Kokstad Integrated Sustainable Development Plan: Status Quo Report

KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PLAN STATUS QUO REPORT

KOKSTAD AND FRANKLIN ISDP STATUS QUO REPORT

PREPARED BY THE CITY THINK SPACE TEAM

FOR THE GREATER KOKSTAD MUNICIPALITY

NOVEMBER 2012

CITY

SPACETHINK

Document prepared by the City Think Space team, including:

City Think Space

Meshfield

Lees & Short Associated Architects

SSI Engineering and Environmental Consultants

Jeffares & Green Engineers

DPA Project Managers & Associates

Dugan Fraser

Palmer Development Group

FutureWorks

November 2012

DOCUMENT PREPARED BY THE CITY THINK SPACE TEAM

KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThis report comprises the Status Quo evaluation for the Integrated Sustainable Development Plan (ISDP) for Kokstad and Franklin. It synthesises the technical evaluation of the Status Quo of Kokstad and Franklin in relation to a set of sustainable development goals and indicators and a draft sustainability framework. This framework draws heavily from cutting-edge thinking on sustainable development contained in an Oxfam discussion paper prepared for Rio20+ in June 2012. It is referred to as the “doughnut” framework.

The pertinent policy informants of an extensive desktop evaluation of relevant national and local policies have been summarised and used to guide the status quo evaluation.

The Green Ambassadors Programme (GAP) is an innovative initiative that forms a key part of the ISDP process. The purpose of the programme is to provide skills transfer and development in the arena of sustainable development and citizen journalism to local youth, whilst at the same time generating information and feedback about local conditions, aspirations and culture for use by the ISDP project team and the GKM. The Green Ambassadors received training, documented community views on sustainability issues, attended stakeholder workshops and prepared videos and blogs that provided valuable perspectives to the technical status quo evaluation. The GA blog site is already receiving attention from places around the world and can be visited at www.gkm-ga.blogspot.com.

The status quo findings are presented as an integrated synopsis that aims to present a coherent story of how Kokstad and Franklin are performing in relation to the aims of integrated sustainable development. This synopsis is organised into five integrating “stories” that distil the defining features and characteristics of Kokstad. These stories are; Crossroads, Town, Infrastructure, Natural Resources and Agriculture. Rather than providing an unfocused description of every issue, these stories focus

on “what makes Kokstad and Franklin tick” and highlight the areas where their major sustainable development challenges lie. The five stories are presented here for discussion and may change or be redefined in the process of engagement with the project leaders and stakeholders.

Fundamental to this integrative approach is the identification of a series of cross cutting themes that inform and shape all of the five stories. These cross cutting themes comprise a combination of what is needed to create a firm and enduring social foundation, and what is needed to work in balance with the ecosystems and Earth systems that support all life - the planetary boundaries.

Developing on the focus areas proposed in the doughnut framework, the themes that contribute to the social foundation include: • Resilience – to climate, energy and financial

shocks• Sustainable livelihoods – decent work,

strong social networks• Basic needs – sustainable service delivery

- water, food and energy security, decent shelter, sanitation, health care, security and mobility (access to transport)

• Poverty – adequate income (including social grants)

• Social equity and cultural diversity

Again referring to the doughnut framework, the cross-cutting themes that impact and shape all five stories and that contribute to ensuring that Kokstad stays within the planetary limits (environmental ceiling) include: • Climate change – a low carbon economic

growth path with a focus on renewable energy, green jobs and public mobility

• Resource depletion – moving to viewing all waste as resource

• Water security• Soil degradation (including nitrogen and

phosphorous cycles) • Biodiversity loss • Land use change

• Pollution

Kokstad (and Franklin as a “satellite” of Kokstad for the purposes of this conclusion) is a relatively small node in the middle of a large, sparsely inhabited hinterland, and in many ways epitomises the South African condition. However the point of this project is to look at it through a different lens. Planning for sustainability requires a detailed understanding of the uniqueness of this place, because it is in finding ways to optimise the resource base here that the area will be able to build resilience, becoming less dependent, and through the implementation of a diverse set of strategies facilitate adaptation to climate change and energy shocks, and hopefully also mitigate these effects on the environment, people and livelihoods both here and further afield.

Kokstad has many positive attributes that offer significant scope to build resilience. However in terms of long-term sustainability Kokstad is also very exposed to severe risks and challenges including vulnerability of the economy and society to energy shocks such as fuel price increases, climate change and pressures on critical life resources, including water and ecosystem services that are already degraded, depleted, or exported/ over abstracted. Other challenges include infrastructure capacity challenges, institutional fragmentation and dysfunction, low skills and employment levels and high levels of poverty

The main objective of an Integrated Sustainable Development Plan (ISDP) is to build resilience and improve the wellbeing of current and future residents (our children) within an uncertain global future.

Kokstad has the potential to become a national and global leader in sustainability, through implementation of projects and practices that build resilience and agility, enabling Kokstad to adapt and thrive into the future.

The Status Quo report was presented to the ISDP Steering Committee, senior GKM officials, councillors and stakeholders, and the DBSA

project leaders for comment and input in May and June 2012. Comments and feedback from those sessions have been incorporated into this final document.

STATUS QUO REPORT | NOVEMBER 2012

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CONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3

1. OVERVIEW OF STATUS QUO APPROACH, PROCESSES AND WORK COMPLETED TO DATE 121.1. PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT 121.2. STATUS QUO PROCESSES 121.3. APPROACH 13

2. STRATEGIC DIRECTION INFORMED BY LEGISLATION AND POLICY 162.1. GKM STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES IN IDP 162.2. MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY TARGETS 172.3. DEVELOPMENT, PLANNING AND ECONOMY 182.4. CLIMATE CHANGE AND PEAK OIL IMPACTS 202.5. ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY 212.6. TRANSPORT 222.7. INFRASTRUCTURE 232.8. AGRICULTURE 242.9. HUMAN SETTLEMENT 252.10. CONCLUSION 25

3. SUSTAINABILITY FRAMEWORK 283.1. “SAFE & JUST SPACE FOR HUMANITY: LIVING WITHIN THE DOUGHNUT” 283.2. SUSTAINABILITY GOALS AND INDICATORS 30

4. GREEN AMBASSADORS PROGRAMME 324.1. THE PURPOSE OF THE GREEN AMBASSADORS PROGRAMME 324.2. TRAINING 32

5. FIRST DRAFT STATUS QUO FINDINGS: “5 SUSTAINABILITY STORIES FOR KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN” 365.1. DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN 365.2. CROSS-CUTTING THEMES RUNNING THROUGH ALL STORIES 375.3. STATUS QUO INFORMATION SOURCES AND STUDY AREA 37

6. STATUS QUO REPORT AND FINDINGS 436.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TOWN 436.2. INSTITUTIONS 456.3. CROSSROADS (1) 476.4. TOWN (2) 616.5. INFRASTRUCTURE (3) 836.6. NATURAL RESOURCES (4) 976.7. AGRICULTURE (5) 113

7. CONCLUSIONS AND NEXT STEPS 1307.1. THE STATUS QUO SYNOPSIS 130

8. LIST OF APPENDICES 137


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LIST OF FIGURESFig 1. PROJECT PROCESS 12Fig 2. KOKSTAD DEVELOPMENT CHARTER 13Fig 3. VISION FOR THE GREATER KOKSTAD MUNICIPALITY 16Fig 4. REVIEW OF THE SDF OF THE GREATER KOKSTAD MUNICIPALITY 16Fig 5. HIERARCHY OF NODES AND ACTIVITY CORRIDORS (KWAZULU-NATAL) 18FIG 6. BIODIVERSITY CORRIDORS (KWAZULU-NATAL) 21FIG 7. ROAD FREIGHT NETWORK (KWAZULU-NATAL) 23FIG 8. THE DOUGHNUT - A SAFE AND JUST SPACE FOR HUMANITY 28FIG 9. BREACHING PLANETARY BOUNDARIES 29FIG 11. FALLING BELOW THE SOCIAL FOUNDATION 29FIG 10. PLANETARY BOUNDARIES (KOKSTAD: OXFAM CATEGORIES) 29FIG 12. SOCIAL FOUNDATION (KOKSTAD: ) 29FIG 13. WARD BOUNDARIES 33FIG 14. GREEN AMBASSADORS AND THEIR ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS 33FIG 15. FIVE SUSTAINABILITY STORIES FOR KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN 36FIG 16. REGIONAL SCALE - DURBAN TO MTHATHA 38FIG 17. KOKSTAD AND FRANKLIN SCALE - PROPOSED SDF AND SURROUNDING FARMLAND 39FIG 18. TOWN SCALE - CURRENT URBAN EDGE 39FIG 19. SERVICE PROVISION ARRANGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE 45FIG 20. SOCIAL FOUNDATION: CROSSROADS 47FIG 21. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTEXT: ON THE BORDER 49FIG 22. CROSSROADS 49FIG 23. REASONS THAT PEOPLE TRAVEL TO KOKSTAD 52FIG 24. MOVEMENT INTO KOKSTAD 53FIG 25. MOVEMENT OUT OF KOKSTAD 53FIG 26. TOURIST ATTRACTIONS IN THE REGION 54FIG 27. TOURIST ATTRACTIONS AND REGIONAL FACILITIES 55FIG 28. RAIL FREIGHT NETWORK (KWAZULU-NATAL) 56FIG 29. REGIONAL RAIL CONNECTIONS 57FIG 30. TAXI CONGESTION MAP (LEVEL OF USAGE PER SECTION OF ROAD) 58FIG 31. REGIONAL ORIGINS-DESTINATIONS: FREQUENCY AND COSTS OF TRIPS 59FIG 32. SOCIAL FOUNDATION: TOWN 61FIG 33. SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE 65FIG 34. CONNECTIVITY AND MIXED USE NODES 66FIG 35. KOKSTAD (RSA) 67FIG 36. SAVANNAH, GEORGIA (USA) 67FIG 37. PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA (USA) 67FIG 38. BARCELONA (SPAIN) 67FIG 39. ACCESSIBILITY AND PERMEABILITY (KOKSTAD) 68FIG 40. ACCESSIBILITY AND PERMEABILITY VIGNETTES (500M X 500M) 69FIG 41. DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL FACILITIES 70FIG 42. ACCESSIBILITY OF FACILITIES 71FIG 43. TOWN WITHIN THE COUNTRY 72FIG 44. EXISTING IDENTITY AND BELONGING 73FIG 45. EXISTING IDENTITY / CHARACTER OF RESIDENTIAL AREAS 76FIG 46. EXISTING IDENTITY AND CHARACTER VIGNETTES (500M X 500M) 76FIG 47. EXISTING IDENTITY AND CHARACTER VIGNETTES (500M X 500M) CONTINUED... 77FIG 48. DIVERSITY AND INTENSITY 78



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FIG 49. EXISTING LAND USE MIX 80FIG 50. COMPLETENESS OF EXISTING NODES 81FIG 51. EXISTING DIVERSITY OF SITE SIZES 81FIG 52. SOCIAL FOUNDATION: INFRASTRUCTURE 83FIG 53. BREAKDOWN OF WATER USE IN KOKSTAD 84FIG 54. FLOWS AND BOTTLENECKS OF WATER (RAW, TREATED, AND SEQAGE) 85FIG 55. ENERGY: EXISTING FLOWS 86FIG 56. WASTE: EXISTING FLOWS 87FIG 57. POTABLE WATER: EXISTING BULK INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICE PROVISION 88FIG 58. SANITATION: EXISTING BULK INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICE PROVISION 88FIG 59. ENERGY: EXISTING BULK INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICE PROVISION 89FIG 60. EXISTING BULK INFRASTRUCTURE 90FIG 61. CURRENT AND PROPOSED PROJECTS 91FIG 62. EXISTING RATEABLE AND NON-RATEABLE ERVEN 92FIG 63. EXISTING VACANT AND UNDER-UTILISED LAND 93FIG 64. EXISTING LAND OWNERSHIP 93FIG 65. EXISTING ECOSYSTEMS THAT PROVIDE REGULATING AND SUPPORTING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 98FIG 66. EXISTING WATER SYSTEMS THAT PROVIDE REGULATING AND SUPPORTING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 99FIG 67. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WITHIN THE URBAN EDGE OF FRANKLIN, BASED ON CURRENT

CONDITION, SIZE AND CONNECTIVITY 100FIG 68. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WITHIN THE URBAN EDGE OF KOKSTAD AND FRANKLIN, BASED ON

CURRENT CONDITION, SIZE AND CONNECTIVITY 101FIG 69. RANGE AND SUPPLY OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PER LAND COVER TYPE WITHIN THE URBAN EDGE OF KOKSTAD BASED ON CURRENT

CONDITION, SIZE AND CONNECTIVITY 102FIG 70. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WITHIN THE URBAN EDGE OF KOKSTAD AND FRANKLIN, BASED ON

CURRENT CONDITION, SIZE AND CONNECTIVITY 103FIG 71. ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY MAP 104FIG 72. KZN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION CORRIDORS 105FIG 73. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIOMES IN SOUTH AFRICA 105FIG 74. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (KOKSTAD AND FRANKLIN) 106FIG 75. DOWNSTREAM USERS 107FIG 76. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (KOKSTAD) 107FIG 77. ACCESS TO PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 108FIG 78. GREEN SPACES IN AND AROUND KOKSTAD 109FIG 79. URBAN EDGE INTERFACE 110FIG 80. AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL (HIGH PRIORITY BIODIVERSITY AREAS ARE SHOWN WITH WHITE STRIPES) 114FIG 81. EXISTING CULTIVATED LAND 115FIG 82. EXISTING LAND OWNERSHIP 125


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LIST OF PHOTOSPhoto 1. EXISTING AGRI-INDUSTRIES 54Photo 2. ATTRACTIONS: SHOPS 58Photo 3. ATTRACTIONS: SCHOOLS 58Photo 4. ATTRACTIONS: REGIONAL SERVICE CENTRE FACILITIES 58Photo 5. KOKSTAD BUS RANK 60Photo 6. FRANKLIN RAIL STATION - CURRENTLY OUT OF USE 61Photo 7. TOWN WITHIN THE COUNTRY 74Photo 8. TLC HOME SERVICES 76Photo 9. 90 YEAR OLD GRANNY 76Photo 10. BHONGWENI LIBRARY 76Photo 11. HISTORIC RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE 77Photo 12. ADAM KOK MEMORIAL 77Photo 13. RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE 77Photo 14. HOUSE IN HORSESHOE 77Photo 15. HOUSE IN KOKSTAD CENTRAL 77Photo 16. HOUSE IN BHONGWENI 77Photo 17. MONOFUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SHAYAMOYA 81Photo 18. MIXED-USE AREA IN KOKSTAD CENTRAL 81Photo 19. STREETS AS PLAYGROUNDS 82Photo 20. GREAT VARIATIONS IN DENSITY 82Photo 21. WATER TURNED OFF AT 7 FOUNTAINS SCHOOL 86Photo 22. STAND PIPE IN HORSESHOE 86Photo 23. VIP TOILET IN HORSESHOE 89Photo 24. SEWAGE BLOCKAGE 89Photo 25. SOURCE IN ENERGY IN FRANKLIN 89Photo 26. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY CONNECTION 89Photo 27. WATER TOWER 92Photo 28. WATER TRUCK IN SHAYAMOYA 92Photo 29. FRANKLIN HOUSING PROJECT 93Photo 30. OPPORTUNITIES EXIST FOR INFILL IN KOKSTAD CENTRAL 95Photo 31. SHAYAMOYA CURRENT GROWTH 95Photo 32. RAIN WATER TANKS 98Photo 33. SOLAR PANELS 98Photo 34. GRASSLANDS ARE THE PREDOMINANT ECOSYSTEM IN THE GKM, AND AN INCREDIBLE CULTURAL RESOURCE 104Photo 35. GRASSLANDS MAKE PERFECT CROPLANDS... 104Photo 36. ...AS WELL AS BEING IDEAL FOR GRAZING 104Photo 37. STORM WATER 108Photo 38. CLOSING THE EXISTING LANDFILL 108Photo 39. DILAPIDATED PLAY PARK BETWEEN KOKSTAD CENTRAL AND BHONGWENI 110Photo 40. THE CENTRAL PARK: 110Photo 41. PARK AT ENTRANCE TO KOKSTAD: WELL-MAINTAINED BUT NEXT TO N2 110Photo 42. TREE-LINED STREETS 111Photo 43. GRAAFF REINET, SOUTH AFRICA 112Photo 44. ADELAIDE, AUSTRALIA 112Photo 45. RIVER BETWEEN KOKSTAD CENTRAL AND BHONGWENI - A ‘NO-MAN’S LAND’ 113Photo 46. ACTIVE USE OF RIVERLANDS 113Photo 47. JIM PAYNE DRIVE - URBAN EDGE WITH PARK 115Photo 48. NO-MAN’S LAND’ AT THE RIVER BETWEEN KOKSTAD CENTRAL AND BHONGWENI 115



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Photo 49. POSITIVE URBAN EDGE - BHONGWENI 115Photo 50. POSITIVE URBAN EDGE - BHONGWENI 115Photo 51. URBAN EDGE: GRASSLANDS, WETLANDS AND RIVER EAST OF TOWN 115Photo 52. URBAN EDGE: PASTORAL CHARACTER WEST OF TOWN 115Photo 53. iTHEMBALANTU GARDEN 129Photo 55. iTHEMBALANTU GARDEN 129Photo 54. VEGGIE GARDEN IN SHAYAMOYA 129Photo 56. iTHEMBALANTU GARDEN 129Photo 57. COUNTING COWS 133Photo 58. VEGGIE GARDEN IN SHAYAMOYA 133Photo 59. WILLOWDALE LOGE 133

LIST OF TABLESTable.1. VISION FOR THE GREATER KOKSTAD MUNICIPALITY 17Table.2. OIL PRODUCTION 20Table.3. THE ENERGY CLIFF - OIL 20Table.4. SOCIAL FOUNDATION (Kokstad: Oxfam categories - data) 30Table.5. SOCIAL FOUNDATION (Kokstad: GKM priority categories - data) 30Table.6. EXISTING LAND USE MIX ACCORDING TO ZONING CATEGORIES 79Table.7. ESTIMATED VALUE OF SELECTED ECOSYSTEMS 100Table.8. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM MATRIX: AGRICULTURE AS BUSINESS 126


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1.

OVERVIEW OF STATUS QUO APPROACH AND PROCESSES

1. OVERVIEW OF STATUS QUO APPROACH, PROCESSES AND WORK COMPLETED TO DATE

1.1. PURPOSE OF THIS REPORTThis Status Quo Report for the Kokstad Integrated Sustainable Development Plan (ISDP) outlines the technical evaluation of the status quo of Kokstad and Franklin prepared by the project technical team (service providers). The report presents an integrated synopsis of the status quo that aims to present a coherent, integrated story of how Kokstad and Franklin are performing in relation to the aims of sustainable development. Detailed reports including policy document reviews and sector reports are provided in the Status Quo Annexures.

The report was presented and workshopped with the ISDP Steering Committee, senior Greater Kokstad Municipality (GKM) officials, councillors, and stakeholders, as well as representatives from the Development Bank of South Africa (DBSA) (project leaders), in May and June 2012. The comments and feedback produced by those interactions have been incorporated into the final document.

Insights and feedback from the Green Ambassadors programme (see Section 4 for more details) were also incorporated into this final version of the status quo report.

1.2. STATUS QUO PROCESSESThe Status Quo analysis phase was undertaken between February and June 2012, and updates were continually made throughout the rest of the process (until November 2012). The study is comprised of:• A desktop assessment of all relevant,

available policy documentation to extract the key policy directives relevant to this project summarised into document reviews of relevant GKM, Sisonke, Provincial Government, National Policy context and informants (key strategies and priorities informing SQ). This synthesis report

Part 1

Project Inception

Part 2

Status Quo Analysis

Part 3

Strategy Formulation

Part 4

Development Plan

Part 5

Implementation Plan

COMPONENT A: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION CONTINUES BEYOND OCTOBER 2012

COMPONENT B: MONITORING & EVALUATION CONTINUES BEYOND OCTOBER 2012

COMPONENT C: PROJECT MANAGEMENT, RECORDS & REPORTING CONTINUES BEYOND OCTOBER 2012

COMPLETE NOVEMBER 2012START NOVEMBER 2011

COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT PLAN REPORT

presents the policy considerations most pertinent to the ISDP.

