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1
Know Your Soils
By: Shawn Hardeman
Backyard Farming Series
April 21, 2012
2
Module Objects
• To be able to interpret a soil survey report
• To convey a basic understanding of soils,
soil properties, their regional distribution,
and the service they provided
• To be able conceptualize and describe at the
basic level how air, water, and nutrients
move through the soil
3
What is soil?
“soil is the elegant, complex mixtures of
minerals, organic matter, soil
microorganisms, various burrowing
creatures and insects, and countless other
forms of life that acts as a medium for plant
growth.”
4
Soil Properties
• Soil Texture
– Texture is how we describe the mineral
particles in a soil
– The three particle types are sand, silt and clay
– Based in the percentage of these particles we
can describe soils in textural classes
5
Soil Properties (texture)
• Soil Texture Triangle
• Soil texture is defined as the relative proportion of the various soil particles in a soil
• Soil texture influences the physical and chemical properties of a soil
Source: http://www.soilsensor.com/soiltypes.aspx
6
Soil Properties (texture)
• 12 Textural Classes
• Textural classes are determined by mechanical analysis.
• Or, textural classes can be inferred in the field by feel.
7
Soil Properties (texture)
• Basic flowchart for
determining textural
class by feel
• Results are not 100%
• It’s free and fun
8
Soil Properties (particle size)
• Particle Size (soil separates) from USDA
– Sand, coarse minerals, 2.0 – 0.05mm
– Silt, medium size minerals, 0.05 – 0.002 mm
– Clay, smallest minerals, < 0.002 mm
Coarse Fragments; gravel, cobble, and stones (> 2.0 mm) are excluded from textural classification but are used to describe the soil as a whole.
9
Soil Properties (particle size)
Source:
http://plantandsoil.unl.edu/croptechnology2005/soil_sci/?what=topicsD&informationModuleId=1130447039&topicOrder=2&max=10
&min=0&
10
Soil Properties (particle size)
• Surface Area of Soil Particles
– Sand; 0.3 m2/100 g of soil
– Silt; 15 m2/100 g of soil
– Clay; 30,000 m2/100 g of soil
• Which particle has the most influence?
• Surface Area based on Textural Class
– Loamy sand; 240 m2/100 g of soil
– Loam; 12,100 m2/100 g of soil
– Clay; 14,800 m2/100 g soil (not 100% clay)
CLAY
11
Soil Properties (CEC)
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
– The quantity of negative charges in soil existing on the
surfaces of clay and organic matter
– The CEC of a soil represents the total amount of
exchangeable cations that the soil can aDsorb.
– The is measured in centimoles (cmol/kg of soil)
– CEC is important because it provides a reservoir of
nutrients to replenish those removed from the soil water
by plant uptake
12
Soil Properties (CEC)
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
– Essential plant nutrients that exist in the soil as
cations; K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+
– Other cations include; Na+, H+, Al3+
– There is a balance between cations on the soil
particle and in soil solution
– Problems will arise if Na+ exceeds Ca2+ &
Mg2+, soil dispersion and inhibit plant growth
13
Soil Properties (CEC)
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
– The CEC can improve with an increase in
organic matter
– In sandy soils, CEC will be entirely due to
organic matter
– To a lesser extent, anion exchange capacity is
where phosphate and sulfates are adsorbed, but
nitrate is not
14
Soil Properties (porosity)
• Pore Space
– Varies based on
textural class
– Varies based on
compaction
– Air, water,
microbes, soil
nutrients, and
roots all exist in
the pore spaces
Source: http://plantandsoil.unl.edu/croptechnology2005/pagesincludes/printModule.jsp?informationModuleId=1130447039
15
Soil Properties (porosity)
• Pore Space – aka, Porosity
– Defined as n or φ = Vv/Vt
• Volume of the void space over total volume
• Which textural class has a greater amount of pore space?
• Which textural class has larger pore spaces?
CLAY
SAND
16
Soil Properties
“Among the important physical properties of
soils are those which enable the soil to
receive, hold, and transmit water for the use of
crops.”
