King ArthurKing Arthur

Was Arthur a king or just a battle coWas Arthur a king or just a battle commander?mmander?

Arthur the Battle Arthur the Battle CommanderCommander

There are Roman historical references to There are Roman historical references to Arthur the warriorArthur the warrior

Historia Brittonum,Historia Brittonum, written by the monk written by the monk NenniusNennius in the 9th century tells us of 12 in the 9th century tells us of 12 great battles Arthur fought. great battles Arthur fought.

Conceived in battleConceived in battle

In legend, Arthur was born during a war In legend, Arthur was born during a war and died during a war. He was certainly a and died during a war. He was certainly a warrior.warrior.

He fought the Saxons at Badon Hill in He fought the Saxons at Badon Hill in southern Britain. Saxons were southern Britain. Saxons were Northern European invaders.Northern European invaders.

Arthur in battleArthur in battle

He fought everywhere. He won great He fought everywhere. He won great victories. A strong tradition has him a using victories. A strong tradition has him a using Roman strategies and Celtic ferocity to rout Roman strategies and Celtic ferocity to rout the Saxons time and again, counting on the Saxons time and again, counting on their inexperience in fighting mounted men.their inexperience in fighting mounted men.

Arthur the KingArthur the King

But was he a king in the traditional sense? But was he a king in the traditional sense? The legends name him High King of Britain, The legends name him High King of Britain, a title held by his father, a title held by his father, UtherUther PendragonPendragon, , and his uncle, and his uncle, AmbrosiusAmbrosius AurelianusAurelianus. .

King of the BritonsKing of the Britons

Noted historian Noted historian Geoffrey Ashe calls Geoffrey Ashe calls him King of the him King of the Britons . In legend, Britons . In legend, he is associated with he is associated with Stonehenge, one of Stonehenge, one of the seven wonders of the seven wonders of the ancient world.the ancient world.

King of WalesKing of Wales

A recent book by Graham A recent book by Graham Phillips and Martin Keatman Phillips and Martin Keatman identifies Arthur as the King of identifies Arthur as the King of PowysPowys and and GwyneddGwynedd, two , two powerful kingdoms in Wales. powerful kingdoms in Wales.

And he is associated with And he is associated with Wroxeter located in Shropshire Wroxeter located in Shropshire near Wales, which served near Wales, which served briefly as a Legionary Fortress briefly as a Legionary Fortress in the 1st century AD. in the 1st century AD.

King in ScotlandKing in Scotland

The northern tradition has Arthur king of The northern tradition has Arthur king of some or all of Scotland. some or all of Scotland.

King or Commander?King or Commander?

Conclusive evidence cannot answer the Conclusive evidence cannot answer the question beyond a doubtquestion beyond a doubt

The evidence strongly suggests a The evidence strongly suggests a warrior-king did exist warrior-king did exist

GuinevereGuinevere

GuinevereGuinevere

In legend, Guinevere is a most In legend, Guinevere is a most important character.important character.

She does not appear in the histories, She does not appear in the histories, but then, few women did.but then, few women did.

Early Welsh literature names her Early Welsh literature names her Gwenhwyfar, the "White Phantom" and Gwenhwyfar, the "White Phantom" and the "first lady of the island." the "first lady of the island."

GuenevereGuenevere

In legends, she is In legends, she is often saved by Arthur often saved by Arthur from captivity of from captivity of conquering warriors.conquering warriors.

GuenevereGuenevere

Later traditions have Later traditions have her as the daughter her as the daughter of Leodegrance, who of Leodegrance, who gave as part of her gave as part of her dowry the Round dowry the Round Table. Table.

In all of the legends, In all of the legends, hers is an arranged hers is an arranged marriage.marriage.

GuenevereGuenevere

In the legends, she falls in love with Arthur’s In the legends, she falls in love with Arthur’s best knight and their romance destroys best knight and their romance destroys Arthur’s power and kingdom.Arthur’s power and kingdom.

The legend varies as to how she met The legend varies as to how she met Lancelot. Some sources say he escorted Lancelot. Some sources say he escorted her to her wedding to Arthur; other sources her to her wedding to Arthur; other sources say they met when Lancelot came to court. say they met when Lancelot came to court.

Later tales have her retiring to a nunnery or Later tales have her retiring to a nunnery or being abducted by Mordred. being abducted by Mordred.