• Ensuring alignment with GKM strategic objectives in the IDP.

• Defining and setting up the stakeholder engagement and capacity building processes including the Green Ambassador’s Programme.

• Developing and confirming key sustainability result areas in which the programme will seek to achieve results that will be measured as part of an ongoing, integrated M&E process. This has included intensive research and the development of a preliminary sustainability framework as a foundation to the project.

• A technical analysis.• Field research including site evaluation,

recording and mapping and interview.• Engagement with GKM officials, councillors

and stakeholder: including formal meetings, presentations, workshops, focus-group meetings and one-on-one interviews with officials.

• Initiation of the monitoring and evaluation process.

• GIS mapping and interpretive mapping.

The team gathered as much information as possible using a wide range of strategies and informants. Where possible we worked together with GKM officials to develop an understanding of the status quo, and filled out the picture further through on-going engagement with the Steering Committee and other stakeholders.

In addition to the above tasks, the team brought in municipal financial modeling expertise to evaluate the Municipal Services Financial status quo. The model used was developed for the DBSA to evaluate the viability of infrastructure funding applications, which is explored under the Scenarios section of the ISDP Synthesis Document.

In order to move forward with implementing the ISDP and to put Kokstad and Franklin on a sustainable path for the future, it is essential that there is a shared understanding of the

Fig 1. PROJECT PROCESS

complexities and realities of the context. It was proposed in the tender that we set up a Sustainability Entrepreneurs and Leadership Development Program to actively involve a selected youth in the project. This idea was developed, at the inception stage, into the Green Ambassadors Program, and the selected Green Ambassadors were able to provide crucial information and insights that have been included in the summary ‘stories’ and have deepened our understanding of the area. This program is described in more detail in Section 4.

Challenges experienced in the status quo phase include:• Timeous supply and non-availability of

information/ reports/ data by the GKM• Access to Sisonke officials• Lack of alignment with concurrent planning

projects such as the IDP, CBD Regeneration

Plan, and so on.• Commitment to the fixed workshop dates

proposed in Inception report (cost and programme implications)



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1.3. APPROACH

1.3.1. DEVELOPMENT CHARTER

The GKM Development Charter is the foundation and starting point for the ISDP. In summary, the Development Charter states that the GKM community and development partners commit to change, working and planning together with organized stakeholders for a new sustainable trajectory for development, pursuing sustainable and functionally integrated development practices. The signatories embrace a new mindset to ensure the sustainability of future development initiatives and projects

“especially where short-term expediency may tempt us to compromise. Sustainable service delivery, building on local assets and knowledge and exploiting the economic potential of our region for the equitable benefit of our people are the central aims. The principles of justice, zero waste, resource resilience and food security, support of the vulnerable, safety, respect for diversity and our heritages are the main guides to this process.”

1.3.2. WORKING DEFINITION OF “INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT” FOR THE ISDP

As a project team, we investigated how we variously understood the term “integrated sustainable development”, given the range of different meanings depending on the context and the user, in order to clarify a common approach.

Sustainability, in its broadest sense, is understood to mean the “capacity to continue (without decline or collapse)” or in other words, the ability of a resource or a process to proceed without comprising its ability to continue in the future. At the local level, this refers to the capacity of the citizens of Kokstad and Franklin to sustain themselves in an equitable manner, on an on-going basis, within the finite limits of local, regional and planetary resource bases.

The much-quoted definition of sustainable development as first defined in the Brundtland Commission Report (1987) remains relevant:

“…development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” – whilst a more recent perspective, from an Oxfam discussion paper by Kate Raworth (2012) describes sustainable development as development that “ensures that all people have the resources they need – such as food, water, health care and energy – to fulfil their human rights, [at the same time] ensuring that humanity’s use of natural resources does not stress critical Earth-system processes – by causing climate change or bio-diversity loss, for example – to the point that Earth is pushed out of the stable state, known as the Holocene, which has been so beneficial to humankind over the past 10,000 years.”

Mark Swilling (2005) usefully describes what these understandings of sustainable development mean at the human settlement level, providing guidance to the development of a compelling and relevant Integrated Sustainable Development Framework for Kokstad and

Fig 2. KOKSTAD DEVELOPMENT CHARTER


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Franklin:

“The core message of this “sustainable cities” literature is that as cities grow, they create unprecedented demands for inputs from the natural system (water, energy, food, land, building materials) and unprecedented quantities of waste outputs that the natural system is somehow expected to absorb (via landfills, seas, rivers, dams, wetlands, forests and the air itself). They also create enormously complex throughput systems that convert inputs into outputs in relatively more or less efficient ways, and on relatively more or less equitable terms depending on the socio-economic and ecological context of each city.” (Swilling 2005). He goes on to say: “ However, there is increasing consensus that a sustainable city is one that reduces its total consumption of inputs, increases the efficiency of its throughputs, and transforms all its waste outputs into productive inputs – what girardet called the transition from a “linear” to a “circular metabolism”.

1.3.3. EXPLORATION OF A SUSTAINABILITY FRAMEWORK

Successful sustainable development is a complex and multi-layered process, requiring the integration of many different approaches into a coherent whole. The ownership of a ‘common sustainability language’ that can be easily accessed by all stakeholders in the process is a key step towards positive change. To this end, a new sustainability framework that been developed by Oxfam in preparation for Rio +20 in June, and that is gaining global currency, is proposed. This framework integrates natural Earth system processes that we depend on for our survival (like a benign climate) with essential human needs (like access to clean water) into a dynamic visual framework that looks like a doughnut, or a lifesaver’s ring. Most often, development strategies emphasise either pressing social needs or environmental challenges. This framework elegantly integrates

both, helps unpack how they relate to each other, and provides a common language for a status quo evaluation that unpacks how Kokstad and Franklin are doing with regards to overstepping the ‘environmental ceiling’ and meeting the ‘social foundation’. This framework thus provides the basis for developing sustainability-focused strategies, plans and implementation proposals to achieve positive change.

A robust and useful ISDP that looks at least 25 years into the future will need to be guided by a compelling and shared vision of the potential of Kokstad and Franklin that is co-created and regularly revised through participatory stakeholder engagement. A series of focus areas supported by clear sustainability-centred goals will give shape to the shared vision. This Status Quo report provides an overview to current global best practice around sustainability approaches in each focus area, setting the foundation for the development of a suite of indicators that will enable the GKM and the citizens of Kokstad and Franklin to monitor progress against agreed to goals on an on going basis. The report also includes suggestions around possible indicators, which is developed and expanded on in the ISDP Synthesis Report.

1.3.4. DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED WAY TO LOOK AT KOKSTAD (INTRODUCING THE FIVE STORIES)

We are committed to a completely integrated approach to this project. While for practical purposes, the technical findings are collected per sector, a systems approach has been applied from the start.

The endorsed project approach is to work in an integrated way around a set of integrating systems that are fundamental to the sustainability of Kokstad and Franklin, rather than through a fragmented sector approach. A systems-based approach enables thorough and rigorous cross-sectoral collaboration, which is essential to support robust sustainable development.

A large part of the Status Quo phase has been

to define what these systems are in relation to the challenges and opportunities of sustainable development in Kokstad and Franklin. This report refers to the five stories that have emerged through the technical status quo evaluation including the policy document review and field research work These five stories were discussed and refined by the project steering committee, councillors, senior officials and GKM stakeholders. It also forms the backbone along which sector information was summarised. Key policy directives were also integrated accordingly.

The stories are described in their complete state in Section 6. The detailed sector information that supports the stories is attached under the Status Quo appendix.



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2.

STRATEGIC DIRECTION INFORMED BY LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY CONTEXT


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2. STRATEGIC DIRECTION INFORMED BY LEGISLATION AND POLICY

2.1. GKM STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES IN IDP

The Greater Kokstad Municipality is in the process of finalizing the strategy for the third generation IDP. The newly developed vision for the GKM, refer to Fig 5, acknowledges the diverse community of the GKM, the role of the Kokstad Town, the core mandate of the GKM and a wide service threshold that includes the whole of Sisonke District and the northern parts of the Eastern Cape Province (GKM IDP, 2012). It also acknowledges that the GKM is located in an environmentally sensitive area, and this provides the basis for tourism development.

The mission statement of Greater Kokstad Municipality is:

Providing sustainable services to communities through optimal and professional deployment of resources and enhancing economic development and a safe and healthy environment. The values of Greater Kokstad Municipality are Caring , Accountability, Transparency and Honesty, Integrity, Efficiency, Professionalism, Fairness, Dignity, and Respect.

The development goals for the GKM were developed based on the provincial goals as outlined in the PGDS and are as follows:• To ensure human needs and utilization of

natural resources are in harmony• To create safe, healthy and sustainable

living environments• To ensure all employable people are

employed• To develop a more equitable society• To ensure that all people have access to

basic services• To boost investors’ confidence to invest in

the GKM• To create options for people on where and

how they opt to live, work and play• To provide strong and decisive leadership

and• To foster social compacts

The new IDP priorities are generally related to growth, and the main challenge of this ISDP will be to balance the potential tensions between growth and resilience, building a strong social foundation in order map out a sustainable path for the GKM.

Matatiele LM

Mkhomazi Wildness

Area KZDMA22

To Creighton/Umzimkulu/River SideTo Creighton/Umzimkulu/River Side

KOKSTADKOKSTAD

To MatatieleTo Matatiele

To Port ShepstoneTo Port Shepstone

To Mt Ayliff/UmtataTo Mt Ayliff/Umtata

To Underberg /PMB/JHBTo Underberg /PMB/JHB

MAKHOBAMAKHOBA

FRANKLINFRANKLIN

SWARTBERGSWARTBERG

Pakkies

Kingscote

New Amalfi

To NdawanaTo Ndawana

To MatatieleTo Matatiele

Umzimvubu LM

Ntabankulu LM

Mbizana LM

Greater Kokstad LM

Kwa Sani LM

Umzimkhulu LM

Ingwe LM

uMuziwabantu LM1

5

67 8

19 17

15

1412

93

OF

315

289

MID

MID

269

229

271

268

272273

337

275

267

231 232

276283

278

319

265

279

264

LOT

MID

235

263

262

282282

309

261

311

308

237331

307

312

239

285

259

284

326

306

286

304

303

305

VAN

MID

241

258

303

302

314

256

257

301

330

MID

MID

330

161

300

290

291

255

158

253254

292

296

293

295

252

294294

207208

9796

8705

9795

8704

9797

91459501

1697

RIET

82729680A OF

9680B OF

7923

9503

9502

9486

8366

8423

7821

9639

7551

7603

85829612

8520

BANK

8403

9156

9162

9137

9163

RIVER

RIVER

10557

10558

11611

10078

1135910074

16254

15741

15742

RIVER

KLEINANNEX

RIVER

RIVERSTIRK

RIVER

INNER

12909

ANNEX

11160

10703

KRUIS

11161

ANNEX

KLOOFANNEX

FP 318

LINTON

INUNGI

ARGYLL

FP 353FP 352

FP 255

FP 317

FP 243FP 355 FP 261

FP 252

FP 105

RIVIER

FP 102 MIDDEL

FP 347

SPRUITSPRUIT

FP 350

FP 120RIVIER

FP 173

FP 132FP 378

FP 258

MIDDLE

RIVIER

ELANDS

BETMORE

PAKKIES

ARCADIA

GLENCOE

HARDROW

HARDROW

TOPSHAM

DROEVIG

CURRAGH

KOKSTAD

KOKSTAD

SEBENZA

FONTEIN

TRIANGLE

HOLYROOD

OS POORT

RUSTBANK

ALMA 59

OATLANDS

BOKPOORT

DARTFORD

JUNCTION

WATERVALWATERVAL

FAIR VIEW

UMZIMVUBU

ALTONA 50

UMZIMVUBU

ELANGA 55

ALICEDALE

STRYD-KOP

INGOGO149

MANSFIELD

HORTON 37

UBALA 87

NOLANGENI

ROAD SERVROAD SERV

SPRIUT 97

COALITION

GRACELANDS

KROM DRAAI

ASHTON 28

INVERNENTY

SPIONS KOP

IHLANE 83

SCHOONOVER

STRATHNEVA

BOSCHKLOOF

KROM DRAAI

UMZIMHLAVA

KROM-DRAAI

CLIFTON 10

LOT FP 103

TIGER HOEK

LOT FP 130

UMZIMHLAVA

UMZIMHLAVA

MOOI DRAAI

KLIP DRIFT

ONVERWACHT

BELLEVUE 21

BONNY RIDGE

THE FIRS 72

VIELSALM 47

UMTAI RIVER

HARRISON 51

KINGSTON 25

FALLODEN 27

POORT KRAAL

WALSTROM 54

REUBEN 108

PALMIET 325

RIETFONTEIN

KROM RIVER

FORRESS 80

BRECHAN 30

POORTJE 67

BELMONT 40

TOPSHAM 12

FP 104 7924

KILRUSH 64

FP 119 9520

LANQENE 152

TRAMORE 98

BAD FONTEIN

ZON FONTEIN

SNOWDON 91

DORSET 157

ARNOLDS 94

HERMON 204

ZUURFONTEIN

MELK SPRUIT

HEBRON 156

ALWYNS POORT

VIELSALM 47

BERRIDALE 20

KLIPDRIFT 73

WITTEFONTEIN

NOOITGEDACHT

KRUISKOP 71

LUCKNOW 230

RUNNYMEDE 53

BLYDEFONTEIN

MOUNT ARTHUR

BANCHORY 78

BERSHEBA 38

ROOI WAL 168

STAFFORD 60

BALMORAL 29

HOPEWELL 41

ZWAK FONTEIN

PRAMBERG 133

DRIE KOP 132

DRIE FONTEIN

FP 346 9638

HASTINGS 36

LLEWELLYN 95

WAAI FONTEIN

THE FARM 316

KILMUN 15096

KLIPRUG 212

KALK FONTEIN

BATHURST 33CONSTANTIA 22

KOPPIES KRAAL

NEW HOPE 68

BLUEKRANTZ 24

LEYDENBURG 45

MIDDELFONTEIN

NAUWHOEK 194 WATERVAL 169

SLAGT FONTEIN

BOKKEBERG 171

WONDER HEUWEL

HUGHENDEN 170

MIDDEL VALLEY

ZWARTBERG 66

RIETKUIL 103

LUFEHLENE 88

WINDHOEK 313

BRUCES VALLEY

POLITIQUE 65

ROODEBERG 130

KINGSCOTE 31

BERSHEBA 333

ROODEBERG 151

CONSTABLE 129

TAFEL KOP 165

MELISSA 15627

DONKER SPRUIT

UITKOMST 249

ROOIPOORT 35

SPITZ KOP 125

FARMERS FIELD

VLEI DRAAI 126

VOORUITZIGT 23

GLEN ALMOND 18

ELANDSKOP 221

KROM DRAAI 268

RIVERSDALE 42

KAALPLAATS 58

STRATHNEVA 343

ROOIPOORT 196

HUGHENDEN 170

GLEN READ 62

VAALKRANTZ 86

KRAAI HOEK 128

GREENLANDS 347

STONEHENGE 34

KRANTZ FONTEIN

USHERWOOD WEST

ZAMENLOOP 250

GROEN VLEI 81

BADFONTEIN 106

UMZIMVUBU RIVER

VOORUITZIGHT 74

KROM DRIFT 57

KNAP DAAR 220

RIETSPRUIT 318

KNAP DAAR 220WELTEVREDE 219

WELTEVREDE 217

JAKHALS FONTEIN

TAFENI No. 84

WOODSVILLE 104

BOKFONTEIN 116

DWAL HOEK 197

BAK POORT 117

TAFEL KOP 165

BEN LOMOND 63

VOGEL VLEI 99

DRIEFONTEIN 127

MOUNT MAY 160

DRAAIKLOOF 251

BLOEMFONTEIN 153

BRANDFONTEIN 202

KOPJES KRAAL 322

LUIPAARDS KOP 75

MIDDEL VALLEY 46

VOGEL VLEI 317

DIEPFONTEIN 192

SLANG FONTEIN 44

GLEN EDWARD 77

VOGEL VLEI 113

VOGEL VLEI 317

TIGER HOEK 193

NEW BRISTOL 13

DONNY BROOK 61

SPRINGVILLE 199

MELVILLE PARK 32

MOOIFONTEIN 102

TWEE FONTEIN 154

UMZIMHLAVA RIVER

TREURFONTEIN 155

SPRINGFONTEIN 112

SOUTH BROOK 320

KOPPJES KRAAL 150

KLIPBANKS VAL 131

MILLERS KRAAI KOP

DRIE FONTEIN 195

VAAL FONTEIN 82

BLOEMFONTEIN 105

DONKER HOEK 216

DONKER POORT 85

DROMORE No. 323

BUILD FONTEIN 164

BURNLEA NO. 15994

KOMMETJES FONTEIN

BAD FONTEIN 159

WAGNERS KRAAL 124

SPYT FONTEIN 163

BONEPARTES FONTEIN

RUST FONTEIN 234

WINTERS VLEI 198MODDER FONTEIN 211

SAILORS GIFT 210

LOSSINGS BAKEN 69

MINWATERS HOEK 52

BLAAUW FONTEIN 56

FLITWICK GRANGE 89

MON DESIR No. 329

RHEEBOKS FONTEIN 90

MOOI MEISJES FONTEIN 213

2

16

4

3 5

Map 7: GKM SDF 09/10

Greater KokstadMunicipality

Spatial Development Framework

Review2009-10

0 105

Kilometers

GIS DEPT: AUG 08 KOKSTAD_SDF

LegendWard Boundaries

Tourism Recreation Node

GKM Boundary

Primary Movement Corridor

Secondary Movement Corridor

Tertiary Movement Corridor

Areas of Scenic Beauty

Local Municipal Boundaries

Railway CorridorRivers

Secondary Commercial NodeProvincial RoadsNational RoadsDistrict Roads

Farm Subdivisions

Original Farms

Wetland

Areas of Conservation

Urban Expansion /Mixed Node

Commercial Agriculture & Tourism

LRAD/PLAS PROJECTS (Land Reform)

Poverty Alleviation & LED Initiative

Satellite Service NodeProposed Housing Projects

Land Claims

Urban Edge Boundary/Primary Node

Kokstad Urban Scheme Boundary

Fig 3. ViSiON FOR THE gREATER KOKSTAD MUNiCiPALiTY

Source: (gKM, iDP, 2012)

Fig 4. REViEW OF THE SDF OF THE gREATER KOKSTAD MUNiCiPALiTY

Source: (gKM, SDF REViEW, 2010)



16

2.2. MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY TARGETS

The strategic programmes identified in the GKM IDP are strongly linked with the Millennium Development Goals. The connections are illustrated Table.1.

South Africa has committed to the Millennium Development Goals of Environmental Sustainability. This includes a commitment to halve between 2000 and 2015 the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. While South Africa might seem to be on par in terms of development of basic infrastructure, if service delivery is looked at through a sustainability lens, the picture is not as clear. Parts of the GKM’s infrastructure is in dire need of upgrading or maintenance, and even if it was all working properly, the long term sustainability of water supply is acknowledged to be an issue that needs to be addressed. The sustainability model used to frame this ISDP Status Quo assessment (described in detail later) is also closely aligned with the MDGs.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS GREATER KOKSTAD PROGRAMMES

1 Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger

Development of a Special Purpose Vehicle (KEDA) to seek to address and alleviate poverty and hunger with the municipality

2 Achieve universal primary education Ensuring education and training3 Promote gender equality and empower

womenGKM has taken a principal position in hosting women in business conference and this will be done annually. This ensures women empowerment and access to economic opportunities

4 Reduce child mortality Support the Department of Health in ensuring that all the strategies that seek to reduce child mortality

5 Improve Maternal health Support the Department of Health if requested6 Combat HIV/Aids, malaria and other

diseasesThe critical issues that this IDP is addressing are, to deal with HIV/Aids pandemic

7 Ensure environmental sustainability Environmental Management, Potable Water, Waste Management, sustainable human settlement

8 Develop a global partnership for development

Ensuring local economic, industrial, manufacturing and agricultural development

TAbLE.1. ViSiON FOR THE gREATER KOKSTAD MUNiCiPALiTY

Source: (gKM, iDP, 2012)


17

2.3. DEVELOPMENT, PLANNING AND ECONOMY

Globally, sustainability policies and frameworks for green buildings and green technologies are being expanded to include the notion of green settlements. Australia is a leader in this, and the State of Western Australia has developed an operational Liveable Neighbourhoods policy (2007) that contains the following aims that are relevant and useful to the preparation of the ISDP for Kokstad and Franklin: • To provide for an urban structure of

walkable neighbourhoods clustering to and from towns of compatible mixed uses in order to reduce car dependence for access to employment, retail and community facilities.

