kursk; 64t h
Arrv
was ordere d t o move from Sta lin gra d area and Katuko v's 1s t Tank Arry receiv ed orders t o b lock t he Ger m
thrurt...Kazakov's 69th had to hold of f the
SS
troops. ..not th at Kazakov could do ru th with div is ion s
ground down t o less than
1000
men eac h.. .Iwi thl no tanks and less than 100 guns. ..ITlo Katuzov's disgust
the corrand of 2nd 6ds [sent to rein forc e h is sector1 di d not seize th ei r chance to at tack the 55 tank
u n i t s
i n t he f lank;
HP
2nd 6dr remained
on
the east bank of the Donets direct ing their br igades by radio
but fa i l i n g to fol low up th ei r chance. With 69th over the Donets, 215t Army moved to the no rth of
Belgorod, 15t
Tank con cen trat ed at Oboyan, and b4t h Army roved to the no rt h of Belgorod, 1st Army roved
to
the l i n e of the Donets; thus Kursk
was
secured from the south [t o f o r r the southern face of the
'Kursk' sal ient l ' .
25.
Erickson, p.52.
26. Carell, p.216.
27. Ibid., p.221.
28.
A D Ho l l i d t consisted of the k i t h Group, the Fret ter -Pic0 Group, four regular in fant ry d iv is ions, tno
Luftwaffee Fi el d Divisions, and var ious pasted together a l l ie d and G e r m d a r e uni t s. German alarm un i t s
were ha st i l y formed secu rit y un it s made up of rer nan ts of destroyed formations. The main strength of the
format ion l ay i n the 6th and 11th Pz Divisions.
29.
Manstein, p.422.
30. von Mellenthin, p.251.
31. Ibid., p.241-245.
32. Carell, p.194-195. 'The enemy i s withdrawing i n ret re at and massed colunns are withdrawing behind the
Dneiper...reqardless of supp lies or enery rearguards, ( a l l at tacking f ronts) t o thrust through the
retreating enemy,
reach the Dneiper before the onset of spr ing mud, and thus cut o ff Manstein's ret re at
to the r iver . '
3 3 .
Erickson, pp.19-50. 'Vatutin had decided on th is 'broadening' of the h is offen sive
on
12 February.
6ol ikov had ret h is s iqhts on the Dneiper, even though hi s senior commanders, t h ei r di vi si on s down to
1000
men,
a handful of guns and perhaps
50
mortars, pleaded for a pause. Both th e Voronezh and
Southwestern Fronts had done
some
prodiqious f iq ht in q and covered great stretches of ground, fol lo wing
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nothing
less
than a tr a in of destru ction as ret re ati ng German un it s blew up bridges, bui ldi ngs and
ai rf ie ld s, tangled rai lwa y li ne s and damaged the few roads as much as possible. Both Vatu tin and
Golikov, however, embarked on an expansion
of
the i r o f fens ives
as
a r e i u l t
of
three factors:
overestimation of the ir own ca pa bll i t i er, wholly erroneous int erp ret ati ons of the in tel l ig en ce of German
movement and S l A V K A approval. Vatu tin had already dipped deeply i n t o h i s reserves...All three Soviet
fr on ts had sub sta nti al in te ll ig en ce of German movement. On the afternoon of
19
February and at dawn on
20 February Soviet reconnaissance planes report ed lar ge conce ntratio ns
of
German armor i n th e Krasnograd
area ( th i s
was
4th
Pz
Army), tro op movements a t Dneprov petrouski and what look ed l i k e armor regrou ping on
the south-east of krasnoarmeisk. lhese conce ntratio ns-lyin g s lap across the path of Vatut in 's r ight w ing-
were immediately
i n t e r p r et ed a t E m
HPs
as German tank cover for withdrawal of the main body
of
German
forces from the Donbas.'
34.
Carell , p. 199 .
35. Saad
E l
Shazly,
Le_Er~rr ?g-o fBe-se?l
(Sin Francisco8 American Research,
19801,
pp.222-223. 200
a i rc ra f t s t ruck Is r ae l i medium ar t i l l e r y pos i t i ons , th ree a i r f i e ld s ,
air
defense 'Hawk' ba tt er ie s,
adm ini str ati on centers, command posts, and radar sta tio ns.
2000
ar t i l l e ry tubes f i red a 53 m inute
preparation using
10,500
shells and a brigade
of 'FR06'
surfac e to surface miss il es was launched. Chain
Herzog,
he-_Rrib_1 rae i--??IT1
(New Vork: Vin tage
Books,
1904I,
p.242. Arab losses
i n
the assault
cross ing aaounted t o onl y 208 KIA,
the Egyptians had thought they would
lose
as
many
as 10,000
soldiers.
36 . Shazly., p.223-235. By 2230 hrs, 6 October, ei gh t heavy bridge s and fou r l i g h t bridge s were working
w i th th i r t y one fe r r ies . S ix ty o f the planned seventy breaches i n the east bank rampart were opened
except that three i n the southern crossi ng areas were inope rable due t o mud slid es. The Egyptians had
105t f i v e ai rc ra ft , twenty tanks and almost three hundred men. Ze'ev Sc hi ff ,
A-YL ory_o _tl?- r r i
h y ,
(New York: Mac Mil lan Pu bl is hi ng Company,
I9851,
p.217. lhough the Is ra el i
Air
Force succeeded i n
pro tec t ing Is rae l p roper , i t
ma5
unable t o provid e support t o ground forces d uring the ear ly days
of
the
co nf l i ct ; the Arab mis si l e systems were too extensive. Ylt h the assistance of the Soviet Union the
Eqyptians and Syrians had b u i l t networks of an ti ai rc ra ft miss i le s even denser than those
used by North
Vietnam. I n I 8 days of combat, the IDF l o s t more than 251 o f i t s a i rf rames
11041.