LancelotLancelot

LancelotLancelot

Lancelot is entirely the creation of Lancelot is entirely the creation of ChretienChretien de de TroyesTroyes and is as such no and is as such no part of historical investigation. part of historical investigation.

In his In his four romancesfour romances, Chretien portrays , Chretien portrays Lancelot as the best of all the knights: Lancelot as the best of all the knights: skilled in arms and chivalry and courtly skilled in arms and chivalry and courtly love and all the other qualities that make love and all the other qualities that make a knight successful. a knight successful.

LancelotLancelot

He is the king's He is the king's champion, fighting champion, fighting challengers and going on challengers and going on quests in the king's quests in the king's name. He is time and name. He is time and again the symbol of again the symbol of Arthur's justice. Those Arthur's justice. Those who question the who question the queen's fidelity are made queen's fidelity are made to pay by fighting to pay by fighting Lancelot. Lancelot.

Was Gawain a great Was Gawain a great knight or a royal pain? knight or a royal pain?

Arthur’s three sisters all want their Arthur’s three sisters all want their sons or heirs to succeed Arthur as sons or heirs to succeed Arthur as king. That makes them cause king. That makes them cause Arthur all kinds of problems.Arthur all kinds of problems.

In the early stories and the later In the early stories and the later historical works Sir Gawain, being historical works Sir Gawain, being the son of the son of LotLot and and MorgauseMorgause and, and, therefore, Arthur's nephew does therefore, Arthur's nephew does great deeds and is a symbol of great deeds and is a symbol of knightly prowess. knightly prowess.

GawainGawain

Geoffrey tells us that he was in command of Geoffrey tells us that he was in command of a division in Arthur's victory over the Roman a division in Arthur's victory over the Roman Emperor Lucius at the Battle of Saussy and Emperor Lucius at the Battle of Saussy and that Gawain attacked Lucius himself. Gawain that Gawain attacked Lucius himself. Gawain was killed as he came back to shore to fight was killed as he came back to shore to fight ModredModred. .

Was Merlin an old magician Was Merlin an old magician or a young fortune-teller? or a young fortune-teller?

Geoffrey's Merlin is thought to be Geoffrey's Merlin is thought to be based on the Welsh Myrddin, a based on the Welsh Myrddin, a wise man who went mad after the wise man who went mad after the battle of Arfderydd and retired to battle of Arfderydd and retired to the Celidon Forest. the Celidon Forest.

Merlin and the Holy GrailMerlin and the Holy Grail

Legend involves Merlin in the Quests of Legend involves Merlin in the Quests of the knights for the Holy Grail. Before the knights for the Holy Grail. Before Merlin is 3 years old, he tells the story of Merlin is 3 years old, he tells the story of Joseph of Joseph of ArimatheaArimathea and his bringing the and his bringing the Grail to Britain. Grail to Britain.

The Round Table is connected to the table The Round Table is connected to the table of The Last Supper in legend.of The Last Supper in legend.

MerlinMerlin

He also falls under the spell of He also falls under the spell of NimueNimue or or Vivien of the Lady of the Lake, depending Vivien of the Lady of the Lake, depending on which version you read and is on which version you read and is imprisoned, robbing Arthur of his wise imprisoned, robbing Arthur of his wise counsel when he needs it most.counsel when he needs it most.

Depending on the version, Merlin is a Depending on the version, Merlin is a wise and powerful force for the good wise and powerful force for the good Arthur, or a scheming and manipulative Arthur, or a scheming and manipulative powermonger.powermonger.

Who was the Lady of the Who was the Lady of the Lake? Lake?

The Lady of the Lake doesn't really appear in The Lady of the Lake doesn't really appear in historical investigations. She is thought to have historical investigations. She is thought to have been based on lake fairies in Welsh stories. been based on lake fairies in Welsh stories.

The Lady of the Lake in popular conception is The Lady of the Lake in popular conception is the high priestess of an older religion and the the high priestess of an older religion and the woman who gave Arthur woman who gave Arthur ExcaliburExcalibur and then and then took it back when took it back when BedivereBedivere threw it back into threw it back into the lake. the lake.

Was Galahad really so Was Galahad really so boring? boring?

Galahad was Lancelot’s son. If being perfect Galahad was Lancelot’s son. If being perfect means being boring, you could say yes. The means being boring, you could say yes. The legend has him involved in many adventures, legend has him involved in many adventures, however, including healing the wounded Grail however, including healing the wounded Grail King.King.