• To ensure that walkable neighbourhoods and access to services and facilities are designed for all users, including those with disabilities.

• To foster a sense of community and strong local identity and sense of place in neighbourhoods and towns.

• To provide for access generally by way of an interconnected network of streets that facilitate safe, efficient and pleasant walking, cycling and driving.

• To ensure active street land-use interfaces, with building frontages to streets to improve personal safety through increased surveillance and activity.

• To facilitate new development which supports the efficiency of public transport systems where available, and provides safe, direct access to the system for residents.

• To facilitate mixed-use urban development which provides for a wide range of living, employment and leisure opportunities, capable of adapting over time as the community changes and which reflects appropriate community standards of health, safety and amenity.

• To provide a variety of lot sizes and housing types to cater for the diverse housing needs of the community at a density that can ultimately support the provision of local

services. • To ensure the avoidance of key

environmental areas and the incorporation of significant cultural and environmental features of a site into the design of an area.

(Western Australian Planning Commission, 2007)

These will be incorporated into the indicators used in the status quo evaluation below.

The GKM IDP takes clear direction from the National Spatial Development Perspective’s (NSDP) aim to accelerate growth and reduce unemployment and poverty. It accepts the NSDP’s requirement to develop a coherent understanding of regional economy development and territorial patterns of economic development, social exclusion and resources use as paramount importance in achieving the GKM objectives.

The National Development Plan (2011) puts forward three scenarios to create approximately 11 million jobs by 2030, and reduce unemployment to about 6% by 2030. The first scenario is a baseline scenario, the second is a solid minerals scenario, and the third is a scenario that aims to create a diversified dynamic economy. The third scenario, which is the preferred scenario, aims to attract more substantial investments in strengthening municipal infrastructure and services, education systems, and generate better access to capital for new and expanding firms. Importantly for the ISDP, the NDP proposes a shift away from agriculture as a growth sector or supplier of jobs.

The 2011 KwaZulu-Natal Provincial Growth and Development Strategy (KZN PGDS) bolsters the provinces’ commitment to achieving the vision of KwaZulu-Natal as a “prosperous province with a healthy, secure and skilled population, acting as a gateway to Africa and the world”.

The PGDS identifies Kokstad Town as a node supporting a large rural hinterland and the development of poor rural areas. Spatial development proposals are made within an understanding of this strategic regional role, refer

Fig 5. HiERARCHY OF NODES AND ACTiViTY CORRiDORS (KWAZULU-NATAL)

Source: (KZN Provincial government, Provincial Spatial Economic Development Strategy)



18

(PGDS).

The Vision set out in the LED Masterplan developed by all key stakeholders says that:

‘by 2030 greater Kokstad will have emerged as an internationally acclaimed best practice of sustainable development and living’

The strategy sets as goals; Job creation, Human Resource Development, Human and Community Development, Strategic Infrastructure, Response to Climate Change, Governance and policy and Spatial Equity. The ISDP will need to engage with these creatively in managing the potential tension between economic growth and sustainability particularly as this is the vision statement for an economic development plan, which implies that economic development and sustainable development are synonymous; which they are not.

South Africa’s Green Economy Accord was launched at COP17 in November 2011, as one of a series of agreements in which social partners (labour, business, Nedlac and government) committed to working together to achieve the goals of the New Growth Path that sets a goal of creating five million new jobs by 2020.

The Green Economy Accord is described by the South African government as being “one of the most comprehensive social pacts on green jobs in the world, that builds partnerships to create 300 000 new jobs by 2020, in economic activities as diverse as energy generation, manufacturing of products that reduce carbon emissions, farming activities to provide feedstock for biofuels, soil and environmental management and eco tourism.” (SA Govt Information,2011).

The accord places a strong emphasis on a localisation strategy - fostering local industrial capacity, local jobs and local technological innovation. Green job creation opportunities identified in the accord include (amongst others): • The manufacturing and assembly of

renewable energy plant and equipment• The manufacture and installation of solar

water heaters (national roll-out of one million

solar water heaters by 2014/15)• Small enterprise opportunities in recycling

– waste management, building rubble into bricks, plastic into planks, the use of methane gas from landfills etc.

• Retrofitting buildings with energy efficient equipment, replacing incandescents with CFL and LED’s.

• Local manufacture of electrical vehicles, batteries, solar-powered street and traffic lights etc.

• The production of bio-fuels (note that biofuels are highly contentious with many critics proposing that their promotion will severely compromise food and water security).

The accord sets out a series of commitments undertaken by the South African government: • The roll out of one million solar water

heaters by 2014/15• Increasing investments in the green

economy, including through the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), private investors and retirement funds

• Procurement of renewable energy as part of the energy generation plan

• Promotion of bio-fuels for vehicles• Launching clean-coal initiatives to reduce

emissions from the use of coal based technologies

• Promoting energy efficiency across the economy

• Retro-fitting of domestic, industrial and commercial buildings to promote energy efficiency

• Waste recycling• Reducing carbon emissions on the roads,

including through improved mass transport systems and a shift to rail for freight transport

• Electrification of poor communities and reduction of fossil fuel open-fire cooking and heating

• Economic development in the green economy through promotion of localisation,

youth employment, cooperatives and skills development

• Cooperation around the UNCOP17 and its follow up.

The accord creates a supportive policy environment within which to meet Kokstad’s urgent need for decent work for all, in an ecologically sound manner.

to Fig 7. In addition, Kokstad is located on a provincial agricultural priority corridor.

Significant policy recommendations contained in the SDF and relevant to the ISDP are as follows:• Promote the integration of the social,

economic, institutional and physical aspects of land development.

• Promote integrated land development in rural and urban areas in support of each other.

• Promote the availability of residential and employment opportunities in close proximity to or integrated with each other.

• Optimise the use of existing resources including such resources related to agriculture, land, minerals, bulk infrastructure, roads, transportation and social facilities.

• Promote a diverse combination of land uses, also at the level of individual erven or subdivisions of land.

• Discourage the phenomenon of urban sprawl in urban areas and contribute to the development of more compact towns and cities.

• Contribute to the correction of historically distorted spatial patterns of settlement throughout South Africa and the optimum use of existing infrastructure in excess of current needs.

• Encourage environmentally sustainable land development practices and processes.

• Promote sustainable land development at the required scale in that they should promote land development which is within the fiscal, institutional and administrative means of the Republic; promote the establishment of viable communities; Promote the sustained protection of the environment; meet the basic needs of all citizens in an affordable way; and, ensure the safe utilization of land by taking into consideration environmental constraints.

The 2011 Local Economic Development Masterplan (LED), commissioned by the Greater Kokstad Municipality (GKM), is closely aligned to the Provincial Growth and Development Strategy


19

2.4. CLIMATE CHANGE AND PEAK OIL IMPACTS

2.4.1. CLIMATE CHANGE

The National Climate Change Response White Paper (NCCR) was published in October 2011 and “presents the SA Government’s vision for an effective climate change response and the long-term, just transition to a climate-resilient and lower carbon economy and society”. It has two primary objectives: • “Effectively manage inevitable climate

change impacts through interventions that build and sustain South Africa’s social, economic and environmental resilience and emergency response capacity.

• Make a fair contribution to the global effort to stabilise greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that avoids dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system within a timeframe that enables economic, social and environmental development to proceed in a sustainable manner.”

The White Paper addresses both adaptation and mitigation. With regards to adaptation, it “includes a risk-based process to identify and prioritise short- and medium-term adaptation interventions to be addressed in sector plans”, noting that “for the immediate future, sectors that need particular attention are water, agriculture and forestry, health, biodiversity and human settlements. Resilience to climate variability and climate change-related extreme weather events will be the basis for South Africa’s future approach to disaster management and we will use region-wide approaches where appropriate.”

The overall approach to mitigation (given South Africa’s high dependence on coal generated energy) “balances the country’s contribution as a responsible global citizen to the international effort to curb global emissions with the economic and social opportunities presented by the transition to a lower-carbon economy as well as with the requirement that the country successfully tackles the development challenges

facing it.”

Importantly for Kokstad, the NCCR “aims to limit jobs contraction to those areas of the economy where excessive carbon intensity is unsustainable, whilst promoting and expanding the green economy sectors.”

In order to rapidly mainstream a climate change response, the white paper indicates that “all Government departments and state-owned enterprises will need to review the policies, strategies, legislation, regulations and plans falling within their jurisdictions to ensure full alignment with the National Climate Change Response by the end of 2013.”

With regards to monitoring and evaluation, “South Africa needs a country-wide monitoring system to measure climate variables at scales appropriate to the institutions that must implement climate change responses.”

(All excerpts in this section are from the National Climate Change Response White Paper.)

2.4.2. PEAK OIL

Central to grappling with the idea of Kokstad’s vulnerability in terms of energy shocks is the notion of peak oil. The idea of global peak oil has been around since the 1950’s, and was first introduced by US oil geologist, M. King Hubbard. In 1956, he proposed the his theory of peak oil that proposed that in a particular geographical area, after fossil fuels are discovered, their rate of production will increase exponentially until the area reaches a maximum production rate, known as peak oil. After reaching peak oil, the production rate drops off exponentially. This yields a typical Bell curve, refer to Table.2.

In 1956, Hubbert predicted that the US area’s oil production rate would peak between 1965-1970. US oil production actually peaked in 1972. Hubbert went on to predict that the point of global peak production would take place in approximately 50 years after publication of his theory (i.e. global peak production in 2006). It is important to note that Peak oil refers to the peak production rate of oil, and not to running

out of oil. In essence, what this means is that the supply of oil will slow down as oil production peaks, with oil coming out of the ‘tap’ in a trickle, as opposed to gushing out (as it did in the 20th century). Many experts today are proposing that we have either passed peak oil, or that we are currently doing so. Mainstream bodies like the US Military and the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) are taking this thinking very seriously (“We must leave oil before it leaves us” – Fatih Birol, Chief Economist EIA, 2008), as it fundamentally impacts our current global economic base that is heavily dependent on cheap, easy to access oil.

A core concept in the peak oil literature, is the notion of ‘energy returned on energy invested’ (EROIE or Energy Out over Energy In), and refers to the amount of energy needed to create new energy. Sweet, crude oil – the oil found in the oil fields of the US, Middle East, Alaska and the North Sea and upon which we have built our current global economy - was relatively easy to extract in 1930 with EROEI ratios of 100:1. As oil becomes more and more difficult to extract, the ratio decreases (25:1 in 1970, 10:1 to 18:1 in 1990, and 3:1 today). More recent oil finds, like the tar sands in Canada have an EROEI ratio in the region 1.5:1.

TAbLE.3. THE ENERgY CLiFF - OiL

Source: (Hubbert, 2012)

TAbLE.2. OiL PRODUCTiON

Source: (Wikipedia, 2012)



20

2.5. ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY

Sustainable environmental management is to be achieved through the integration of a wider range of policies and systems since most sectors of society and the economy rely on, or impact on, natural resources. Consequently, environmental management in the municipality needs to conform to procedures specified in the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) and its various Specific Environmental Management Acts and Regulations.

Specifically, environmental management must be addressed in Integrated Development and Spatial Development Frameworks in order to align spatial and land use planning with environmental objectives. In order to address the threats of direct and indirect climate change impacts, Government Outcome 10 requires an overall reduction in carbon emissions, reduction in atmospheric pollutants, an increase in renewable energy generation and an improvement in the level of energy efficiency. All of these interventions can be couched within an overall objective of adapting key sectors of society and the economy to climate change impacts.

Freshwater resources, especially wetlands, are likely to become increasingly important as water demand increases over time. Government Outcome 10 specifies that water loss from distribution networks must be reduced to 15% by 2014, all wetlands must be protected and degraded wetlands rehabilitated, and the regulation of water quality must ensure monitoring of all water purification and wastewater treatment plants. This is particularly relevant for Kokstad, as the municipality is jointly responsible for management of the Franklin Vlei wetlands which fall within broader National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPA). Further emphasis is placed on these wetland systems through the classifications of various endemic vegetation types in the area as threatened, vulnerable, poorly protected and critical for biodiversity conservation by the

national list of ecosystems that are threatened and in need of protection and the provincial biodiversity conservation plan.

The CSIR (et al) National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas (NFEPA) report requires that rivers designated as fresh water ecosystem priority areas must be managed to maintain AB ecological status (natural river condition) and that Fish Management Plans should be developed for all fish sanctuaries to protect the natural fish populations of the rivers and wetlands in the area (could include alien fish eradication programme). Areas designated as FEPAs such as the Mzintlava River have been mapped.

Our mapping and evaluation of the sustainable development status quo has also incorporated the SANBI B-GIS information (www.bgis.sanbi.org) which includes biodiversity profiling indicating threatened vegetation types, which must enjoy formal protection, and areas already formally protected.

The findings of the Department of Water Affairs Green Drop and Blue Drop Reports have also been taken into account in the Status Quo Evaluation.

At a provincial level the KZN Provincial Growth and Development Strategy also sets some important targets for sustainable development that need to be considered in the ISDP. The PDGS focuses on increased use of productive land, alternative energy generation, management of pressures on biodiversity and disaster management. The report proposes responses to climate change and other environmental challenges involving: • Investment in new renewable energy

sources• Attracting investment that applies green

principles and employs ‘green’ technologies• Food security• Sustainable resource management • Taking advantage of opportunities presented

by moving towards a green economy

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Fig 6. biODiVERSiTY CORRiDORS (KWAZULU-NATAL)

Source: (KZN Provincial government, PgDS, 2011)


21

• Increased commitment to recycling supported by appropriate systems

The PDGS recognises the intensifying competition for limited water resources and requires that Catchment and River Management form part of all Land Use Management Schemes, and promotes local water harvesting.

Provincial plans and policies highlight the importance of conservation corridors. These are seen as the backbone of landscape scale ecological systems, but also as having environmental significance in the sense that they will serve as economic opportunities in the “eco” sector. As a consequence they must be protected from impact by discouraging extensive densification and promoting sensitive development.

The GKM LED Masterplan 2011 proposes making natural and heritage resources work for the municipality by ensuring that natural and heritage resources are core elements of the development strategy enhancing tourism and achieving this through Expanded Public Works programmes to promote job creation.

The GKM Draft SDF Review 2010/2011 has identified the following environmental priorities:• Biodiversity: Preserve the GKM’s

biodiversity and minimise the loss of species resulting from the development of the GKM. Create an open space system representing the full range of habitats within Greater Kokstad.

• Trees & Forests: Conserve and promote the sustainable use of indigenous trees in the GKM.

• Air Quality: Maintain air quality at levels that are not a threat to the environment and human health and well being

• Water Resources: Ensure the quality of water from rivers, streams and wetlands is suitable for the maintenance of biodiversity and the protection of human health and well being

• Renewable & Non-renewable Resources: Plan for and facilitate a shift from use of non-renewable to renewable resources

Several key biodiversity and bio-resource areas have been identified as existing within the municipality. However, these are not mapped or spatialised in the SDF, and the implications for development are not clarified.

2.6. TRANSPORT The National Transport Vision requires government to “provide safe, reliable, effective, efficient and fully integrated transport operations and infrastructure which will best meet the needs of freight and passenger customers at improving levels of service and cost, in a fashion which supports government strategies for economic and social development whilst being environmentally and economically sustainable”

Some of the objectives from the National Land Transport Strategic Framework (2002) that are relevant to the ISDP for Kokstad and Franklin are:• To promote public transport over private

transport• To have safer public transport services for

passengers• To upgrade the selected public transport

infrastructure• To formalise and regulate the taxi industry,

and recapitalise the minibus-taxi fleet

The KZN Department of Transport has adopted the vision of “Prosperity Through Mobility” where prosperity is understood to include “all aspects of quality of life including safety, access to opportunity, personal development and the ability to participate in decision-making”.

In order to achieve this vision three key strategic focus areas have been identified:• Saving Lives by:

- Reducing fatalities resulting from road collisions

- Ensuring that the road network is safe - Ensuring the occupational health and

safety of our employees - Facilitating accessibility to critical services - Ensuring safe public transport

• Development of People, Economy and Infrastructure by:

- Addressing the skills within the Transport industry

- The provision of infrastructure, which

opens economic opportunity• Facilitating economic development • Value for Money by:

- Becoming an industry leader in all that we do

- Instilling a culture of data-driven decision-making

- Implementing sufficient controls

The Sisonke District Municipality Public Transport Plan (PTP) Review recognises the significant change in transport policy in recent years following the White Paper on National Transport Policy, 1996. Firstly, there has been a shift in focus from infrastructure development to public transport. In addition, there has also been a move from a supply-driven transport system to a demand-driven transport system, based on plans/ forward planning.



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2.7. INFRASTRUCTUREThe GKM SDF Review 2011/12 has identified the lack of reliable services is an inhibitor to investment overall.

2.7.1. WATER AND SANITATION

With respect to drinking water, the two primary policies that the Kokstad ISDP is aiming to achieve are the Water Conservation and Demand Management National Strategy and the Strategic Framework for Water services. The former deals with the efficient use of water by institutions and users of water in South Africa. This therefore encompasses reuse and recycling of water and wastewater, greywater reuse, reduction of water demand and repair of leaks. The Strategic Framework for Water services aims at ensuring sustainability of water services by means of addressing affordability (i.e. free basic water) and ensuring a adequate volume and consistency of supply. It is backed up by the Free Basic Water Policy and Free Basic Water Implementation Strategy.

The Strategic Framework for Water Services (water and sanitation) deals with the business side of providing water services in order to achieve a sustainable water service, this includes the institutional, financial, planning, and monitoring functions of a Water Service Authority. This are all addressed within the Kokstad Strategy.

The Water Supply and Sanitation Policy outlines the institutional, financial and social policies essential for the supply of water and sanitation. Importantly, the policy sets out the minimum basic level of service that is required by government for water and sanitation. The Kokstad ISDP aims to meet and exceed these minimum levels of service. The National Sanitation Policy sets out that sanitation systems should not negatively impact the environment, be financially sustainable and should be equitable.

At a national level there are two countrywide strategies that are relevant to water issues. The National Water Resources Strategy (DWAF,

2004, currently being reviewed) is the strategy for the water sector in terms of bulk water supply, implementing the Water Act (DWAF, 1998).

Since 2009 the Department of Housing is responsible for sanitation. All other water services infrastructure services are under the Department of Water Affairs as regulator. Infrastructure asset management will also have to comply with the Government Immovable Asset Management Act (Government, 2007).

At the provincial level there is a plan to make a provincial water services development plan. However, for Kwazulu-Natal this document could not be traced as a publicly available document.

For each water management area, a Catchment Management Agency will be developed (DWAF, 2004) which will be tasked to develop a Catchment Management Plan. Until recently, Kokstad fell under the water management area 12 (Mzimvubu to Keiskamma) for which a Catchment Management Agency has not yet been established. The Minister of Water Affairs has recently announced that the water management areas will be merged, which will have Kokstad fall in ‘Eastern Cape Coastal Rivers’ as the Mzimvubu river from which Kokstad draws flows into the Eastern Cape. In preparation of Catchment Management Plans, DWA has written Internal Strategic Perspectives (DWAF, 2005).

National government has embarked on so-called reconciliation strategies, to strategise how supply and demand for bulk water can match in the coming 25 years. Such a strategy has also been developed for Kokstad (DWA, 2011).

Each district municipality must develop a water services development plan every five years and the plan should be updated as necessary and appropriate in the interim years (DWAF, 2003). This plan is for both sanitation and water supply.

The PGDS Strategic Objective 4.4 commits to enhancing water resource management and proposes to increase the number of households to provide basic water and sanitation services to all citizens in the province by 2015 in line

Fig 7. ROAD FREigHT NETWORK (KWAZULU-NATAL)

Source: (KZN Provincial government, PgDS, 2011)


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with national strategies. It also speaks of applying an integrated broad-based approach to water service delivery in order to mobilize the economies of scale

At a local level, the Sisonke district Water Services Development Plan (2011) has identified improved water supply and sanitation in particular in rural areas while the GKM Turnaround Strategy (2010) has made access to water and sanitation, management and maintenance a Priority Turnaround Focal Area.