Egyptian and Syrian
air
fu rces los t 456 planes.
37. Sc hi ff , p.213 and p.214.
38. Shazly, p.238.
39 . Schiff, p.208.
40.
Avraham Adan, oe. Be-Br?~i.~ -t?e-s?eE, INovato, Cal i fo rni a: Presid io Press,
19801, p.234.
The
'operational hold', or defensive operations designed t o a t t r i t e the IDF
as
i t smashed i t s e l f on the
Egyptians, was ha ving l i t t l e e f fe c t a f t e r 9 O c t when the IDF went over to a defensive posture and shifted
the st r ateg ic main ef fo r t to Syr ia 's at tacks. On the 11th and 12th i t became clear that the Syrian
e f f o r t
was
i n grave circumstances. In l i g h t of thes e events, the Syr ian s demanded th at Egypt go ahead
wit h the plan t o take the Sinai passes and force the
IDF
i n t o t r ans f e r r i ng f o r ces t o t he S i na i .
I t
was
obvious that
the two Arab nations had a disconnect i n th ei r operational plans. Ihe Syrians claimed that
the Egyptians were to take the i r i n i t i a l canal crossing
a l l
th e way t o th e passes and indeed soae Si xt y
ki lometers
in to the Sinai and then go over to the operational defense. The Egyptians denied th i s sta tin g
that thei r posture
o f
11-12 October
1115
only about f i ve miles short
of
th ei r intended posi t ions ( they had
not achieved a l i n e roughly analogous to the Ar t i l l er y Road). Nonetheless, the Egyptians agreed to
attack on
15
October, however, th e Egyp tian ope ra tio na l commanders were
so
re luc tan t t o take th i s ac t ion ,
that the at tack did not take p l a c e u n t i l I4 October.
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41. Ibid., p . 2 3 7 .
4 2 , Shazly, p.
246-211.
Both Arny conianders, f u l l y aware of the i nt en t of the operational design and
th ei r neans/strengths s tate d they could not attack, one threatened resi gnat ion 12nd hrny l. Afte r a
conference, there
was
only one concernion, on th e date of t he attac k, now to be on
14
October. Y hi le th is
gave
th e Egypti ans one nore day, i t a150 gave the I sr ae li s one nore day to f in i sh business on the 601an
and get to Sinai.
An
add i t i ona l res t r i c t i on to ope rat i ons was the requirenent that the bridgehead not be
weakened at a l l and th at the operationa l reserves be used for the attack. The operationa l reserves
consistsd o f 330 tank, the to ta l i n two d iv is ions the 4th hrn Div and the 21st Am
Div .
The 4th was
behind the
3rd Arny and the Z ls t posted behind the 2nd Arny. Each di v had two brigade s wit h one hundred
tanks per brigade and one nechanized brigade. The 215t Div had ha lf of i t s tanks forward t o prov ide
f i r e support to the inf ant ry holding the bridgeheads. The 4th D i v
Has also
to leave one brigade on the
west bank as a re serve, thus th e oper atio nal design th at depended on at le as t 330 tanks as a mobile
reserve
was now reduced to
100
tanks i n reserve.
43.
Ibid., p.241-245. Egypt had 1700 tanks with 1020
on
the east bank
i n
the defensive po sit i ons and
330 i n operational reserve on the west bank to destroy any eneny penetration. Losses up t o date were 240,
the Egyptians hi d only 780 tanks across the canal. Though the I sr ae li s had lo st
610
tanks to date, they
had the neans t o repl ace then. Thus the Is ra el is had 900 tanks and the Egyptians
780
and this was not
enough t o at tack th e passes a5
was
nor proposed i n the euphoria of the moment.
4 4 .
Ib id . , p. 217.
45.
Shazly , p. 248. Adan, p, 237 .
46. Shazly, p. 252.
17. Shazly, p. 258.
40. Ib id . , p. 253.
4 7 . Ibid., p.
254
and 255.
50.
Schif f . ,
p.271.
96
Egyptian tanks and
a
larg e nunber of arnored personnel carr ier s roved i nt o the
gian t ant i tank anbush set by the Isr ae l i di vis ion wait in g t o cross the canal. Only four vehicles escaped
the naelrtron, one was the brigade connander. The Isr ae li s los t four tanks.
5 1 .
Ildan, p.
442.
52.
Herzog,
p , 315.
53. Ibid., p. 246.
54.
Srh i f f , p . 320 and 321.
55.
Adan, p. 471.
5 6 Schi f f ,
p.
216.
57.
Schazly,
p.240.
I he
IDF
attacked the Egyptian 18th Div on the norning of B October and wa5 repulsed.
The Egy pti an 2nd Div was h i t i n t he a fternoon o f B October with two armored br igades i n the d ire ct i on of
El-Ferdan and was annihi lated. One I sr ae l i a r m e d brigade struck t he Egyptian lb th In f Div a t
Derverroir and
was
destroyed.
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58. Schiff, p. 213.
5 9 .
S h a r l y ,
p.
261.
h0. I h i d . , p . 2.Tb
h l .
Operational intelligence preparation of the battlefield must take a macro view of the elements of
natioiial power on both sides political, economic,
psycholoqical,
geographic and military. Still, the
basic aspects of nurbers, norm5 and doctrinal procedures continues to b e important. l o this complete
analysis the comrander brings his understanding o f theoretical concepts and his knowledge of
HE IT-1
to
determine the operational design.
I831
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G ov er n m en t P u b l i c a t i o n s
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2 .
llS
D e p a r t m e n t
o f
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A r m y .
R u s s i a n C o m b a t
M e t h o d 5
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