He eventually sees the He eventually sees the Holy GrailHoly Grail in its full in its full glory and dies of ecstasy after being shown the glory and dies of ecstasy after being shown the full mystery and majesty of the Grail. On the full mystery and majesty of the Grail. On the way, he does many wonderful thingsway, he does many wonderful things

GalahadGalahad

One story even has Galahad One story even has Galahad drawing his own sword out of a drawing his own sword out of a stone. This took place when he sat stone. This took place when he sat in the in the Siege PerilousSiege Perilous, a seat at the , a seat at the Round TableRound Table that was destined for that was destined for the greatest knight in the world. the greatest knight in the world. Separate traditions say the Siege Separate traditions say the Siege Perilous was destined for the Grail Perilous was destined for the Grail Knight. Many stories say Galahad Knight. Many stories say Galahad was both. was both.

Did Perceval see the Grail Did Perceval see the Grail or didn't he?or didn't he?

Perceval also briefly glimpses the Grail. Perceval also briefly glimpses the Grail. He has many adventures, high and low. He has many adventures, high and low. Many legends describe the grail as a Many legends describe the grail as a serving dish rather than a cup. Perceval serving dish rather than a cup. Perceval has a vision in which he sees a has a vision in which he sees a procession containing a bleeding lance procession containing a bleeding lance and a head on a platter. and a head on a platter.

PercevalPerceval

His travels take him to the Grail Castle, His travels take him to the Grail Castle, where he sees a bleeding lance and a where he sees a bleeding lance and a silver graal, or serving dish. Because he silver graal, or serving dish. Because he does not help the Grail Knight, he does does not help the Grail Knight, he does not see the Grail, and the land and the not see the Grail, and the land and the man suffer anew. man suffer anew.

The Third Grail KnightThe Third Grail Knight

In legend, In legend, BorsBors is the third Grail Knight. is the third Grail Knight. He returns to He returns to CamelotCamelot with the news of with the news of the realization of the Grail Quest.the realization of the Grail Quest.

Morgan Le FeyMorgan Le Fey

One of Arthur’s three sisters, Morgan is One of Arthur’s three sisters, Morgan is the most self-serving in the legends.the most self-serving in the legends.

Malory, especially, portrays Morgan as Malory, especially, portrays Morgan as mortal, having to use magic to make mortal, having to use magic to make herself appear young, and scheming herself appear young, and scheming through magical means to embarrass through magical means to embarrass and harm Arthur and his court. and harm Arthur and his court.

Was she a witch?Was she a witch?

That word usually has an evil connotation. That word usually has an evil connotation. Earlier sources portray her as a healer; Earlier sources portray her as a healer; given the evil connotation of the word given the evil connotation of the word witch, we must conclude that she was not witch, we must conclude that she was not one in the earlier sources. one in the earlier sources.

Was Morgause to blame Was Morgause to blame for all of Arthur's for all of Arthur's troubles? troubles?

Another sister, Morgause does not Another sister, Morgause does not appear in the historical texts. appear in the historical texts.

In legend, Morgause is Arthur's half-In legend, Morgause is Arthur's half-sister, usually the wife of sister, usually the wife of LotLot of Lothian of Lothian and/or Orkney. As such, she is perfectly and/or Orkney. As such, she is perfectly situated to cause Arthur trouble. situated to cause Arthur trouble.

Malevolent MorgauseMalevolent Morgause

Morgause herself is said to Morgause herself is said to have been a constant thorn in have been a constant thorn in Arthur's side, doing magic and Arthur's side, doing magic and making mischief. Bradley says making mischief. Bradley says she poisoned the queen so she she poisoned the queen so she couldn't have children. couldn't have children.

It could be argued that It could be argued that Morgause was indeed the Morgause was indeed the cause of all Arthur's cause of all Arthur's troubles:troubles:

She was the power behind Lot, she sent her She was the power behind Lot, she sent her sons to make trouble for Arthur and expose the sons to make trouble for Arthur and expose the adultery of his two best-loved people, she tried adultery of his two best-loved people, she tried herself to undo all that Arthur had done, and herself to undo all that Arthur had done, and she was the cause and the educator of she was the cause and the educator of Mordred, who ultimately caused the wound that Mordred, who ultimately caused the wound that took Arthur away. took Arthur away.

Was the Sword really in Was the Sword really in the Stone? the Stone?