Soils and Men, USDA Yearbook, 1938
17
Soil Properties (water content)
• Saturated and unsaturated flow
– Water flows in between the pore spaces
Source: https://www.soils.org
18
Soil Properties (water content)
• Water is measured in the soil as water content (θ)
– Volumetric (θv) and Gravimetric (θg)
θg measured in the laboratory
• θg = mass of water/mass of soil
• θv = θg*(bulk density of soil/bulk density of water)
Both are interpreted as a percentage
19
Soil Properties (water content)
• Water in the soil can be describe as a height
• Similar to measuring rainfall
• Described as inch/inch or inch/foot of soil
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm
20
Soil Properties (water content)
• Example: From soil samples it was determined that in the first 6 inches of soil the θv = 0.2. How much water is in the soil?
• 6 inch x 0.2 = 1.2 inches of water
• If an acre-foot of water is equal to 325,851 gallons of water then 1.2 inches of water equals 32,585 gallons over the same area.
– (1.2 in/12in)(325,851 gallons) = 32,585 gallons
21
Soil Properties (water content)
• Available Water Holding Capacity
Source: http://bettersoils.soilwater.com.au/module2/2_1.htm#Figure 3
22
Soil Properties (water content)
• Available Water Holding Capacity
– Saturation: 100% of the pore space is filled
with water; free water present
– Field Capacity: water retained in the soil profile
after the free water has drained
– Permanent Wilting Point: the point at which
plants can no longer extract water from the soil.
“Give the soil a good soaking…”
23
Soil Properties (water content)
Available Water in Soil
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Coarse
Sand
Fine Sand Loamy
Sand
Sandy
Loam
Light Sand
Clay Loam
Loam Sandy Clay
Loam
Clay Loam Clay
Soil Texture
Inch of Water/Inch of Soil
Field Capacity
Wilting Point
Textural class is the limiting factor
24
Soil Properties (water content)
In inch/inch of soil
Texture Field Capacity Wilting point Available Water
Coarse Sand 0.06 0.02 0.04
Fine Sand 0.1 0.04 0.06
Loamy Sand 0.14 0.06 0.08
Sandy Loam 0.2 0.08 0.12
Light Sand Clay
Loam
0.23 0.1 0.13
Loam 0.27 0.12 0.15
Sandy Clay Loam 0.28 0.13 0.18
Clay loam 0.32 0.14 0.15
Clay 0.40 0.25 0.20
25
Soil Properties (water content)
Source: http://www.noble.org/ag/Soils/SoilWaterRelationships/Index.htm
26
Soil Properties (water content)
Soil moisture available for plant growth makes up approximately 0.01 percent of
the world's stored water. Source: NRCS and http://www.noble.org/ag/Soils/SoilWaterRelationships/Index.htm
27
Soil Properties (water movement)
• Water balance: Inflows and outflows
– Precipitation (P)
– Infiltration (I)
– Surface Runoff (R)
– Deep Percolation (D)
– Evapotranspiration (ET)
– Water Storage Change (∆W)
P + I – R = ET + D + ∆∆∆∆W
28
Soil Properties (water movement)
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0490e/x0490e0e.htm
29
Soil Properties (water movement)
• Wetting Depth Example:
– Water Holding Capacity (AWC)
• Sandy soil – 0.1 in/in of soil
• Clayey soil – 0.4 in/in of soil
– After applying 3 inches of water to both soils,
how deep will the water penetrate in each?
Sandy soil: 3 in/0.1 in/in = 30 inches
Clayey soil: 3 in/0.4 in/in = 7.5 inches
30
Soil Properties (water movement)
• Water Movement in Soil
– Total Water Potential is the sum of
– Gravitational Potential• Water will flow from regions of higher potential to regions of
lower potential (water flows down hill)
– Solute or Osmotic Potential• Water will flow from regions of lower concentrations to
regions of higher concentrations (this drive water uptake in plants)
– Tensiometer Pressure Potential– Matric potential (capillary action)
– Air pressure potential
– Hydrostatic pressure potential
31
Soil Properties (water movement)
32
Soil Properties (water movement)
Source: http://turf.lib.msu.edu/1980s/1988/880323.pdf
Why? It is because of pore space, matirc potential, hydrostatic pressure, and
gravitation potential.