2.7.2. ENERGY (SUSTAINABLE ENERGY)

National and Provincial policies strongly support moving to more sustainable energy sources. The 2010 Draft Revised White Paper on Renewable Energy Policy aims for the provision of a minimum of 27% of national energy from renewable sources by 2030, and the national climate change documents note that the most significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in SA come from the energy sector.

The KZN PGDS states that the Province will strive for more self-sufficiency through alternative renewable energy generation options, and sets indicators. It proposes:• Measuring Energy Production Capacity in

relation to households receiving sustainable electricity supply, increasing supplies from renewable energy sources; and the number of renewable energy generation or co-generation projects in implementation stage.

• Investigating and developing viable Alternative Energy Generation options, measuring increases in renewable energy consumption, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and improvement in air/atmospheric quality.

The following interventions are recommended in the KZN PGDS:• Development of Provincial Alternative

Energy Strategy with specific focus on Hydro Electricity potential,

• Implement a Programme of Alternative Energy demonstration projects, and

• Establish a Provincial Carbon Credit

Programme.

The GKM produces none of its own energy, so is currently dependent on the national grid, and therefore vulnerable. The GKM LED Strategy, 2011 has noted that opportunities exist to access the Green Economy, specifically by diversifying the energy mix and placing more focus on renewable energy supply. The GKM Turnaround Strategy has set access to electricity, management and maintenance as a Priority Turnaround Focal Area. The immediate priority is to accelerate the basic services delivery programme – access to basic services is also seen as a medium term priority.

2.7.3. WASTE

The National Waste Management Strategy is primarily focused on moving waste up the waste hierarchy , i.e. diverting waste from landfill. This is achieved by means of reducing waste, reuse and waste and recycling, and this forms the basis of the approach towards waste for the Kokstad ISDP. Specifically, one of the goals is for all large towns to initiated separation at source programmes, which has already been initiated in Kokstad.

The GKM’s LED Strategy 2011 highlights zero waste as the long-term objective with respect to the solid waste management and recommends the establishment of a Waste Management Programme. This is reiterated in the Development Charter.

The Waste Act of 2008 governs national policy on waste. The act sets out to protect human health and the environment through measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation and that secures ecologically sustainable development. The Act notes that the improper waste management practices often disproportionately impact the poor. It also advocates for an approach to waste management that stops waste generation at source, with a strong focus on reducing, re-using and recycling. Further, it promotes vigorous control mechanisms, cleaner technologies and cleaner production and consumption practices,

with an emphasis on the overarching view that waste is a resource and offers tremendous economic opportunities.

2.8. AGRICULTURE The Provincial Growth Development Strategy (KZN Provincial Government, 2011) recognises the need for the conservation of agricultural resources recognised as critical for upscaling agricultural production. It’s Strategic Objective 5.1 promotes an Increase Land Productivity, proposing interventions such as:• Promoting Sustainable agricultural land-use

practices,• Establishing a Policy and Regulatory

Framework for the Reduction of Land Degradation and enhance Land Care programme, and

• Developing a provincial Strategic Environmental Framework for the Province towards Strategic Planning for Biodiversity Conservation.

The GKM SDF Review 2011/12 identifies the loss of productive land due to bad land-use management, inappropriate development, land reform and insecure water supplies as key problems facing the agriculture sector. At the same time, it identifies agriculture as a key driver of the local economy. As noted under planning, development and economic policy informants above, it is significant for the ISDP that the NDP proposes a shift away from agriculture as a growth sector or supplier of jobs.



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2.9. HUMAN SETTLEMENTThe national human settlements policy context is covered in some detail in the Appendix pertaining to this sector, but the main guiding documents are the Housing Act, and the National Housing Code.

Since Breaking New Ground (2004) there has been a trend towards improving the quality of housing delivered, and although much of the discussion seems to be mere rhetoric when considering the way in which policy has actually been realised on the ground, and the missed opportunity for re-structuring the spatial form of post-apartheid SA (including in Kokstad), there appears to be positive development in the thinking at national level.

In keeping with the change in the Department’s name from Housing to Human Settlements, the National Code has recently been amended, and the PLS1 programme - the most pervasive housing delivery instrument – is now called the Integrated Residential Development Project (IRDP) programme. The IRDP provides for the funding of social facilities as well as for the development of sites for income groups that fall outside of the subsidy affordability bands, which can be sold for private development. This potentially enables much better integration of income groups and mixed land use in human settlement projects.

A study recently tendered, to investigate the costs of a range of typologies in different parts of the country, and on various terrain, suggests the possibility that the one size subsidy fits all approach is being reconsidered. The maximum subsidy (including 20% variation allowance on the top-structure) is currently approximately R93 000, which is generally insufficient, especially on steep terrain, to implement typologies that facilitate densification and urban re-structuring.

Housing in KZN has largely been directed by the KwaZulu-Natal Housing Act, 1998 (Act No. 12 of 1998 as amended), the main aim of which is the progressive elimination of slums, the prevention of the re-emergence of slums;

and the upgrading and control of existing slums, slums being broadly understood to encompass all forms of informal settlement. A range of housing instruments, as defined in the National Housing Code are available.

The recently prepared KZN Dept. of Human Settlements Strategic Plan – 2011/12 to 2015/16 Incorporating Multi-Year Housing Development Plan (2011), represents a policy shift from delivery numbers and ownership to sustainability, with emphasis on rental as a strategy for achieving this. Slums clearance is still a priority - the eradication of slums in KZN by 2014 is stated as the target, but the plan also focuses on institutional and capacity issues, including planning tools, governance and service delivery, risk management, job creation, and the delivery of good quality, integrated sustainable human settlements. Although the priority (60% of the budget) is on rural housing, and rental social housing (30% budget allocation), housing for vulnerable groups, hostel upgrading (CRU Programme) and incremental housing is included.

The emphasis on social rental housing is significant, as this is where there is real opportunity for densification in urban areas. Kokstad does not currently qualify for social housing funding as it does not have the required urban restructuring zone, nor is there an existing approved Social Housing Institution operating in the area. However the KZN Rental Housing Strategy, currently in preparation, is likely to recommend the declaration of an urban restructuring zone in Kokstad. Sivile, a well-established, active NGO, registered as a Section 21 Company, with a proven delivery record in Kokstad and surrounds, has the capacity to become an approved Social Housing Institution should there be demand.

Through the Kokstad Integrated Sustainable Settlements (KISS) Programme and the R56 project the GKM, together with Respond! and Sivile, has been proactively pursuing a sustainable human settlements agenda, in parallel with new housing delivery and slums

clearance projects. The current GKM priority (2012-2017 Draft IDP) is to address the challenges of the housing shortage, growing informal settlements, and ad hoc private developments that undermine infrastructure efficiency. A strategic development framework is required. The Kokstad Municipal Housing Plan is 5 years old. Current priority projects focus on slums clearance.

2.10. CONCLUSIONIn summary, across most sectors, sustainability is articulated as an important objective, and the objectives of this ISDP are in direct alignment with this. Striking a balance between achieving service delivery and an acceptable quality of life for all, within our resource limits is the challenge, and the tension between economic development and sustainability is implicit in many of the policy statements. There is definitely a trend towards more clearly defined sustainability goals, in particular at National Policy level, and the Green Economy Accord specifically seeks to align these dual imperatives.

National policy trends have not yet filtered through all spheres of Government, and this is evident for example, in the Sisonke indigent policy which is 6 years old. This ISDP is an opportunity for Kokstad to pro-actively engage with the policy directives and map a way towards the achievement of sustainable development.


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3.

SUSTAINABILITY FRAMEWORK


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3. SUSTAINABILITY FRAMEWORK

3.1. “SAFE & JUST SPACE FOR HUMANITY: LIVING WITHIN THE DOUGHNUT”

The “doughnut”, or “lifesaver ring”, is a new, visual framework for sustainable development that brings together environmental issues and social issues into one framework. It has been developed by Oxfam in the lead up to the UN Conference on Sustainable Development in June 2012 (Rio +20). The two primary global sustainable development goals of poverty eradication and environmental degradation are often given different emphases, one privileging the other, and both need to be included to build a sustainable future for all. The doughnut also provides a useful access point to discuss global consumption disparities and dynamics, where a small, wealthy minority consume the majority of global resources.

The visual framework works with the idea of environmental boundaries and social foundations, each forming an edge to the doughnut, with a “safe and just space for humanity” situated between the two edges, “within the doughnut”. A solid social foundation will only be achieved when basic human needs are met for all, globally. At present humanity is falling below the social foundation as there is far from universal access to clean water and energy, food, sanitation, decent work, education, political expression, basic income, social equity and so on. Each of these dimensions is expressed in a radial wedge inside the doughnut, and the closer the outside of the wedge is to the social foundation, the better society is faring. The environmental ceiling forms the outer edge of the doughnut, and is informed by recent work by the Stockholm Resilience Centre. In 2009 a group of the global leading Earth-system scientists came together to define the key processes and systems that interact to support all life. They proposed nine planetary boundaries that, if transgressed, could push the Earth system into a new state that is no longer able to support

human and other life. Current data shows that we have already transgressed 3 boundaries – climate change, biodiversity loss and nitrogen – and that we are very close to crossing the phosphorous boundary.

It is important to note that the doughnut framework is a “work in progress and is intended to further stimulate discussion and debate” (Raworth, 2012). Of particular interest will be the way in which the ISDP process (both now and into the future) grapples with issues raised at a local and regional level, as many of the dynamics described have currently only been understood at a planetary and global level. Of particular importance is the understanding that the nine planetary boundaries are part of a complex, interrelated system, and that it is problematic to look at any one of the boundaries in isolation, as Raworth articulates below:

given that this conceptual framework is focused on quantifying boundaries of environmental stress at the planetary scale, there are of course important caveats around what it does not capture. beneath this global-scale picture of resource use lie huge inequalities in terms of where resources are being used and by whom. Likewise, the global perspective does not reveal critical local or regional thresholds of resource stress (such as for freshwater and phosphorus use), even though these may have serious consequences long before showing up at the planetary scale.

Many of the Earth-system processes identified do not have a single ‘tipping point’, but rather face a gradient of increasing risk, and the location of many boundaries depends, in good part, on how resources are managed, on the spatial distribution of resource use, and on knock-on effects caused by stresses on the other boundaries. The proposed variables and their suggested boundary levels are first estimates only due to significant knowledge gaps. Even if accurate, they

Fig 8. THE DOUgHNUT - A SAFE AND JUST SPACE FOR HUMANiTY

Source: (Oxfam gb, 2012)



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should not be misinterpreted as targets for policymakers, thereby allowing governments to delay action until it is too late. These caveats are presented along with the framework by its authors, and are important to keep in mind when using it.

(Raworth, 2012)

Bearing the above caveats in mind, the doughnut provides an accessible overview of the key global sustainability dynamics, whilst at the same time offering a robust framework for adaptation at the regional and local levels of Kokstad and Franklin. The ISDP process will emerge and clarify the key issues that make up a solid and enduring social foundation for Kokstad and Franklin’s sustainable development, as well as highlighting the areas of environmental concern that impact the nine planetary boundaries.

Fig 9. bREACHiNg PLANETARY bOUNDARiES

An illustrative assessment (Oxfam gb, 2012)

Fig 11. FALLiNg bELOW THE SOCiAL FOUNDATiON

An illustrative assessment based on Rio+20 priorities (Oxfam gb, 2012)

Fig 10. PLANETARY bOUNDARiES (KOKSTAD: OXFAM CATEgORiES)

An assessment of Kokstad based on the Oxfam conceptual framework quantifying 9 planetary boundaries, which together create a ‘safe operating space for humanity’. initial indications are based on the South African context and status quo findings.

Fig 12. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON (KOKSTAD: )


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3.2. SUSTAINABILITY GOALS AND INDICATORS

Successful sustainable development requires the development of shared sustainability goals that are meaningful to all stakeholders and contextually relevant. This Status Quo report sets out suggestions drawn from global best practice, as initial guidelines for further refinement with the GKM and all relevant stakeholders and is viewed as a work in progress.

At the core, the over-arching sustainability goals for Kokstad and Franklin is to foster resilience and agility in the face of impending global climate change, energy and financial shocks and that can both meet the social foundation and stay within the environmental ceiling (as described in the Oxfam doughnut framework).

At a more detailed level, the doughnut framework suggests that there are three dimensions that make up a solid social foundation at the level of the individual, and that these are key goals: wellness, productivity and being empowered. • Wellness includes food security, adequate

income, access to clean water, sanitation and healthcare.

• Productivity includes access to education, decent work, modern energy services, and resilience to shocks and

• Being empowered includes gender equality, social equity, and having political voice. (Raworth, 2012)

Staying within the planetary boundaries will include achieving the following goals at the local level: • following a resource conserving, low-carbon

growth path to mitigate against climate change and ocean acidification,

• preserving and supporting biodiversity, • shifting agricultural practice from a mono-

cultural, high input, high energy paradigm to a low input, agro-ecological approach to mitigate against impacting the nitrogen and phosphorous cycles,

• limiting land use change from natural ecosystems to urban development and

agriculture, • conservation and protection of freshwater

systems• Stopping atmospheric aerosol pollution

(burning of fossil fuels and biomass) • Stopping chemical pollution (release of

radioactive compounds, organic compounds like DDT, and heavy metals through industrial production and waste disposal). (Raworth, 2012)

Each of these high level goals described above mark a desired endpoint on a sustainability continuum, and locally appropriate indicators will be developed in consultation with all stakeholders in the following stages of the ISDP process to measure progress towards these goals on an on-going basis. Any high level indicators put forward in the Status Quo phase will be refined as a basis for the strategy, development plan and implementation plan phases of the project.

Of equal importance to the above-mentioned goals, is the goal of an educated, aware and empowered local citizenry who thoroughly grasp and own sustainable development concepts and understand why it will be necessary to shift from current unsustainable behaviours.

TAbLE.4. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON (KOKSTAD: OXFAM CATEgORiES - DATA)

TAbLE.5. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON (KOKSTAD: gKM PRiORiTY CATEgORiES - DATA)

SOCIAL FOUNDATION

ATTAINMENT OF SOCIAL FOUNDATION % SOURCE

INCOME Population not living below $1.25 per day 80% (GKM LED, 2011)WATER Access to an improved drinking water source 95% (GKM IDP, 2012:33)SANITATION Access to improved sanitation 70% (GKM IDP, 2012:36)HEALTH CARE Regular access to essential medicines 100%EDUCATION Over 20s with primary school education 90% (GKM LED, 2011:71)ENERGY Population with access to electricity 60% (GKM LED,

2011:57,61)SOCIAL EQUITY Population living above the median income in

countries with Gini coefficient over 0.3515% (GKM IDP, 2012:17)

VOICE Population perceived to permit political participation or freedom of expression

99%

JOBS Labour force employed in decent work 65% (GKM LED, 2011:8)RESILIENCE Population not facing multiple dimensions of

poverty15% (GKM IDP, 2012:17)

SOCIAL FOUNDATION PERCENTAGE SOURCEPublic transport journeys below 30 min

43% GKM LED p39 public transport distances travelled (most journeys are in excess of 30 min - great in cost/ time)

Adequate Housing 90% Turnaround Strategy 2010 (backlog of 1500units for population of approx 50000)

Equitable Development 20% CTS mapping - access to a diverse land use mix, 797ha (20% of the Urban Area) is within 800m

Integrated Development 50% (CTS mapping - access to opportunity, 797ha (50% of the Urban Area) is within 800m

Sustainable Development ? to be determined



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4.

GREEN AMBASSADORS PROGRAMME


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4. GREEN AMBASSADORS PROGRAMME

4.1. THE PURPOSE OF THE GREEN AMBASSADORS PROGRAMME

The Green Ambassadors Programme (GAP) is an innovative initiative that forms a key part of the ISDP process. The purpose of the programme is to provide skills transfer and development in the arena of sustainable development and citizen journalism to local youth, whilst at the same time generating information and feedback about local conditions, aspirations and culture for use by the ISDP project team and the GKM.

4.1.1. SELECTION OF THE GREEN AMBASSADORS

Ten local youth were selected from twenty applicants through a careful selection process. The GAP was advertised through a number of different channels, including an invitation from each ward councillor to his or her constituents to put forward suitable candidates. Eligible candidates needed to be between the ages of 18 and 30, have matric, be computer literate, be creative through demonstrating an interest in and/or experience in some form of self-expression (photography, art, writing, blogging), demonstrate interest and/or experience in community issues and have a desire to provide youth leadership in the future. About 25 young people attended an initial information session on the 16th March. Interested applicants were invited to email a short letter of motivation along with their CV’s. All applicants (20 people) were interviewed on 8th April by a panel that included Anna Cowen, Nhlanhla Shelembe and Dugan Fraser from the ISDP professional team, and Abongile Zimu and Anathi Mpepanduku from the GKM. A key selection criterion included representivity in each ward. In this way the diverse viewpoints and contexts of Kokstad, Franklin and the surrounding farmland and rural areas were integrated. The training then commenced on Friday 9th April.

4.2. TRAININGThe Green Ambassador Training has two parts to it, a foundation phase and a consolidation phase. The foundation phase took place over a two-month period, forming a key part of the Status Quo evaluation. Participants were engaged on a full time basis, and received a stipend to support them over this period. Five iPhone 4s were procured for the training, and with two Green Ambassadors each sharing a phone. During the two month period (that finished on 17 May 2012) the Green Ambassadors learnt the basics about sustainable development through attending a three-day course offered by Meshfield, they mapped and documented their communities through questionnaires and with the iPhones, and they were trained by the Media Academy how to tell stories about their communities through making short video clips on their iPhones that were edited on an iMac procured for the project and hosted at the GKM offices. Abongile Zimu, the IDP coordinator for the GKM played a key role in ensuring the success of this phase of the project.

The second phase of the training – the Consolidation Phase - involved part-time participation (approximately one week per month), and ran for the remainder of the ISDP process. During this phase, the Green Ambassadors were a key link between the ISDP project team, the GKM and the Kokstad and Franklin communities. In particular, the GAs will play an important role in the participatory monitoring and evaluation strategy that accompanies this ISDP process, and will continue after the ISDP plan is complete.

A blogsite was set up to enable the Green Ambassadors to share their findings with the ISDP team, the GKM and any other interested people. Each GA was required to post at least four blogs a week, documenting issues in their communities that were of interest to them, and that had a focus on some dimension of sustainable development. The blog address is www.gkm-ga.blogspot.com. It has garnered interest from all over the world with traffic coming

in from places as diverse as Russia, the US, Europe and Australia, with as many as 170 views taking place on a single day.



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Fig 13. WARD bOUNDARiES

Fig 14. gREEN AMbASSADORS AND THEiR ECOLOgiCAL FOOTPRiNTS

The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth’s ecosystems. it is a standardised measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planet’s ecological capacity to regenerate. it represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and to assimilate associated waste.

azolile

____________

ward 7

(Shayamoya)

bulelani

____________

ward 6

(Willowdale farm)

fezeka

____________

ward 3

(Kokstad Central)

james

____________

ward 2

(Swartberg)

Lindiwe

____________

ward 4

(Shayamoya)

luvuyo

____________

ward 1

(horseshoe)

Marvin

____________

ward 5

(Bhongweni)

Thandiswa

____________

ward 6

(Bhongweni)

Zandile

____________

ward 8

(Bhongweni)

laurene

____________

ward 2

(Franklin)

1,81 2,61 2,59

2,59 2,28 3,09 2,77 2,70


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5.

STATUS QUO TECHNICAL FINDINGS: “FIVE SUSTAINABILITY STORIES FOR KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN”


35

Fig 15. FiVE SUSTAiNAbiLiTY STORiES FOR KOKSTAD & FRANKLiN

Five key systems or stories have been used to capture the key features of Kokstad and Franklin in relation to a sustainable development perspective: 1 Crossroads, 2 Town, 3 infrastructure, 4 Natural Resources and 5 Agriculture.