The idea of Arthur's The idea of Arthur's drawing the Sword drawing the Sword from the Stone and from the Stone and becoming king of becoming king of Britain is not to be Britain is not to be found in the historical found in the historical texts. texts.

The Sword in the StoneThe Sword in the Stone

And yet, one possible explanation is this: And yet, one possible explanation is this: The Latin word for stone is The Latin word for stone is saxosaxo; the English word for ; the English word for

the Germanic invaders who took over the country is the Germanic invaders who took over the country is Saxon. It is quite possible that the story of Arthur had Saxon. It is quite possible that the story of Arthur had him killing a great Saxon leader and taking his sword him killing a great Saxon leader and taking his sword as a symbol of prowess and renewed vigor and victory. as a symbol of prowess and renewed vigor and victory. It is also quite possible that in copying (which is what It is also quite possible that in copying (which is what they did in those days), a scribe might have forgotten they did in those days), a scribe might have forgotten to add a letter, namely the last, to the word Saxon. to add a letter, namely the last, to the word Saxon. Hence, "Arthur pulled the sword from the Saxon" may Hence, "Arthur pulled the sword from the Saxon" may have become "Arthur pulled the sword from the stone." have become "Arthur pulled the sword from the stone."

Did the Round Table Did the Round Table really seat 1,600 men? really seat 1,600 men?

Historically, theFrench monk Robert Historically, theFrench monk Robert WaceWace, who wrote , who wrote Roman de Brut,Roman de Brut, a poem based on Geoffrey of a poem based on Geoffrey of Monmouth's Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, History of the Kings of Britain, says that says that Arthur's knights sat inside a round table while Arthur Arthur's knights sat inside a round table while Arthur sat on a dais, above the Round Table. sat on a dais, above the Round Table.

The idea here was that the knights were all equal but The idea here was that the knights were all equal but Arthur was still the king.Arthur was still the king.

A few years later, an Englishman named A few years later, an Englishman named LayamonLayamon tried his hand at the story, calling his work tried his hand at the story, calling his work Brut.Brut. (The (The idea of Brut comes from Brutus the Trojan, whom idea of Brut comes from Brutus the Trojan, whom Geoffrey says founded the first kingdom in Britain.)Geoffrey says founded the first kingdom in Britain.)

The Round TableThe Round Table

Layamon identifies Arthur's court as Layamon identifies Arthur's court as being at London, and places the king at being at London, and places the king at the center of all the action. In the center of all the action. In Brut,Brut, the the Round Table is the result of a chance Round Table is the result of a chance meeting between Arthur and a Cornish meeting between Arthur and a Cornish carpenter, who offers to make for the carpenter, who offers to make for the king a table that could seat 1,600 men king a table that could seat 1,600 men and be folded up and taken anywhere and be folded up and taken anywhere

The Round Table in The Round Table in LegendLegend

Robert de Boron tells us how Merlin ordered Robert de Boron tells us how Merlin ordered Uther Pendragon to construct the table based Uther Pendragon to construct the table based on his vision of the Last Supper Table and on his vision of the Last Supper Table and Joseph of Arimathea's Grail Table. Joseph of Arimathea's Grail Table.

Merlin instructed Uther to have the table Merlin instructed Uther to have the table accommodate 50 chairs; he also said to leave accommodate 50 chairs; he also said to leave one chair blank, for the knight who would fulfill one chair blank, for the knight who would fulfill the Grail Quest. The Vulgate Cycle says the the Grail Quest. The Vulgate Cycle says the Round Table sat 250 knights. Round Table sat 250 knights.

The Round Table in The Round Table in LegendLegend

The Vulgate Cycle introduces the idea of The Vulgate Cycle introduces the idea of the Siege Perilous, continuing the empty-the Siege Perilous, continuing the empty-chair theory but adding to it the caveat chair theory but adding to it the caveat that anyone not anointed would perish that anyone not anointed would perish after sitting there. Galahad, of course, after sitting there. Galahad, of course, was the only one able to sit there; it was was the only one able to sit there; it was he who fulfilled the Grail Quest. he who fulfilled the Grail Quest.

King ArthurKing Arthur

Historically, a powerful leader and Historically, a powerful leader and warrior, Arthur inspired writers, artists, warrior, Arthur inspired writers, artists, poets, and musicians.poets, and musicians.

Captured in their work, he remains a Captured in their work, he remains a legendary and mythical figure whose legendary and mythical figure whose stories have endured over hundreds of stories have endured over hundreds of years.years.