33
Soil Properties (water movement)
• Hydraulic Head (for saturated flow)
– The change in the total water potential over a distance
drives the gradient (i)
– The sum of the hydrostatic pressure (p) and
gravitational potential (z); (H = p + z)
• Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (Ks) inch/sec
– A quantitative measure of a saturated soil's ability to
transmit water when subjected to a hydraulic gradient
• Jw = Ks(i) = Ks(H2-H1)/(L2-L1)
34
Soil Properties (water movement)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/technotes/note6.html
LengthHead Ks
Ksi
35
Soil Properties (water movement)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/technotes/note6.html
36
Soil Properties (water movement)
• Infiltration Rate (I)
– Refers to the entry of water into a soil and moves
downward from the soil surface (wetting front)
– At the surface matric potential is dominate over
gravitational forces
– Water is filling the pores
• Infiltration rate is highest when water first enters
the soil and decreases with time as the pores fill up
with water
37
Soil Properties (water movement)
Source: Element of Physical Hydrology, 1998
38
Soil Properties (water movement)
• The most limiting factor is the saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
• Dry soils have high infiltration capacity that
decreases as pores begin to fill with water
• Runoff occurs when the infiltration capacity
is reduced to the saturated hydraulic
conductivity
39
Soil Properties (summary)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/
40
Soil Forming Factors
• There are 5 soil forming factors to consider
– Parent Material
– Climate
– Topography
– Biological Factor (biota)
– Time
• “Each factor are independent variables that define the soil system,” Hans Jenny, 1941
• For a given combination of each factor only one type of soil exists
41
Soil Forming Factors (soil taxonomy)
• There are 12 soil orders worldwide
• 64 soil suborders
• 300 soil great groups
• 2,400 subgroups
• 50,000 soil series in the United States
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/education/facts/formation.html
42
Soil Forming Factor: p (parent material)
• Soils can derive from material that was deposited
by the following processes
– Alluvial (concentrated by running water in semiarid)
– Colluvial (mass movement - gravitational)
– Fluvial (rivers and flooding)
– Loess (wind deposited material)
• The act of deposition and sedimentation of material are not soil forming factors
Rock → Weathered Rock → Immature Soil → Mature Soil
43
Weathered Rock
44
Soil Forming Factors: c (climate)
• Climate: the weather of a particular region
over a long period of time
• Includes precipitation, temperature, and
wind that prevail over a particular region
• Climate is the driving force behind the
weathering of rocks and soils
45
Soil Forming
Factors (climate)
Source: http://www-psych.nmsu.edu/~linda/weather.htm
•Precipitation drives the
deposition of parent material,
and the chemical and physical
weathering of that material
•The amount of precipitation
heavily influences soil
development through
weathering and leaching
•Desert soils are not highly
weathered soils due to a lack
of precipitation
46
Soil Forming Factors (climate)
• Temperature is important because it regulates
biological and chemical reactions
• Temperature influences the water content in the
soil
• Most of the biological activity encouraged by
temperature will be close to the soil surface
47
Soil Forming Factors (topography)
Source: http://www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil2125/doc/s4chp3.htm
48
Soil Forming Factors: b (biota)
• Biota includes plants, animals, micro-organisms, microbes, and human activity
• Their affect on soil formation varies and tied to habitable conditions
• The long-term affect is the accumulation of organic matter over time
49
Soil Forming Factors (time)
• Soil systems vary with timeRock → Weathered Rock → Immature Soil → Mature Soil
• The Time begins as soon as the rock material is acted upon by water, temperature, and organisms
• The goal is for soil forming factors to outpace erosion factors
50
Soil Forming Factors (time)