5. FIRST DRAFT STATUS QUO FINDINGS: “5 SUSTAINABILITY STORIES FOR KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN”

5.1. DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF KOKSTAD & FRANKLIN

This status quo report provides integrated assessments of the sustainable development challenges in the Municipality rather than long sector reports. This report is organised around five sustainable development stories that aim to integrate complex sector data into a coherent overview of the main issues. Rather than overwhelming lengthy and inaccessible technical assessments, supporting sector specific data is provided in the appendices for reference.

This evaluation of the sustainable development status quo of Kokstad and Franklin is presented in terms of the five key defining features of the place (as determined by the project team). The report distils the essential aspects of the sustainable development challenge, presenting an integrated perspective on what makes Kokstad and Franklin tick and what are the big challenges to its resilience and sustainability? The central question is: “What is the place about in relation to sustainable development goals?” The five stories are put forward for discussion and review by the GKM project leadership.

The five key systems or stories that have been used to capture the key features of Kokstad and Franklin in relation to a sustainable development perspective are introduced below:

1. CROSSROADS

This story recognizes that Kokstad is an important regional service centre located at the crossroads of a number of important national and regional routes and serves a wide agricultural hinterland. The story examines the main attractors and detractors that bring people to Kokstad. It also considers the energy and transport implications of this role, and the economic dependencies, in relation to the long-term resilience of the town. The past and (possible) future role of Franklin as a significant junction within the regional freight rail network builds on the idea of the place as a crossroads.

2. TOWN

This story responds to the idea of Kokstad ‘town’ being the only real urban concentration, in this essentially rural area. From Franklin or Swartberg, people say they are ‘going to town’, meaning to Kokstad. The story addresses issues of identity and belonging – “whose town is this?” and describes its typical (for SA towns and cities) fragmentation and socio-economic disparities. Diversity and intensity of land use, densities, liveliness and liveability are investigated here.

3. INFRASTRUCTURE

The infrastructure story is told through a number of different lenses: Affordability and financial viability, through use of a Municipal Services Financial Model; provision of basic services and the challenges of improving the social foundation and meeting the Millennium Development Goals; and through assessing institutional resilience, dependencies, diversity of supply chains and resilience.

4. NATURAL RESOURCES

This story is about the capacity of the area to provide ecosystem services through protection and improvement of its biodiversity and biocapacity, and about the environmental footprint of human habitation and production, causing pollution, carbon release and degradation. It includes an understanding of the cultural value of the landscape which



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offers spiritual, recreational, psychological and aesthetic ‘services’.

5. AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is central to telling a story about this area. Again a number of lenses are used to understand the agriculture story: provisioning/biocapacity in terms of fuel, food, materials and medicine crops; diversity in terms of scale, ownership, types of agriculture; and skills, in terms of capacity, training, livelihoods and health.

5.2. CROSS-CUTTING THEMES RUNNING THROUGH ALL STORIES

As described in previous sections of this status quo report, the endorsed project approach is to work in an inter-sectoral manner around a set of integrative stories that are fundamental to the sustainability of Kokstad and Franklin, rather than through a fragmented sector approach.

Fundamental to this integrative approach is the identification of a series of cross-cutting themes that inform and shape all of the five stories. These cross-cutting themes comprise a combination of what is needed to create a firm and enduring social foundation, and what is needed to work in balance with the ecosystems and Earth systems that support all life - the planetary boundaries.

Developing on the focus areas proposed in the doughnut framework, the themes that contribute to the social foundation include: • Resilience – to climate, energy and financial

shocks• Sustainable livelihoods – decent work,

strong social networks• Basic needs – sustainable service delivery

- water, food and energy security, decent shelter, sanitation, health care, security and mobility (access to transport)

• Poverty alleviation – adequate income (including social grants)

• Social equity and cultural diversity

Again referring to the doughnut framework, the cross cutting themes that impact and shape all five stories and that contribute to ensuring that Kokstad stays within the planetary limits (environmental ceiling) include: • Climate change – a low carbon economic

growth path with a focus on renewable energy, green jobs and public mobility

• Resource depletion – moving to viewing all waste as resource

• Water security• Soil degradation (including nitrogen and

phosphorous cycles) • Bio-diversity loss • Land use change• Pollution

These themes cohere closely with the GKM’s strategic objectives of cultural diversity, sustainability, integration, equity and quality of life, as well as aligning with the Millennium Development Goals. Moreover, they build on the foundation and starting point for the ISDP, GKM’s Development Charter.

These cross cutting themes to each of the five stories, point to a forward looking Kokstad and Franklin that seeks to remain competitive in a rapidly changing, highly volatile global economic climate with investors being increasingly attracted to centres that are actively pursuing a low carbon growth path that is decoupled from a resource intensive and extractive economic base (Peter and Swilling, 2011).

5.3. STATUS QUO INFORMATION SOURCES AND STUDY AREA

5.3.1. INFORMATION SOURCES

The status quo findings outlined in this section are largely based on the technical team’s desktop policy reviews, previous studies, on-site assessments and interviews. The feedback from the Green Ambassadors were brought into these stories in parallel and is included here in the form of quotes, interview findings and photographs. Anecdotal evidence drawn from interviews by the core team is also included throughout.

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5.3.2. STATUS QUO STUDY AREA

While the project study area focus is the urban functional area of Kokstad and Franklin, not all of the issues can be understood or represented at this scale. The status quo evaluation has therefore been mapped at four main scales which were selected to present information at the scale most appropriate to the issue being explored. The four scales are as follows:1. The Regional Context to understand the role

of Kokstad in relation to surrounding towns and systems;

2. The local area including Kokstad and Franklin and encompassing the proposed urban edges of both;

3. Kokstad and Franklin Towns current settlement footprint;

4. Focus area samples to understand the structure and grain of local areas.

Fig 16. REgiONAL SCALE - DURbAN TO MTHATHA



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Fig 17. KOKSTAD AND FRANKLiN SCALE - PROPOSED SDF AND SURROUNDiNg FARMLAND Fig 18. TOWN SCALE - CURRENT URbAN EDgE


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6.

STATUS QUO REPORT AND FINDINGS


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6. STATUS QUO REPORT AND FINDINGS

6.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TOWNHistory

Kokstad lies in the valley of the Mzintlava River between Mount Currie and the Ingeli Mountains.

The town has a rich history. In the 1820s, a large group of Griquas,unhappy with the newly-elected Captain, moved away from Griquastad and settled in Philippolis in the Free State, under the leadership of Adam Kok III. In the 1860s, encountering friction with the Dutch-Afrikaans pioneers (Voortrekkers) they departed from Philippolis and moved further east across the Drakensberg to the vicinity of the modern Kokstad. At that stage the area’s previous population had been exterminated by the Zulu forces of King Shaka, so the land was quite empty, and called No Man’s Land. Adam Kok named this area East Griqualand.

They originally settled in Mount Currie, which is named after Sir Walter Currie, who gave support to their effort to settle here. The Griqua settled on the steep mountain slope, living in mud huts and requested the Reverend William Dower to establish a mission in 1869. Reverend William Dower agreed on condition that they resettle in a more suitable place on the banks of the Umzimhlava River.

The town was laid out in the same year by surveyor Edward Barker, with Rev. Dower’s help. Erfs were made freely available to Griquas, and after 1974 the British annexed East Griqualand into the Cape Colony, development continued apace. The Griqua National Independent Church was opened in 1877, the Standard Bank in 1878, and the first hotel in town, the Royal, was opened by an Afro-American (who also started a newspaper, the Kokstad Advertiser) in 1881. Kokstad became a municipality in 1892.

The history of the town is encased in its Museum, a national monument on Main Street, which focuses on the Griqua people. The site

of Kok’s ‘palace’ is located not far from the present post office, and his grave is marked by a monument. In addition, there is a monument commemorating Boy Scouts who died in the two 20th century World Wars.

Today, the town is a major commercial centre of not only the municipality but of the region as whole, with people travelling from far away to shop and do business.

Institutional Context

The Greater Kokstad Municipality forms part of the Sisonke District Municipality area (DC43), which lies on the south west tip of KwaZulu-Natal, bordered by Matatiele Local Municipality on the West, Lesotho and part of Eastern Cape on the North West.

The Greater Kokstad Municipal area of jurisdiction is approximately 2679, 8370 km2 in extent. The Greater Kokstad shares its borders with KwaSani, Matatiele, Umziwabantu local municipalities and the KwaZulu-Natal enclosed portion of the Eastern Cape Province. It is one of the five municipalities that make up the Sisonke District Municipality. Greater Kokstad Municipality functions as the district node and dominant commercial centre in the Sisonke District.

The strategic location of Greater Kokstad Municipality along the N2 Development Corridor links the area to the major economic nodes of Port Shepstone and Durban in the KwaZulu-Natal Province and Mthatha in the Eastern Cape Province.

PHOTO 1. KOKSTAD SHOWgROUNDS - AgRiCULTURAL FAiR

PHOTO 2. SATURDAY MORNiNg MARKET AT THE TOWN SQUARE (iN FRONT OF THE MAgiSTRATE COURT)


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0. INSTITUTIONS



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6.2. INSTITUTIONS Although not a story in itself, institutions are a key driving factor in how Kokstad and Franklin operate. The issues facing institutions are briefly outlined here.

Policy (Defining the position of government and direction for action)

GKM at present has a limited policy making capacity, both at a strategic level as well as operationally. In most instances its policy making capacity is dedicated to the translation and adaptation of provincially and nationally issued legislation, while it has very little experience of or ability to initiate and lead original policy making processes, a consequence of the few opportunities presented to local authorities in most instances.

Planning/Plan-making (Indicating where resources should focus functionally or spatially, in what form, and when.)

While GKM has the technical capacity to make plans its approach in this regard is shaped by its rigid and functionally-defined institutional and programme planning frameworks and structures. These contribute to the difficulties different components have in collaborating or cooperating

on plans to achieve shared objectives. The GKM’s plan-making capacity tends to be financially rather than performance oriented and is largely absorbed complying with national-issued IDP, SDF and similar directives and in controlling unapproved developments. As a result its ability to plan creatively and innovatively is untested and unproven.

GKM’s planning capacity is also affected by the limited area formally covered by the town and its restrictive and highly controlled approach to land use management. GKM has traditionally relied on conventional, somewhat rigid planning and development management tools, which are not particularly accommodating of the flexible and dynamic approach needed to facilitate sustainability.

Legislation:

The GKM has proven its ability to make local regulations and by-laws and to have these approved through the required political processes. However, its scope and mandate in this regard is severely constrained by its positioning in the local government sphere. In particular, it is limited in its ability to make legislation that bind the key stakeholders responsible for providing basic services.

Regulation:

Kokstad has adopted a relatively untransformed approach to the development of local regulations, many of which are seen as stifling local innovation and creativity. In particular, planning by-laws and urban management regulations are conservative and in need of relaxation and revision. The focus of the GKM seems to be on enforcement and regulation rather than support for development and change.

Fiscal:

The GKM is limited in its ability to generate local revenues to what it can raise through the levying of rates and the sale of utilities – which generate little in the way of profit.

This constraint means that its options for creativity in terms of seeking new sources of revenue are a primary constraining factor.

Financial (The priorities and areas of government spending

The Municipal Services Financial Model suggests that while the GKM is in a relatively good position from a financial perspective, it urgently needs to be directing resources at the maintenance of its infrastructure which will pose mounting demands on the local authority’s budget in coming years. At present it is adopting a relatively conservative financial approach.

Institutional Arrangements

The GKM at present has a fairly standard local government institutional set up which means that it is affected by the constraints common to municipalities of its size. Key amongst these constraints are its tendency to separate work functions into separate and distinct units that communicate and collaborate across functions inadequately. Furthermore, the GKM is also affected by the common local government characteristic of not successfully collaborating with its local stakeholders effectively, leading to charges that it is aloof and distant.

While the GKM invests resources in the development of its human capital, the processes

to implement its activities in this regard are not effective enough and it is not clear that the necessary return on the significant investment made in this regard is being achieved.

From a performance measurement and management perspective it is clear that the GKM has significant room for improvement: the indicators used to assess performance are largely generic and insufficiently customised to the specific local context, while management responses to what is indicated in performance reports are muted and often altogether silent. Kokstad has also demonstrated very limited capacity to collaborate and cooperate on the implementation of key initiatives.

Asset management

The focus is on capital expenditure projects rather than ongoing operations and maintenance. The long term outcome of this approach will be the need for earlier replacement which is more expensive than maintenance.

Knowledge / information management

Kokstad’s ability to generate, manage and disseminate knowledge is approached in a traditional, somewhat conservative fashion that does not take adequate account of the possibilities presented by technology or of social networking. Information is not managed well within the municipality itself and is primarily disseminated within silos.

Advocacy

While efforts are made to reach out to stakeholders and communities these efforts are not adequate and rarely have the effect of creating the necessary sense of inclusion or responsiveness. Advocacy efforts are muted and delayed and tend to take a one-way form, with local and provincial government speaking to communities without authentically listening or incorporating what is said in plans and programmes.

Service Service provision arrangementsWater services Sisonke District Municipality is both the Water Services Authority and Provider for

the area. GKM does not provide water services. Sisonke’s performance has not been good but progress has not been made in efforts to address this key area of service delivery.

Electricity distribution

Eskom provides the electricity distribution service in the rural areas while GKM provides the service in the towns. Performance in this regard has been problematic at times.

Solid waste GKM provides a solid waste service in the towns.Roads GKM is responsible for municipal roads in the urban areas only. Sisonke District

Municipality is responsible for all rural roads. The maintenance of roads is an area in which performance has been particularly poor.

Public services GKM is responsible for a full suite of public services including parks and recreation, libraries, cemeteries, community halls and public spaces, protection services and fire. Its management of these services and facilities is adequate.

Fig 19. SERViCE PROViSiON ARRANgEMENT AND PERFORMANCE


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1. CROSSROADS



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6.3. CROSSROADS (1)A. Regional RoleB. Attractors and detractorsC. Energy and transport

6.3.1. INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

As a regional service centre Kokstad needs to seek an optimal role within an agricultural region, balancing thresholds of support with long term resilience to future energy shocks by promoting local thresholds of support and promoting equitable regional access to high order facilities and opportunities

As a regional service centre within a road-based transport and logistics network Kokstad is highly dependent on fossil fuels to sustain its economy and population and vulnerable to fuel price increases and energy depletion. Equally, the towns and the wider GKM are highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change on its water supplies, biodiversity and agriculture. These are forces that the GKM leadership and residents cannot control. However, the nature and form of urban development, transport systems, agriculture, municipal management and social behaviors into the future can either contribute to accelerating these potentially devastating global changes or assist in slowing them down.

In addition to this the primary sustainable development goal for Kokstad and Franklin should be to build resilience to the consequences of these forces by becoming more self-reliant and adaptable in the nature and form of urban development, transport systems, agriculture, municipal management and social behaviors.

• Promoting regional passenger and freight transport modes that are not fossil fuel based

• Promoting locally based growth in markets• Building a strong, permanent local

population• Protecting and sustaining the regional

agricultural basis of the local economy• Enhancing and building regional attractors

including education, skills development and sustainable locally based retail and industry (in concert with a sustainable transport strategy).

Fig 20. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON: CROSSROADS


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1ACROSSROADS: REGIONAL ROLE

6.3.2. REGIONAL ROLE (1A)

Kokstad is strategically located on the N2 halfway between Mthata and Durban, as well as the R56 between the Eastern Cape and Pietermaritzburg (a provincial growth corridor). It is at the crossroads of these national and regional routes and has strong linkages to Lesotho and Port Shepstone serving as a regional centre.

Kokstad is an agricultural service centre servicing a wide agricultural hinterland, a fact which is reflected in the profile of its economy and the nature and scale of retail and businesses located here. It is also a centre for regional government services including justice, welfare and health with up to 17% of trips into Kokstad reported to be to access government services (Urban-Econ, 2011). The construction of the Kokstad SuperMax Prison in 2003 also elevated its regional and even national role, boosting the population and increasing the demand for goods and services.

Kokstad has a geographic catchment area disproportionate to its size, or the size of the municipality. It operates as the retail, transportation and education hub for a catchment area that extends far into the Eastern Cape (see Fig. 21).

Kokstad is also a dormitory town for government officials and contractors working in the Eastern Cape and commuting daily from Kokstad to

places such as Mount Ayliff, Flagstaff and so on. The quality of the town, its efficient management and central location has attracted professionals working in smaller/more poorly serviced towns in the Eastern Cape. This generates a high demand for accommodation including B&Bs, guesthouses and rental housing stock.

While the circumstances described above currently provide a very lucrative niche for Kokstad, it is also potentially a very vulnerable one. Because of this role as a regional service centre, Kokstad’s economic base is currently heavily reliant on the transport of people and goods over very long distances. As oil prices increase, the N2 bypass is built and/or surrounding towns improve, Kokstad could find the sustainability of this role increasingly undermined.

These patterns are extremely vulnerable to energy shocks such as fuel price increases and if not addressed proactively through developing strategies to build resilience, these external forces have the potential to undermine or even destroy the economy and livelihood basis of Kokstad.

Franklin is a local node for housing, jobs, education and, to a very limited extent, services. The sawmill and police station are the major local employers, while a new housing project of 400 houses (possibly itself an attractor) is two to three times oversubscribed. The leftover rail infrastructure has been recycled into informal housing, while the old Spoornet houses are in the process of being handed over to the GKM. This makes Franklin a local node of importance and some potential within the municipality.

General Economic Conditions Kokstad (derived mainly from Kokstad LED strategy 2011)

As at the end of 2010 the Greater Kokstad Municipality (GKM) had a Gross Geographic Product (GGP) of R1708 million, the highest in the district (Sisonke), followed closely by Umzimkhulu.

The GGP of GKM is 60% tertiary sector, 32 %

PHOTO 3. EXiSTiNg AgRi-iNDUSTRiES: AgRO-DiSTRibUTiON, AbbATOiR

secondary sector and the primary sector is only 8% of the local value add.

The local economy has been growing at around 3% over the past 10 years which is lower than the district, 6%, and KZN, 4%. The largest contributor to GGP is general government at 24%, which is spending by Government. It includes spending on wages and grants and excludes construction. Clearly, a large proportion of Kokstad’s inhabitants are being supported by the government.

Further, general government and the community, social and personal services sectors, which is made up largely of non-private sector spending, are both growing faster in GKM than in Sisonke or KZN. This is probably largely due to the constant influx of people into Kokstad from the surrounding poorer areas.

Two of the three largest contributors to the local economy are in the tertiary sector, followed closely by the manufacturing industry at 14%. Manufacturing is also the fastest growing industry within GKM, growing at a faster rate than in Sisonke and KZN and, while Agriculture only accounts for 8% of GGP, a large proportion of the secondary and tertiary activity in the area revolves around agricultural products and employees. It is therefore, concerning that the agricultural sector’s contribution to GGP is declining at a rate of 7%, and worse than both Sisonke and KZN.

Indicators show a fairly diverse economy but as the agriculture sector declines and the general Government sector gains value, the economy is likely to become less diverse. It points to encouraging the growth of agriculture, construction and of the manufacturing industries.

The manufacturing industry is relatively diverse, which should be encouraged. It is also promising that each of the product categories are growing at an average annual rate of at least 7% with metals and transport equipment being the fastest growing categories, each growing at 14%.

Worrying trends are that the rate of employment in GKM is decreasing at annual average rate



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Fig 21. ADMiNiSTRATiVE CONTEXT: ON THE bORDER

gKM sits on the border with the Eastern Cape and with Lesotho, and the ‘border town’ is a significant element of its identity, as well as the challenges and opportunities it faces.

Fig 22. CROSSROADS

Kokstad sits on the crossing-point of many routes of significance. The N2, the R56, the R617 and the R626 are all important routes either nationally or regionally, so its position at the intersection of all have been a major influence.


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of 3.6% and that the number of people who are not economically active is increasing by 11% annually.

The agricultural sector is losing employment at the alarming rate of -17%, which is a major contributor to overall negative growth in employment in GKM.

The substantial change in agricultural employment is partly due to poor market conditions nationally and partly due to conditions unique to GKM, exacerbating the affect of the national decline.