• Soil Profile
– O horizon: organic layer
(leaf litter)
– A horizon: surface layer
(top soil)
– B horizon: subsurface
layer (zone of
accumulation)
– C horizon: substratum
layer (weathered rock)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/education/resources/lessons/profile/
51
Comparison of
Soil Forming
Factors
52
Soil Forming Factors (Entisols)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/soil_orders/
53
Soil Forming Factors (Entisols)
• Relatively young in age
• Horizons are not well
defined (lack a B horizon)
• Found in floodplains and
river channels
54
Soil Forming Factors (Aridisols)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/soil_orders/
55
Soil Forming Factors (Aridisols)
• Rocky material present and
not highly weathered
• Distinct A and B horizon
• Low OM content
56
Soil Forming Factors (Mollisols)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/soil_orders/
57
Soil Forming Factors (Mollisols)
• Rich on OM content
• Well defined O, A, & B
horizons
58
Soil Forming Factors (Histosols)
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/soil_orders/
59
Soil Forming Factors (Histosols)
• Predominately organic
material
• High organic matter
content throughout the
profile
• Formed under saturated or
partly saturated conditions
• Source for peat
60
Soil Quality (SOM)
61
Soil Quality (SOM)
• Soil Organic Matter
– Humus not Organic Material (i.e. leaves, plant parts)
• Mineral soils contain less than 30% organic matter, by weight
• Mineral soils may have an O horizon and the void space in the A horizon contains less than 10% organic matter
• Organic soils may have more than half of its upper profile containing organic matter (Histosols)
62
Soil Quality (SOM)
• Improves soil tilth
– Soil structure
– Surface crusting
– Decreases bulk density
– Supports microbial and microorganisms
– Adds rare/secondary minerals to the soil
– Increase water infiltration
– Increases water holding capacity (AWC)???
63
Soil Quality (SOM)
Available Water Capacities in Centimeters per Centimeter of Soil ¹ ²
Soil Texture Classes Greater than or equal to 3 percent OM 0.5 to 3 percent OM Less than 0.5 percent OM
Coarse sand and gravel 0.04-0.06 0.03-0.05 0.02-0.04
Sands 0.07-0.09 0.06-0.08 0.05-0.07
Loamy sands 0.10-0.12 0.09-0.11 0.08-0.10
Sandy loams 0.13-0.15 0.12-0.14 0.11-0.13
Fine sandy loams 0.16-0.18 0.15-0.17 0.14-0.16
Loams and very fine sandy loams 0.20-0.22 0.17-0.19 0.17-0.19
Silt loams 0.22-0.24 0.20-0.22 0.20-0.22
Silty clay loams 0.21-0.23 0.18-0.20 0.18-0.20
Sandy clay loams 0.18-0.20 0.16-0.18 0.15-0.17
Clay loams 0.17-0.19 0.15-0.19 0.14-0.16
Silty clays 0.12-0.14 0.11-0.13 0.10-0.12
Clays 0.11-0.13 0.09-0.11 0.08-0.10
Source: http://www.mo10.nrcs.usda.gov/references/guides/properties/awcrange.html
Rule of Thumb – For every 1% of OM added to the soil adds
about 1.5% to the AWC (source: http://soils.usda.gov)
64
Soil Quality (SOM)
• Example: An acre of soil at a depth of 6
inches weights ~ 2,000,000 lbs, which
means that 1% of OM weighs ~ 20,000 lbs.
If it takes 10 lbs of organic material to make
1 lb of organic matter than it would take
200,000 lbs of organic material to increase
the organic matter in the soil by 1%. Source: http://www.noble.org/ag/soils/organicmatter/index.htm
65
Soil Quality (SOM)
• What influences SOM?
– Management
• Removing organic material - havesting
– Soil Texture
• Fine-textured vs. coarse-textured
– Climate
• High temps vs. high precipitation
– Landscape position
• Slopes vs. basins
– Vegetation
• Annual lifecycle of grasses vs. trees
Source: http://www.extension.umn.edu
66
Soil Survey
• Where to find soil data –
Web Soil Survey
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
67
Web Soil Survey
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
68
Web Soil Survey
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
69
Web Soil Survey
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
70
Soil Survey
• Climate Data
• Landscape
Position
• Soil Properties
– Ksat
– Salinity
– SAR
– AWC (0.17)
• Land Use
• Typical Profile
71
Comparison of Soil Types
72
Thank You
73
Carbon vs Life Zones
74
Nitrogen vs Life Zones
75
C/N Ratios vs Life Zones