Employment in the ‘wholesale and retail trade, catering and accommodation’ sector is also declining at a faster rate than it is nationally due to conditions within Kokstad, which is surprising considering the new accommodation and retail developments in Kokstad. The same in the ‘transport and communication’ as well as ‘electricity, gas and water’ is also decreasing but, fortunately, major employers such as ‘finance’, ‘manufacturing‘, ‘community services’ and ‘general government’ are growing steadily.

Causes in decline in employment and output (value add) need to be examined carefully with industry players as part of a business retention and support strategy.

The manufacturing industry in GKM is growing at faster rate than it is nationally solely due to conditions unique to GKM. Similarly, it is important to identify these conditions and nurture the comparative advantage.

While there is not as large an effect, the ‘construction’ and ‘community, social and personal services’ sectors are also growing due to the specific conditions and role of Kokstad in the region. What are these and should they be supported and how?

The Business Survey showed that business confidence is good; that there is an active business chamber and a NAFCOC presence, and that the Kokstad town centre is considered not to be aesthetically pleasing. It is not clean, waste removal is not effective, and the roads are

in poor condition which does not help to attract investment.

Furthermore, business considers municipal rates to be too high and electricity cuts too frequent. There is a shortage of residential and commercial space in Kokstad which means that house prices and capital growth in GKM are relatively very high.

Business is of the view that there is a shortage of skilled labour to meet businesses requirements.

20% of all employment is in the informal sector. 54% of informal traders sell fruit and/or vegetables and just 10% sell other non food products including beads, tupperware, shoe repairs/polishers, grass mats and cheap jewellery. Around 30% of traders sell sweets, soft drinks and cigarettes as well as their main goods.

Most traders said that the lack of storage facilities and shelter are their main constraints. This is because they mostly sell fruit and vegetables. Often they have to throw away produce which they could have sold because it has been exposed to the sun. Sometimes traders do not work because of sub-zero weather conditions which also negatively affect their business. 34% of traders said that insufficient funds are their main barrier to expansion.

Household Income

The total annual household income in 2008 in GKM was R1609 million of which 33% was unearned income in the form of grants and remittances, which is a very similar in percentage contribution to that of Sisonke and KZN, but is still too high.

44% of expenditure within the GKM economy is on services and 40% of all expenditure goes towards non-durable goods, while 8% goes towards semi-durable goods and durable goods each. 26% of all household expenditure in GKM goes towards ‘food, beverages and tobacco’, largely to meet basic needs. This indicates market potential for local production of food crop,

at household level and commercially. The next highest level of expenditure is on rent and other services such as ‘transport and communication’.

These percentages indicate a low income economy in which there is a low level of asset ownership and a low level of savings. Most people remain trapped in poverty and most spending in the economy is largely on basic needs and therefore the economy has no room to diversify consumption, expand or retain income– again, this does not allow for sustainable economic growth. The challenge is how to change this.

PHOTO 4. EXiSTiNg AgRi-iNDUSTRiES: gRAiN, bAKERY



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Fig 23. REASONS THAT PEOPLE TRAVEL TO KOKSTAD

Source: (greater Kokstad Municipality, 2011)

1BCROSSROADS: ATTRACTORS & DETRACTORS

6.3.3. ATTRACTORS & DETRACTORS (1B)

There is a dynamic tension in Kokstad between a well-serviced dormitory town for people working elsewhere and a shopping and service centre for people living elsewhere.

Kokstad’s key attractor to residents is its access to retail and education – access to these accounts for over 50% of the reasons given for living in Kokstad. Typical of most agricultural service centre towns, Kokstad has a high number of boarding schools.

Most households interviewed have been living in Kokstad for over 10 years (71%). A large 75% of households have moved from other areas into GKM. The majority of these have moved from the Eastern Cape. It seems that the services provided by the town, education services and RDP housing are what attract people from other areas to Kokstad.

Another key attractor is the good access to well-managed government services (such as housing, free electricity, and refuse collection). The concentration of regional government services (health, justice) draw people to Kokstad to access services as well as jobs. The Kokstad SuperMax Prison is potentially a major employer and generator of movement to and from Kokstad (reportedly only 30% occupied). The high demand for short term and rental accommodation is driven by large numbers of

people working in the EC as well as temporary residents/contract workers. While people come from everywhere in the surrounding areas to come shop, do business and access government services, the bulk of them come from the Eastern Cape, where there is a lower existing availability of these services (refer to Fig 25).

Population Profile

Population in GKM has been declining over the past decade, while the population in Sisonke and KZN has been increasing. The number of households has been increasing at a rate of 2.6% over the past decade and household size has reduced to 3 people per household which is the lowest in Sisonke. GKM has slightly more males than females which contrasts the trend in South Africa and suggests in migration of men looking for work.

The majority of people in GKM are working age, which again is different to the rest of Sisonke where people below the age of 20 are the majority. This also suggests in migration of people looking for work. 72% of people are under the age of 34 which emphasises the importance of economic development strategies aimed at the youth. GKM has 56 dependant people for every 100 working age people.

PHOTO 5. ATTRACTiONS: SHOPS

PHOTO 6. ATTRACTiONS: SCHOOLS

PHOTO 7. ATTRACTiONS: REgiONAL SERViCE CENTRE FACiLiTiES

The key detractors are the poor quality of local roads, the lack of employment opportunities, and crime. Failures of government service provision (water and electricity cuts, poor sewerage management, the small size of government houses) collectively form another major detractor (GKM LED, 2011). The lack of entertainment opportunities is noted in the 2011 LED Masterplan and has emerged from stakeholders as a major shortcoming with respect to the attractiveness of Kokstad as a place to live.

People also travel long distances from Kokstad - mainly to Port Shepstone, Pietermaritzburg and Durban - for tertiary education and entertainment (refer to Fig 26). While Kokstad has a large number of primary and secondary schools servicing the broader region, there is an urgent need for locally based tertiary training. The lack of recreational and sports activities in the town is considered a significant problem for the youth, who also suffer very high unemployment levels. (GKM IDP, 2012)

The IDP reports that the main suggestions for the improvement of community life included employment creation, road maintenance, creating entertainment facilities, improving tertiary education facilities, building houses, and sports facilities for the youth (GKM IDP, 2012).



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Fig 24. MOVEMENT iNTO KOKSTAD

People travel from far around to Kokstad. The arrows in this drawing indicate where people travel from, and the thickness of the arrow shows the proportion of visitors (based on Urban Econ survey, 2011). it can be noted that the majority of the ‘in’ movement come from the Eastern Cape, whereas the majority of the ‘out’ movement is to KwaZulu Natal (Fig 26).

This pattern has implications for Kokstad’s future - if the level of services across the ‘border’ (in the EC) improves, the number of regional visitors would drop off. At the same time, existing Kokstad residents have to leave to access the kinds of services they require, also undermining the existing resource base (refer Fig 26).

Fig 25. MOVEMENT OUT OF KOKSTAD

While people travel long distances to Kokstad, Kokstad residents find themselves also having to travel far for activities and services not available locally. These can broadly be categorised as shopping (and entertainment), education, and specialist medical services. Of these, the lack of entertainment and tertiary education is the most dire, and two of the most clearly stated needs for retaining local people and resources.

in addition, there are a large number of skilled professionals who are working in the more rural Eastern Cape or KZN but choose to live in Kokstad because of better access to shops, services and an all-round higher quality of life. These professionals commute long distances on a daily or weekly basis.


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The Maloti Route is an exciting example of collaboration to grow tourism across an international, and national boundaries. it is an initiative bringing together tourism operators in South Africa and Lesotho to increase benefi ts to the people of the region. The route was launched by the Ministers of the Environment for the two countries and has grown from strength to strength. The Maloti Route will be extended to become the Maloti Drakensberg Route, which will include Lesotho and its neighbouring South African provinces.

While education levels are relatively good when compared to KZN and Sisonke, the fact that

70% of people have either no schooling or less than matric is not good for the economy of GKM as it detracts from the quality of the work force and leads to skills mismatches and unemployment.

Interviews suggest that there is a shortage of professionals in GKM and there are very few training facilities in Kokstad. A major challenge to skills training is Kokstad is the lack of motivation of individuals in the work force to receive the training.

Kokstad: Lying at the base of a tourism hinterland

Kokstad is ideally located at the beginning/end of a major regional tourism route, the Maloti Route. Currently, this potential is not being maximised, with tourists and travellers generally passing the town by with - at most - a brief stop at the Engen on the outskirts.

Yet Kokstad has a rich history, numerous heritage sites, beautiful natural surrounds and a working agricultural landscape, all of which has the potential to be highly attractive to tourists.Furthermore, Kokstad is ideally located on a major through-route between Durban, Pietermaritzburg, and Johannesburg to the Eastern Cape, as well as on the N2 running from Cape Town to Durban. There are thus high volumes of people passing by on a constant basis; however, a negligible number of tourists stop for more than a night.

Local Tourism Opportunities:

Hiking:

There are hiking routes around Kokstad, most notably in the Mount Currie Nature Reserve, as well as many more in the East Griqualand mountains.

Fly-fishing:

There is fly-fishing available in the Crystal Springs dam that waters the town, and many fly-fishing spots in the surrounding area. In

Fig 26. TOURiST ATTRACTiONS iN THE REgiON

Source: Adapted from Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project,2007

the Maloti Drakensberg region yellowfish are favoured, as these are strong, wild fish which offer rewarding angling.

Birding:

Ntsikeni Vlei (north of Franklin) is a large wetland with an impressive waterfall. Among the birds that can be spotted here are Wattled Crane, Cape Griffon and Bearded Vulture, Yellow-breasted Pipit, African Marsh Harrier, Black Harrier, Montagu’s Harrier and the rare Western Marsh Harrier. This is probably the best site to see the elusive Great Bittern.

Agri-tourism:

Agri-tourism refers to the act of visiting a working farm or any agricultural, horticultural or agribusiness operation for the purpose of enjoyment, education, or active involvement in



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Fig 27. TOURiST ATTRACTiONS AND REgiONAL FACiLiTiES

the activities of the farm or operation. There are numerous such enterprises in the Kokstad area) and there is much potential for this sector to be substantially developed.

Heritage/Culture:

The Kokstad Museum takes you through the history of the Griqua people. The Museum, Griqua Church and old Town Hall in Main Street are national monuments. Other points of interest in Kokstad include the Cathedral, with its tall twin steeples, Adam Kok’s Memorial commemorating his leadership, and Adam Kok’s Laager monument in the Mount Currie Nature Reserve.


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1CCROSSROADS: ENERGY & TRANSPORT

6.3.4. ENERGY & TRANSPORT (1C)

Kokstad is located at the crossroads of the national, provincial and local routes in the vicinity of the National and Provincial borders. Kokstad serves as the local main town as well as a passer-by town whereby people, buses, mini-bus taxis and private vehicles stop over during their trips to other locations.

The town serves as the regional service centre for a wide agricultural hinterland which generates regional freight traffic for large scale productions as well as for retail. Many people live in Kokstad and work in Alfred Nzo, Matatiele as well as other towns in the Eastern Cape. Also, there are a high number of people that travel from rural areas to access commercial, health care facilities, education institutions and governmental departments etc.

The LED Masterplan’s household survey reports that the modal split for ‘consumers’ of public transport is: 10% walking, 55% public transport, 35% car. The norm for the modal split in similar towns shows a much higher percentage of walking and with an equal split in public transport / private car usage. The policy overview indicates that the current public transport system serves the town at an acceptable level within the town of Kokstad and including the townships of Bhongweni and Shayamoya.

People travel to remote locations to work and rural dwellers travel long distances to access shops, health, education and other government services. The hinterland dependent on Kokstad for goods and services, and there are many commuters living in Kokstad & working in the Eastern Cape. This is reflected in the Sisonke District Public Transport Plan that indicates that more than 57% of people travel for more than 30 minutes commuting to and from Kokstad which is significantly higher than other areas within the Sisonke District. There are many 4x4s or double cab bakkies in the town serving the needs of rural communities and linking to surrounding towns. These serve to move bulk groceries purchases on a periodic basis. Fuel cost increases will significantly impact the sustainability of this pattern.

The current rail system does not provide a passenger service but could provide a freight service to Franklin. The current infrastructure offers an opportunity to develop a resilient freight service for agricultural and industrial economic development.

PHOTO 8. KOKSTAD bUS RANK

Fig 28. RAiL FREigHT NETWORK (KWAZULU-NATAL)

Source: KZN Provincial government, PgDS, 2011



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Fig 29. REgiONAL RAiL CONNECTiONS PHOTO 9. FRANKLiN RAiL STATiON - CURRENTLY OUT OF USE

There is a critical ‘missing link’ between KwaZulu Natal and the Eastern Cape. National government is pushing rail as critical investment area, and a logical connection on the map above would be between Kokstad and Mthatha. Yet the Franklin/Kokstad line has been closed down and others are being allowed to fall into disrepair.


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Freight, Logistics and goods movement

Freight logistics is estimated to contribute 8% of energy related CO2 emissions globally.

Logistics costs as a percentage of GDP increased to 14.7% in 2008. For purposes of comparison India and Brazil are 12% and 11.8% respectively and US is 7.7%.

The split in tonnage on rail and road is 88.7% on road and 11.3% on rail, which is higher that Brazil and India. Increasing road transport costs, including cost of fuel, should drive freight traffic to rail but this is sensitive reliability of service and competitive rail tariffs to those of road, taking into consideration complete logistics supply chains – source to destination.

Bad roads lead to millions of rands in damages each year.

Transport externality costs amount to around 14.2% of transport costs. The bulk of externality costs are road accidents, followed by emission and congestion costs. As a comparison, accidents contribute 49% to externality costs in SA and only 19% in the UK.

The external risks to the logistics industry, i.e. those outside of the direct control of business entities, having the highest impact are the fuel price and the exchange rate. In a survey conducted by CSIR (see footnote) emissions tax has been identified as another key cost driver, even though this has not been implemented yet.

In sum, scenario modelling undertaken by CSIR of logistics cost drivers indicates a 24.4% variance in logistics costs due to the unknown external factors. In short the economy and consumers are vulnerable to this extent from the fuel price and interest rates escalations, and from the anticipated emissions tax. The increase would impact on consumers and producers both nationally and within the GKM local economy.

Good condition of roads, to minimize wear and tear and resource wastage; sound driving practices and traffic management, to prevent accidents and to reduce emissions and congestion; application of new fuel saving

Fig 30. TAXi CONgESTiON MAP (LEVEL OF USAgE PER SECTiON OF ROAD)

technologies, and most importantly an overall reduction in transport, are going to become increasingly important strategic objectives for government and industry.

Taxi Routes and Movements

Taxis, busses and bakkies form a mainstay of transport for most people living in the region. Many Kokstad businesses are dependent on the traffic generated by them, with people travelling from all over to come do their shopping and other businesses in town. Taxis travel to a wide range of destinations, with the bulk of traffic happening between Kokstad and Mount Ayliff and other local towns, but with regular taxis to more distant destinations like Mthatha, Durban, Johannesburg and even a daily taxi to Secunda.

Yet this is a pattern that is highly vulnerable to changes in transport networks - the current installation of stop-and-go systems along the road to Mthatha have dramatically reshaped the regional transport routes, with trips increasing by as much as two hours. In response, people living on the other side of these obstacles are opting to rather shop locally or travel to Mthatha, changing livelihood strategies for Kokstad taxi drivers and traders - a foreshadowing of the potential impacts of rising oil prices.



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Fig 31. REgiONAL ORigiNS-DESTiNATiONS: FREQUENCY AND COSTS OF TRiPS

PHOTO 10. KOKSTAD LONg-DiSTANCE TAXi RANK


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2. TOWN



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6.4. TOWN (2)A. Settlement structure – settlement footprint,

fragmentation and linkagesB. Identity, belonging and inclusion – whose

town is this? Socio-economic disparitiesC. Diversity and intensity – land use mix,

densities, liveliness


The central sustainable development goal for this story is to improve the liveability of Kokstad and Franklin. Liveability reflects the wellbeing of a community and comprises the many characteristics that make a location a place where people want to live now and in the future (Burton, 2010). This is influenced by a wide range of factors relating to how a place meets the physical, emotional and social needs of the people who live in and use it. The three dimensions of this story, (1) settlement structure; (2) identity, belonging and inclusion and (3) diversity and intensity are explored in terms of how they promote liveability.

The core liveability objectives for improving the settlement structure of Kokstad and Franklin are to:• Promote a compact settlement footprint to

protect valuable natural resources, limit the impact of human settlement on the natural and agricultural resource base that sustains it and to maintain a close relationship between settlement and nature

• Promote a compact settlement footprint to enhance accessibility and support public transport

• Spatial and socio-economic integration between parts of the town offering choice, convenience and easy access to as wide a range of the town’s services, amenities and opportunities as possible.

• Link/ connect urban activity nodes to integrate different parts of the town and increase the efficiency and convenience of moving around town

• Walking and cycling are energy-wise modes of transport and therefore safe convenient pedestrian and cycling access should be promoted as an essential part of sustainable development.

• Provide for an urban structure of walkable neighbourhoods clustering to and from towns of compatible mixed uses in order to reduce car dependence for access to employment, retail and community facilities.

• Ensure that walkable neighbourhoods and access to services and facilities are designed for all users, including those with disabilities by ensuring permeable street networks and the equitable distribution of facilities and opportunities.

• Provide a range of lifestyle choices, especially with regard to residential accommodation.

With respect to identity, belonging and inclusion the physical features of the place should promote a legible spatial structure that assists people to find their way around, guides appropriate land use, investment and activities. Aspects that contribute to this include:• A sense of place through maintaining strong

visual links with the landscape and key settlement landmarks and features

• A sense of identity that celebrates and builds on the unique and special features of both landscape and settlement and reflects the cultural heritage and customs of its residents

• A legible settlement structure that gives a clear sense of orientation and direction

• Safe and attractive public environments that provide comfortable environments for pedestrians and cyclists

• Inclusivity, belonging and building a sense of ownership through building social capital (expanded below)

The social and community dimensions of identity, belonging and inclusion need to take into account the extent to which people have a ‘voice’, which is also reflected in the strength of civil society and social capital. This is one of the aspects of the social foundation in the Oxfam

Fig 32. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON: TOWN


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sustainability framework ‘doughnut’. SOCIAL CAPITAL is a term that refers to the bonds between people in a community. A community with strong social capital is made up of many different kinds of relationships. Social Capital is multi-dimensional, and in the same way that diversity in the web of life in natural systems is important for sustainability; this is true in human relationships - diversity makes us strong. Building social capital is an essential component of putting Kokstad on the path to integrated Sustainable Development.

“A range of social problems—crime, health, poverty, unemployment—have been linked empirically to a community’s endowment of social capital (or lack thereof), and with them a sense of concern among citizens and policy makers alike that new forms of social capital must be imagined and constructed as other or older forms decline (for example, as a result of technological or demographic change). These issues are relevant to both high and low income countries.” (grootaert, 1998)

Preliminary assessment of the strength of social capital in Kokstad and Franklin has been framed within the dimensions proposed in a World Bank survey tool [ibid.]. The proposed elements for evaluation are as follows: • The extent and functionality of Groups and

Networks, • The presence of Trust and Solidarity (or

extent of mistrust?) in a community, • Evidence of Collective Action and

Cooperation, • Access to networks of Information and

Communication, • The extent of Social Cohesion and

Inclusion, and• The state of Empowerment and Political

Action.

A summary table that attempts to assess Kokstad and Franklin against these aspects is attached as an annexure (Kokstad ISDP Status Quo: Social Capital Report 2012). This is based mostly on desk top research especially looking

at NGO’s and CBO’s working in the area, a few key interviews, and incidental as well as targeted feedback from the Green Ambassadors Programme.

With respect to diversity and intensity, Kokstad and Franklin are evaluated against the following key indicators:• Diversity of land use and spatial qualities• Equitable access to a full range of activities,

services and opportunities within walking distance of public transport services

• Intensity of development to support viable infrastructure, sustainable transport, efficient use of land and to establish thresholds of support for economic activity

• Diversity of land tenure and housing types to accommodate the varied need for housing over a lifetime, and to meet varied income levels and circumstances

• Equitable access to a full range of activities, services and opportunities on foot or within walking distance of public transport services

• Promote a range of sustainable modes of transport to support regional and local accessibility.

• Provide choice in terms of transport options and ensure that the non-motorised transport options are fairly / equitably supported.

• Clustering facilities to optimize co-location (shared management, security) and efficient land use. Clustering of facilities increases convenience for users, reduces trip numbers and creates focal points for development and infrastructure provision

• Locate public facilities around public spaces to establish a public presence increasing safety and to improve spatial enclosure and a sense of place.

• Promote the multifunctional use of open space to increase ease of management and resilience

• Promote multi-functional street spaces and squares that encourage activity, provide amenity and add to the attraction of Kokstad as a place to visit.

• Promote diverse (but coherent) street interfaces by building flexibility into the range of land uses, building sizes that can be accommodated (in terms of plot size, width of frontage, height allowed, use allowed etc.)



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2ATOWN:SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE

6.4.2. SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE (2A)

One of Kokstad’s defining characteristics is that of a town within the countryside. Its compact settlement footprint makes it accessible and convenient and offers a connection with the landscape and surrounding mountains that would be envied in many cities of the world. This close relationship with nature should be protected as an asset that will support the long-term attractiveness of the town. These links with nature are reported in policy documents such as the LED Masterplan and by the Green Ambassadors as qualities that attract people to live in Kokstad.

While the river valleys and natural areas currently entrench segregation between the fragmented parts of Kokstad, they also offer an opportunity to integrate the town and give it a new heart.

Kokstad suffers from severe spatial and socio-economic segregation. As a result of the topography, reinforced by apartheid planning legacies, the settlement footprint of Kokstad is made up of four distinct isolated parts located on hilltops separated by river valleys and ridges; Kokstad central, Bhongweni, Shayamoya and Extension 7. Linkages between the separate settlement areas are limited with few bridge links across the rivers.

While Kokstad central is well connected into

the wider region, linkages beyond Bhongweni and Shayamoya into the region are limited, with the result that these areas are isolated with limited through routes and limited access and convenience. In terms of equitable access, facilities and opportunities are not distributed equitably across all parts of Kokstad. High-density, mono-functional townships are removed from the more integrated but low-density historic town. Services and economic activity are concentrated in the historic CBD Core with little to no meaningful economic opportunity within the adjacent townships.

In relation to the concept of “neighborhood completeness” (Farr, 2008), 797ha (50% of the urban area) is within 800m walking distance of zones that support commercial and/or industrial development. Most of Bhongweni and the whole of Shayamoya and Extension 7 lie outside this area.

At approximately 4km x 4km in extent, the scale of Kokstad makes it highly accessible on foot and by bicycle. However the experience of pedestrian and cycle users could be greatly enhanced as real accessibility and convenience are dependent on more than simply distance. As the townships are approximately 2km from the CBD and therefore max 25 minutes to 3/4 hr walking time, most people can reach basic essential services on foot within this time. Sustainable settlement targets promote a maximum walking time of 20 minutes to reach services and opportunities required on a daily basis.

The number of people that can travel in a public transport vehicle far exceeds the number of people that can travel in a private vehicle. This makes the use of public transport more energy-efficient and as such, a priority in terms of sustainability.

There are currently several transport ranks located within 300m of each other within Kokstad which are not physically connected to each other: • The main bus rank is located on the corner

of Groom Street and Main Road on the

periphery of the CBD. This rank caters to long distance commuters and has sufficient capacity.

• The Kokstad Taxi Rank off Dower Road operates as a long-distance/interprovincial rank and is therefore not surprisingly “empty” at peak hours, but over-utilised at midday. Management of parking at the rank is problematic, leading to congestion, and the Sisonke District Public Transport Plan rates the capacity of this rank as extremely stressed at more than 100% utilization.

• A smaller taxi rank operates off Dower Road from behind the Rhino Plaza. This rank services commuter minibuses and is over-crowded and congested.

• There is a small taxi rank at Shayamoya servicing commuter taxis that requires an infrastructure upgrade.

There is evidence that some of the local mini-bus taxi routes between the CBD, Shayamoya and Bhongweni townships have been upgraded. Shelters are provided at some of the taxi stops along various routes but infrastructure for the local commuting routes is not well established and requires intervention.

Franklin has a small, informal mini-bus taxi rank operating from the town.



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Fig 33. SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE

Kokstad- a town within the coutnryside. While the rural character surrounding its edges hold the potential to provide exceptional contact with nature, at the moment these neglected green spaces serve to segregate town from township, effectively turning this ‘one town’ into ‘four towns’. Yet this same space, with a some re-imagining, can become a powerful integrating force.


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Pedestrian permeability and the quality of pedestrian routes

Sustainable settlements feature fine-grained accessibility grids ensuring permeability for pedestrians and cyclists, and convenient, safe and efficient access across the urban area. Best practice policies for pedestrian convenience recommend that the street grids of towns should promote pedestrian convenience through maximum permeability and flexibility in the selection of routes. To achieve this the ideal block size for a convenient and accessible street network has street intersections at no more than 90 - 180m (Farr, 2008). Towns that feature an accessible street network are illustrated on the opposite page in comparison to Kokstad, to give a sense of scale (Fig 34, Fig 35, Fig 36).

The street networks of Kokstad CBD, Bhongweni and Shayamoya vary significantly when measured against this benchmark and when compared with the best practice examples. Kokstad Central is made up of a street grid defined by city blocks of 270 x 270m (compared to Cape Town CBD’s 60 x 60m). While these large blocks were originally created to allow agricultural allotments behind street-front properties, today they create a less walkable street network than is recommended and reduces the choice and flexibility of movement routes available to pedestrians and cyclists. Larger block sizes also tend to offer less visual interest and diversity which for a pedestrian can make a journey feel longer and more tiring.

The sustainable development goal is to achieve streets that are multimodal (transit, bicycle, walking, driving), compatible with adjacent land uses, define high-quality public space, and provide protection from rain and sun. While Kokstad has large numbers of pedestrians, most streets – especially in central Kokstad – cater predominantly to private vehicles. In central Kokstad traffic lanes are very wide and have no cycle facilities, while sidewalks are provided only in the commercial areas in front of shops, requiring pedestrians and cyclists to use the roadway space.

The streets of Shayamoya and, to a lesser extent, Bhongweni, include narrow streets and a high proportion of pedestrian only streets. While in some instances these are viewed as sustainable in the sense that they provide for pedestrians and not cars (allowing children to safely use these areas as playground and for adults to meet and converse), the community has expressed some concern that they are too narrow. Sidewalks are largely absent in Shayamoya and Bhongweni.

A good public open space system should include a hierarchy of different spaces that invite different activities (other than streets which are also public spaces). These include squares, plazas, courtyards and playgrounds. The street spaces of Kokstad, which are currently the only existing form of public space, are not well defined or consciously made as positive people-friendly spaces.

The street interface condition varies drastically between different parts of Kokstad. Blank facades in the form of large, inward-oriented retail stores dominate much of the CBD (although this is tempered somewhat by the flourishing informal trade along these same streets). In the case of the Woolworths/Game/Spar complex, the new building draws activity away from the street and effectively centres it around a parking lot, and closes off what used to be a public street.

Douglas Farr’s “Sustainable Urbanism: Design With Nature” (2008) refers to the concept of “Neighbourhood Completeness”. This evaluates the sustainability of neighbourhoods in terms of “the relationship between neighbourhood design and length of all trips that people willingly make on foot. One central idea that has become very clear is that meeting one’s daily needs on foot in a neighbourhood is made much more convenient and likely when many walk-to destinations are clustered close together.” Developing a ‘Neighbourhood Completeness” indicator, reveals a clearer understanding of the liveability and convenience of a neighbourhood. The completeness of Kokstad has been evaluated and mapped. Fig 34. CONNECTiViTY AND MiXED USE NODES

This drawing uses an adapted version of the ‘neighbourhood completeness’ methodology (Allen & Farr, 2008) to measure the level of access to mixed use, integrating nodes within the settlement of Kokstad. Mixed use nodes, or centres, should provide access to local services and facilities, as well as convenience retail, at a walking distance of no more than 400m. Nodes also create a centre of gravity for activity within an area, thereby creating natural gathering places in the community. Nodes should be connected to other nodes and parts of the settlement by continuous, integrating routes, to create an integrated whole, rather than fragmented isolated neighbourhoods. For the purposes of this exercise, a node is defined as a cluster of more than three uses, or where there is a critical mass of activity to the point of attracting informal traders.

by applying an 800m grid, we can compare the number of neighbourhood units (approximately 14) with the number of neighbourhood units that have a mixed use centre or area (approximately six). With only six out of 14 units having a mixed-use centre, the level of access to nodes or centres can be described as only 42% complete, for the town as a whole.



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INDICATORS

Indicator: Widest streets should have no more than two travel lanes between curbs (Farr, 2008)

Indicator: number of blank walls (DETR, 2000)

Indicator: Sidewalk on both sides of every street. Sidewalks should provide at least 1,5m of clear walking space. (Farr, 2008)

Indicator: Street has greenery that is maintained. (Farr, 2008)

Fig 35. KOKSTAD (RSA)

ALL DRAWiNgS TO THE SAME SCALE (ONE SQUARE MiLE) - NOTE THE FAR FiNER gRAiN AND HigHER LEVELS OF PERMEAbiLiTY iN CiTiES THAT ARE FAR LARgER)

Fig 36. SAVANNAH, gEORgiA (USA) Fig 37. PHiLADELPHiA, PENNSYLVANiA (USA) Fig 38. bARCELONA (SPAiN)


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Fig 39. ACCESSibiLiTY AND PERMEAbiLiTY (KOKSTAD)

An important component of liveability is the convenience with which pedestrians and non-motorised transport users can move around local areas. There are two components to this: the first is the permeability of the grid, i.e., how directly pedestrians can move from one place to another, and the second is the quality of the environment, i.e., the width of sidewalks, the smoothness of the paving, shelter from sun and rain, and so on. This drawing and the associated vignettes measure the permeability of the grid of different parts of Kokstad, against a benchmark grid. The benchmark grid is derived from various best practice examples from around the world, and has been set as follows: 150m superblock for cars, 75m block for pedestrians. This grid results in 49 intersections per 500m x 500m (0,25km2) area measured.

in looking at the existing grids of different parts of Kokstad, any 500m x 500m area that has less than 49 intersections can be described as not very convenient (permeable) for pedestrians, and any 500m x 500m area that has 49 intersections or more, can be described as convenient (permeable) for pedestrians. Similarly, any 500m x 500m area that has a minimum distance between intersections of more than the benchmark of 75m, can be described as not very convenient (permeable) for pedestrians, and any 500m x 500m area that has a minimum distance of 75m or less, between intersections, can be described as convenient (permeable) for pedestrians.



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Fig 40. ACCESSibiLiTY AND PERMEAbiLiTY VigNETTES (500M X 500M)

Number of intersections: 9

Min distance between intersections: 30m

Max distance between intersections: 250m










Bhongweni and Bambayi

Benchmark grid

Bhongweni Extension 7













Horseshoe Town: south-west Town: north-west Shayamoya


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Fig 41. DiSTRibUTiON OF SOCiAL FACiLiTiES



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Senior schools (2,25km walking distance) Primary health-care (1,5km walking distance)Parks (500m walking distance)

Playgrounds (300m walking distance)Post office (1km walking distance)

Work (800m walking distance)Pre-primary schools / creches (700m walking distance) Police station (1,5km walking distance)Junior schools (1,5km walking distance)

Fig 42. ACCESSibiLiTY OF FACiLiTiES

The full assessment of the numbers and accessibility of public facilities is available in the annexures of this report.

These diagrams show the catchment areas of social facilities in town. The radius shows the recommended walking distances (according to the CSiR Red book and various other sources). As can be seen from the diagrams above, nearly all facilities and resources are concentrated in Kokstad central, with minimal facilities (or far less choice) being offered in bhongweni, Horsehoe, Shayamoya and Extension 7.


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2BTOWN: IDENTITY, BELONGING AND INCLUSION

Fig 43. TOWN WiTHiN THE COUNTRY

6.4.3. IDENTITY/ LEGIBILITY, BELONGING AND INCLUSION (2B)

A town (or neighbourhood) with a strong sense of place (or, in common parlance, character) is both highly legible and has an identity that spills over from the physical into the community character. In terms of evaluating the physical legibility of the place, it is useful to use Kevin Lynch’s mode of place legibility – the idea that it is created through the use of five elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks to create a ‘vivid and integrated physical setting’ that gives a receptive sphere for a place’s activities to take place and for communities to imbue with meaning.

Kokstad has a strong natural character with the natural landscape forming powerful structuring elements within and around the town. Mountains and hills are visible 360° around town, and are particularly experienced from the streets in the CBD running perpendicular to Hope and Main Streets.

The Mzintlava River form strong settlement edges to the south of the town as well as a natural barrier between the old town and the townships. The topography underlying the town itself also creates distinctive viewing corridors and local landmarks such as rocky outcrops and the water tower on the edges of Bhongweni, refer to Fig 41.

The town has a strong identity as a whole within the wider landscape but individually, the separate parts - Kokstad central, Shayamoya and Bhongweni and Extension 7 - are distinctly different in terms of urban layouts, building typologies and street characters.

The strong orthogonal grid of ‘historic’ Kokstad with the cross axis of Main and Hope Streets with Barker and Dower Streets, are typical of older South African towns. Grids typically allow for great change and flexibility in use over time and this adds to the character and quality of the place. Grids, especially with strong main street axes and overlaid over a rolling topography, tend to be easy to understand and offer a strong sense of legibility. The clear spatial structure of Kokstad central has prompted a logical land use response that saw land uses clustering sensibly in relation to levels of access (shops on the main road through town, and churches/social facilities on the parallel street) without the need for strict zoning controls. The CBD, civic precinct and industrial area have all found their place within the grid of old Kokstad and these areas have a distinct and clear role and character within the town overall.

By contrast, the winding street layouts of Bhongweni and Shayamoya, together with the overall lack of urban landmarks, provide little guidance to people trying to find their way. These layouts also offer little obvious indication of the best place to locate much needed economic activity.

Kokstad and Franklin do not celebrate nor adequately acknowledge their historic origins and current cultural diversity, both of which offer potential to enhance the tourism potential of the place. The Adam Kok memorial, Zulu and Xhosa culture, agricultural history, rail history and biodiversity assets are all mentioned as potential components of a tourism development strategy.

PHOTO 11. TOWN WiTHiN THE COUNTRY



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Fig 44. EXiSTiNg iDENTiTY AND bELONgiNg

This drawings captures elements of the town, social, cultural, historical and physical that have the potential or do already contribute to a sense of identity and belonging. in terms of social aspects, the map shows community facilities, resources and services, as well as clinics and other primary health care providers (such as TLC home services in the iThembalabantu Centre in Shayamoya). in terms of cultural aspects, all the churches, memorials and museums have been mapped. Finally, and importantly, the landmark hills and views to and from the settlement have been mapped; the landscape and the setting of the town in its rural context is a strong part of the identity of the place.


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“This is my granny who is the oldest granny in the community - she is about to reach 90 years in few years to come but she

doesn’t see very well. I really love her thanks to provide me with my needs I am what I am because of you” - Bulelani Nyushu,

2012

PHOTO 12. TLC HOME SERViCES

PHOTO 13. 90 YEAR OLD gRANNY

PHOTO 14. bHONgWENi LibRARY

Social Capital

While there are social challenges in both Kokstad and Franklin, there also seems to be substantial social capital in the area, and active assistance for the population in facing these.

The incidence of HIV/AIDS is high, as is the number of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC’s). This is consistent with the province as a whole, and contributes to continuing poverty and vulnerability, and also impacts the demographic profile of the population. However there are very active non-government organisations, including a cluster at the iThembalabantu Centre in Shayamoya, and the Khanyiselani Development Trust in Bhongweni, who are particularly involved in health care, including home-based care for individuals and families affected by HIV/AIDS, orphans and vulnerable children, and for the aged. Other services include skills development, and food programmes. The role of Respond! and Sivile has been important, although unfortunately their direct involvement is now reduced. MASH provides support for children in Bhambayi and for street kids in town, and there is also a children’s home in Kokstad town. Kokstad is well endowed with churches, church groups and a mosque.

Strong neighbourhood-level bonds are reported by the Green Ambassadors, and this is good for resilience of communities, as well as an advantage for implementing community-based sustainability initiatives. At the same time, however, safety and security in the township areas is an issue.

For recreation, sports clubs and leagues exist, but there is a shortage of facilities and well-managed programmes, and a dire lack of other recreation opportunities.

As a service centre, Kokstad is also the location of regional government and health and social development offices, including SASSA, although NGOs report frustration with government service providers, whom they would like to work more closely with. The ready availability of support services may attract more vulnerable people to the area.

Social capital, in the form of organisations providing support, seems to be almost non-existent in Franklin, and levels of poverty and need in the informal settlement there are great. The new housing project under construction will essentially just be a dormitory for the foreseeable future, with no support services or sustainable employment for the community being created there.



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Residential areas

Human settlement patterns are typical of South Africa, with the older, central part of town housing the more affluent (historically white) population in the leafy suburbs, with poor (mostly black) townships on the periphery.

The suburbs are low density, with single-storey houses on large plots along tree-lined streets. Site sizes range from over 4000m2 (the zoning allows a minimum of 1800m2), compared to the township areas, which are zoned for 450m2 sites but in fact on average is closer to 200m2. Parts of the old town lend themselves to densification, with the strip along the Mzintlava river being in particular need of intensification. If well-managed, densification and intensification presents an opportunity to improve the sustainability of Kokstad as a settlement.

The Shayamoya township is characterised by monotony, and lacks legibility, partly through the layout design that is predicated on engineering efficiency and lowest cost. Most sites have pedestrian access, while car access is limited - both a positive (safer and more sociable spaces) and a negative (in case of emergencies and/or for car owners). In many instances, roads are only half surfaced, so that the other half can be completed later. The character of Shayamoya is largely determined by a mass-housing approach to delivery, also evidenced by the mono-functional land use.

Bhongweni township is older, and on more forgiving topography, and although also delivered through state subsidies for incremental housing, the grid layout and street scale have resulted in a very pleasing character. The area has been significantly densified through additions to the original RDP houses, often to provide rooms for tenants. A central social-facilities precinct, combined with neighbourhood pockets of houses for slightly higher income residents, provides diversity and creates a semblance of human settlement (as opposed to simply another housing project).

Informal settlement at the edges of the townships

sit either on the steepest slopes or dangerously close to the river, and are the object of proposed slums clearance projects.

There is a housing shortage across all segments of the market, and proposed private development projects (approved, or in preparation) on the edge of town are a less sustainable model of development than intensification of the current footprint would be. Peripheral development will also extend the infrastructure burden for the municipality. The proposed R56 project has potential to address many of the housing issues in Kokstad, but it is still in the early project preparation stage.

Social rental housing would be an appropriate strategy to address some of the demand and backlog, but currently the pre-conditions for Kokstad to receive social housing subsidies and restructuring grants are not in place.

Franklin comprises the old railway village, a large informal settlement, and a new housing project, currently under construction. Mass housing delivery is not a sustainable proposition, but coupled with appropriate economic development, and reinstatement of freight rail capacity, could have the potential to be developed as an important node.

PHOTO 15. HiSTORiC RAiLWAY iNFRASTRUCTURE

PHOTO 16. ADAM KOK MEMORiAL

PHOTO 17. RELATiONSHiP WiTH NATURE

PHOTO 18. HOUSE iN HORSESHOE

PHOTO 19. HOUSE iN KOKSTAD CENTRAL

PHOTO 20. HOUSE iN bHONgWENi


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Fig 45. EXiSTiNg iDENTiTY / CHARACTER OF RESiDENTiAL AREAS Fig 46. EXiSTiNg iDENTiTY AND CHARACTER VigNETTES (500M X 500M)

Bhongweni and Bambayi Bhongweni Extension 7



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Fig 46. EXiSTiNg iDENTiTY AND CHARACTER VigNETTES (500M X 500M) Fig 47. EXiSTiNg iDENTiTY AND CHARACTER VigNETTES (500M X 500M) CONTiNUED...

Horseshoe Town: south-west Town: central Town: south Town: north-east Town: north-west Shayamoya


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2CTOWN: DIVERSITY & INTENSITY

Fig 48. DiVERSiTY AND iNTENSiTY

6.4.4. DIVERSITY AND INTENSITY (2C)

The levels of diversity and intensity are markedly different between the various settlements making up Kokstad. The town still reflects the inequities and imbalances of apartheid planning with Kokstad central consisting of the historic core, an extensive CBD containing the bulk of the town’s commercial and industrial enterprises (and hence employment opportunities), low residential densities, and almost all of the town’s market value. The average residential density is 56 persons/ha (population/residential zoned land), and plot sizes here vary between 650m2-1800m2, while house prices range from R40,000 to over R1,5 million.

On the other hand the townships (Bhongweni, Shayamoya, Horseshoe), and Extension 7 are mono-functional, with no formal commercial activity, high residential densities (in Bhongweni, 171 persons/ha), and a uniformity in plot sizes (around 250m2) that limits the potential for alternative uses. The only non-residential uses are government/public buildings (generally limited to educational facilities). The lack of economic opportunity in Bhongweni, Shayamoya and Horseshoe means that that most of the money generated within the townships is funneled out and captured outside of it, thereby further entrenching the inequitable spatial character of the towns.

The only real concentration of mixed-use activity occurs within the CBD Core, where there is a vibrant mix of retail, social facilities and informal

trade, and some light industry set slightly apart. There is a limited ‘office’ presence, highlighting once again the ‘service centre’ nature of the town. Current plans to move the municipal offices to a new development south of the town threatens to further fracture and fragment the cohesion and compaction of the town.

In Extension 7, Shayamoya and Bhongweni, informal economic activity is strictly managed by the municipality and there is very little formally designated commercial land. Economic activity in these areas is limited to dispersed spaza stores dotted along main taxi routes and outside schools. Given the low levels of activity generally, schools are the only activity generators and trade is limited to the sale of snacks and basics. The GKM SDF and LED Masterplan both motivate strongly to increase opportunities for formal local economic activity within Shayamoya and Bhongweni. Some emergent/potential nodes in these areas have been identified and mapped. These are:• The beginnings of a cluster of activity along

Gcadinja Road in Bhongweni where there is a junior and a high school, a church and a library, but these community facilities are currently not complemented by any economic activity other than the women who come to sell sweets and fruit to the school children during breaks.

• At the intersection of Mount Currie Drive and Cornelius Street in Extension 7 there is a relatively high concentration of spaza shops compared to the rest of the area – obviously a natural meeting place and taxi stop.

• Along Nelson Mandela Drive in Shayamoya around a cluster of educational facilities (some under construction) and social facilities including the Respond! iThembalabantu Multi-Purpose Centre Facility - but again these are not complemented by any formal economic activity other than street vendors and a bakery located in a shipping container.

• In Shayamoya there is an informal taxi rank and evident meeting place within the community, on Nelson Mandela Drive, 100m

Kokstad’s four constituent parts are greatly divergent in character. While densities are lower (and more diverse) in Kokstad central, almost all commercial and industrial activity is located there, as well as the vast majority of other services and resources. The monofunctionality and lack of choice in the townships are clearly visible, with the only services in these neighbourhoods being schools and occasionally churches. This lack of diversity means that the townships are essentially dormitories for people working in town. For those without jobs, or for parents looking after children, there is little or nothing to do and practically no access to shops or services.



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TAbLE.6. EXiSTiNg LAND USE MiX ACCORDiNg TO ZONiNg CATEgORiES

east of Seven Fountains School. • In Horseshoe there is one intersection with

a relatively high concentration of spaza shops compared to the rest of the area.

From a residential perspective, Kokstad central offers the greatest diversity in terms of housing options. Bhongweni, owing to its age, has somewhat of a mix of house sizes (albeit largely uniform in terms of plot sizes), as does Extension 7, but Shayamoya and Horseshoe has no diversity whatsoever. None offer much diversity in terms of ownership structure and/or rental opportunities or housing type.

Diversity of permitted land-use mixes per area are indicated in Table.6.

As can be seen here, practically all commercial and industrial land falls within Kokstad central. Extension 7 is entirely residential, while the only other significant land uses in Shayamoya and Bhongweni are education and administrative/public buildings.

Shayamoya and Bhongweni have much higher site and unit densities as well as people densities than the historic core. The SDF promotes densification within the existing urban footprint and the GKM is actively encouraging subdivisions of properties in the CBD to increase the rates revenue. They are offering to upgrade mid-block lanes so that they become proper access roads (Madikizela, 2012). Typically only private developers can afford to go through the process of subdivision, so there are several cases of developers buying a series of plots and subdividing and building town houses that are accessed from the mid- block lane.

PHOTO 21. MONOFUNCTiONAL DEVELOPMENT iN SHAYAMOYA

PHOTO 22. MiXED-USE AREA iN KOKSTAD CENTRAL


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Fig 49. EXiSTiNg LAND USE MiX

This drawing uses an adapted version of the ‘neighbourhood completeness’ methodology (Allen & Farr, 2008) to measure the mix of uses available within convenient walking distance of all residents. Complementary mixed uses in a given area increases access to opportunity, jobs, shops and facilities, as well as creating stimulating environments that are busy and therefore safe, and which have viable thresholds for local retail. The range of uses measured here has been simplified to include: commerce and business, industry, government, community, education and recreation / park. The level of mixed uses per 800m x 800m neighbourhood unit can be said to be excellent if all six colours are present, satisfactory if four or five are present, minimal if two or three are present and poor if only one is present.

PHOTO 23. STREETS AS PLAYgROUNDS

PHOTO 24. gREAT VARiATiONS iN DENSiTY

Streets have turned into playgrounds for the children living in the townships. - Azolile Ndevu



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This drawing shows the mix of plot sizes throughout Kokstad, and indicates the densities that the one-dwelling-unit/plot would deliver. The drawing measures the variety of plot sizes that is available in each 800m x 800m square of the grid. The more variety of plot sizes, the better suited the neighbourhood unit is to accommodating a range of family types and income levels.

This drawing uses an adapted version of the ‘neighbourhood completeness’ methodology (Allen & Farr, 2008) to measure the level of completeness of existing nodes. Complementary mixed uses at a given node increases access to opportunity, jobs, shops and facilities within walking distance, as well as creating a centre of gravity for activity within an area, thereby creating natural gathering places in the community. The range of uses measured here has been simplified to include: commerce and business, industry, government, community, education and recreation / park. The level of mixed uses per node can be said to be excellent if all six colours are present, satisfactory if four or five are present, minimal if two or three are present and poor if only one is present. in line with this methodology for measuring the level of completeness of the nodes, the

existing nodes of Kokstad can be described as follows:

Extension 7: Poor

Hospital node: Minimal

CbD node: Excellent

bhongweni centre: Satisfactory

iThembalabantu Centre: Satisfactory

Shayamoya taxi rank node: Minimal

Horseshoe node: Poor

Fig 50. COMPLETENESS OF EXiSTiNg NODES Fig 51. EXiSTiNg DiVERSiTY OF SiTE SiZES


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3. INFRASTRUCTURE



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6.5. INFRASTRUCTURE (3)A. Provision of basic services: Social

foundation & MDGB. Affordability and financial viability: Municipal

Services Financial ModelC. Institutional resilience: dependencies,

diversity of supply, resilience


This “story” focuses on the key engineering infrastructure and systems required to support sustainable development, namely water and sanitation, energy and solid waste.

The overarching sustainable development goal is to utilize resources in an efficient and non-wasteful manner so as to support growth without depleting non-renewable resources. This should also include using resources so as to build a strong social foundation (meeting people’s basic needs) in an equitable manner. Objectives for the three key dimensions covered in this perspective include municipal financial sustainability, achieving the social foundation by ensuring that all people’s basic needs are met in terms of national policy standards and the MDGs, and building institutional resilience.

The goal of sustainable infrastructure can be met by moving resources up the waste hierarchy, i.e. moving away from using and disposing of the water, energy and material resources to the reuse of these resources, and ultimately the reduced (per capita) need for these resources while still improving the quality of life. Of critical importance is the fact that the sustainability objective of building a strong social foundation so that service delivery is in balance with the carrying capacity of the eco-systems services that support life in Kokstad, Franklin and the greater region, and that skillfully mediates the dynamic between planetary boundaries and social needs.

The long-term resilience of sustainable infrastructure delivery and maintenance will

require meeting the following objectives: • A diversity of supply and a reduction in a

reliance on external suppliers• Developing local skills and capacity, with a

focus on leveraging the national imperative of building a green economy (Green Economy Accord, 2011)

• Reducing per capita demand while still achieve growth

• Fostering a culture of innovation, evidenced through entrepreneurial micro enterprise in the service delivery sector

• Indicators of an emerging green economy with regards to sustainable service systems (production and maintenance) would include:

• Energy efficiency (retrofitting buildings, GKM green building codes)

• Employment of renewable energy technologies at the unit, neighbourhood and town scale

• Waste beneficiation – waste being seen as a resource/raw material and sustaining the “technical nutrient” cycle

• Beneficial use of the organic energy and nutrients in waste (including sewage sludge), e.g. recycling

• Industrial ecologies (co-location of complementary industries such that one ’s waste is the other’s “food”)

• Sustainable water and sanitation solutions including, water conservation, water reuse, rainwater harvesting, grey water strategies,

• Sustainable Urban drainage systems • Local production and manufacture of

components and products like solar panels, solar water heaters, stabilised earth bricks, pervious paving, planking from recycled plastic and so on.

Fig 52. SOCiAL FOUNDATiON: iNFRASTRUCTURE


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3AINFRASTRUCTURE: PROVISION OF BASIC SERVICES

PHOTO 25. WATER TURNED OFF AT 7 FOUNTAiNS SCHOOL

PHOTO 26. STAND PiPE iN HORSESHOE

“Old people at Horseshoe are struggling to get water from the tap because all the taps around them are damaged by children who play with public taps. They have to go for about 15 minutes searching for a tap which might be working and it is so pity seeing an old person suffering for other people’s mistakes” Luvuyo Ntloko

6.5.2. PROVISION OF BASIC SERVICES (3A)

This sub-section provides an overview of the kind, distribution and quality of existing basic services in Kokstad and Franklin.

Water

Provision and level of service delivery

The Draft IDP (2012) reports that 3.3% of households (467) in the Greater Kokstad Municipality have less than RDP standards for water provision infrastructure. According to the 2011 MIG project fund allocated, 288 of these houses (which are located in the rural areas) will receive water provision as part of the backlog program. However, according to the Sisonke Water Services Development Plan (2011), 70.9% of the residents in the greater Kokstad area have access to pipe water services. The difference is attributed to the definition of the minimum RDP standard for water provision. Thus Kokstad and Franklin is generally adequately serviced with respect to water provision.

The majority of Kokstad residents have water piped either into their homes or into their yards. Horseshoe, Zolani, and Lindelani have communal standpipes, and Franklin has yard connections (Sisonke DM Water & Sanitation Backlog Study Draft Final, 2006). However, supply is a continuous problem, with water shortages recurring and leaks in the reticulation system requiring that water for Shayamoya be

turned off on a regular basis. This means that residents are resorting to drawing water from the river for washing and flushing toilets and are reliant on tankers for drinking water. Schools in this area are without water during school hours and are exposed to potential heath risks associated with blocked sanitation systems. This is a major obstacle to the GKM meeting the Millennium Development Goals and is the greatest risk to achieving sustainability in water supply.

bulk water resources and security of supply

Kokstad’s water currently comes from the Crystal Springs Dam (yield of 3.8Ml/d at 1:50 Return Interval – Terratest Sept 2011) located to north of the town, and an abstraction point on the Mzintlava River, east of the town (Sisonke Draft WSDP 2011). Some rural areas use boreholes.

Tlou and Shellick (2009) indicated that the supply to Kokstad at the time was insufficient to meet the demand. However, the capacity of the Kokstad Water Treatment Works (WTW) has been upgraded from 9 Ml/d to 18 Ml/d, which may have alleviated this to some extent. The projected demand for Kokstad in 2030 is between 13.2 Ml/d and 23 Ml/d (Tlou and Shellick 2009). The need thus still exists to upgrade the supply from the Mzintlava River to meet this increase in demand. Studies however are required to determine whether the Mzintlava River has the capacity to supply the additional demand. The provision of bulk water resources could be a major constraint to growth in Kokstad unless water demand is reduced.

Within Sisonke District, Kokstad is among the worst performing with regards to the provision of drinking water, with a 2012 Blue Drop score of 35% - a number that went down from the previous publication in 2010. Of even more concern is that compliance only scored 10%, indicating that the quality of the water is not to standard for 90% of the time. The upgrade in the capacity of the Water Treatment Works may resolve this, but needs to be tested in 2014 during the next round of blue drop audits.

big consumers / producers

The prisons are big water-consumers and there have been water supply problems since the Super Max prison was built. Previous studies have shown that prisons can use up to 1,2kl per prisoner per day (Jeffares & Green, 1998). Large irrigation demands potentially exist at the sports fields and the golf course.

In Franklin there is a new 450-unit housing development that is underway which would increase the water demand seven fold. However, the water treatment plant and river abstraction has been upgraded to accommodate this.

Water Demand

A breakdown on the water use in Kokstad is provided in Fig 54 below.

Water demand in Kokstad is approximately 11 Ml/d which translates to 1.1 kl/household/day (or approximately 350l/p/day). This is extremely high and indicates significant water wastage. The biggest single water user is the Golf course, which uses approximately 20% of Kokstad’s potable water. This presents the biggest opportunity for water savings.

Due to the very poor construction of the new water reticulation network in Shayamoya, water losses of between 50% and 70% are being experienced in that area. This water loss represents between 10% and 17% of the towns water supply. This extreme water loss results in the water to Shayamoya regularly being turned off, forcing residents to draw water from the river

Fig 53. bREAKDOWN OF WATER USE iN KOKSTAD



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Fig 54. FLOWS AND bOTTLENECKS OF WATER (RAW, TREATED, AND SEQAgE)

for washing and flushing toilets and are reliant on tankers for drinking water. Schools in this area are without water during school hours and are exposed to potential health risks associated with blocked sanitation systems.

This level of water wastage is a major obstacle to the GKM meeting the Millennium Development Goals and is the greatest risk to achieving sustainability in water supply. It appears that some water conservation and demand management has been undertaken by Sisonke DM, but these need to be implemented urgently.

Although the water demand for the Kokstad SuperMAX Prison (built at a cost of R450 million) only makes up 4% of the total potable demand it operates at only 30% capacity due to water capacity constraints. If it were to operate at its full capacity (and thus realize the value of the large investment, the prison demand would increase to 13% of the total potable water supply in Kokstad. In Franklin there is a new 450-unit housing development that is underway which would increase the water demand seven fold. However, the water treatment plant and river abstraction has been upgraded to accommodate this.

There is currently no reuse of water in Kokstad and very little rainwater harvesting.

The District Municipality’s inability to manage water supply is a major obstacle to further development and economic growth within the town: under an unrestricted, high growth scenario, water requirements are expected to increase by 60% by 2030, yet water shortages are already a significant problem (derived from the WSDP plan for Kokstad). Reasons for these shortages are: • the lack of capacity to draw water from the

Mzintlava river; • high levels of upstream abstraction for

agricultural purposes; • the high levels of leakages within the

reticulation system;• high levels of unaccounted for water (e.g.

unmetered or unpaid for water provision);• high levels of non-potable use of potable

water;• low institutional and technical capacity.

Sanitation


The Draft IDP (2012) reports that 26% of households in the GKM (3741) do not have access to sanitation. A MIG funded project (2008, MIGFDC43162213) is currently underway to supply an additional 1266 households in Kokstad with VIP toilets. This would reduce the backlog to 17% (2475 households).

The majority of Kokstad has access to flush toilets, however in some areas (e.g. Shayamoya) the system has effectively become non-functional due to the irregular water supply. Where VIP toilets do occur (Horseshoe, Zolani and Bambayi), sewerage overflows and groundwater pollution are a continuous hazard (GKM LED Strategy) and are responsible for the pollution of the Mzintlava and Umzimvuba Rivers.

Sewerage Reticulation

The sewerage network is old and experiences numerous breaks and leaks (weekly frequency) and it is reported that the maintenance staff regularly have to re-repair the same pipeline. The overall capacity of the bulk sewerage reticulation network is under pressure and will need to be upgraded unless wastewater flows can be reduced.

Wastewater Treatment

The wastewater treatment works (WWTW) in Kokstad has a current capacity of 3.6Ml/d and is being upgraded to 5.5Ml/d . It uses activated sludge with biological nutrient removal technology. The effluent from Kokstad wastewater treatment plant is not compliant with national water quality standards, resulting in pollution of downstream water systems and risks to health (48% score for compliance, Green Drop Report 2011). All the treated effluent is discharged into the river and none of it is currently reused. Waste activated sludge is currently stockpiled on site and removed by farmers on an ad-hoc basis. The town appears to generate a fair amount of garden waste and this presents an opportunity to compost the waste


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Fig 55. ENERgY: EXiSTiNg FLOWS

activated sludge with the chipped garden waste to produce a saleable compost.

There is quite a lot of space around the WWTW that can be used for passive tertiary treatment technologies such as reedbeds, which would reduce the energy required be WWTW. The amount of space around the town allows for future developments to incorporate passive pre-treatment systems (that are space hungry) that will result in extending the capacity of the WWTW.

The Franklin WWTW is a very simple aerated lagoon and the capacity is unknown. It discharges into the Franklin Vlei, which is a listed water resource in terms of the National Water Act. It is therefore required to treat to the Special Limit effluent quality, which it is not able to do due to the limits of the technology. It is therefore polluting the Franklin Vlei and unless upgraded does not have sufficient capacity to take on the additional flow from the new housing development.

Storm Water

The ‘conventional’ approach to stormwater management is currently used throughout the Greater Kokstad municipality. Conventional drainage systems generally focus on eliminating local flood nuisances and largely ignore the need to preserve or improve water quality and the associated aspects of amenity and biodiversity. They frequently have an adverse impact on flooding within the wider catchment and ignore the potential use of stormwater as an important water resource.

An example is the stream that runs through town. It is polluted and overgrown and is not used by the public in any beneficial way. However, it is an important resource that could be turned into a highly beneficial asset to the community. However, in order to achieve the, water quality would have to be improved by employing sustainable urban drainage techniques.

Energy


The GKM buys electricity from Eskom each month. While energy is not a municipal competency the province as a whole is potentially vulnerable. KwaZulu-Natal does not generate its own electrical power and the economy operates on coal-based, carbon intensive energy.

Greater Kokstad Municipality supplies the town of Kokstad and surrounding townships including Bhongweni, Horseshoe, Shayamoya, Franklin, and Kargs Post. ESKOM distributes electricity to the balance of the GMK area.

An increase in the Notified Maximum Demand (NMD) has been requested by the Municipality from 17MVA to 22MVA. However Eskom have expressed concerns relating to existing capacotu constraints in respect to tje Kokstad Sub-Station with regard to awarding this request for increase.

The condition of the Kokstad infrastructure is generally good and appears to be reasonably maintained. However the network constraints highlighted above will continue to put pressure on the network which, if not adequately addressed, will lead to a more rapid deterioration.

The GKM Energy Master Plan estimates that R 20 327 150 is required for cable upgrades and R 12 430 000 for refurbishment of the Medium Voltage Network over the next 3 years. It concludes the following:

“As a whole the gMK Electricity network is in reasonably good condition. There is however a dire need for upgrading of certain MV cables and switchgear as indicated. The municipality also needs to ensure continued planned maintenance and upgrading of its electrical network specifically the MV network.

With regard to areas which fall outside of the gMK licensed area of supply, Eskom will continue to address these areas. The information currently used to drive the Eskom programme is however out dated, being based on the previous



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Fig 56. WASTE: EXiSTiNg FLOWS

Census 2001. it is advised that the Eskom electrification programme be dealt with in greater detail once the new Census 2011 data becomes available.”

According to the GKM LED strategy, 62% of households in GKM have electricity, and there are periodic cuts. Solar powered geysers were installed (by a non-government entity) in every house in Shayamoya, and they are also fairly widespread throughout town (GKM LED Strategy, 2011).

Residents of Shayamoya, Bhongweni, Horseshoe and Franklin cope with electricity cuts and supplement their electricity useage by taking advantage of a range of energy sources including timber (especially for cultural events), gas (especially for heaters in winter) and solar (mostly for heating water).

A major risk in terms of power outages is the two prisons, where in 2011 alone two outages of over more than a day were experienced – posing a serious safety threat (GKM LED Strategy, 2011).

Solid waste


Kerbside collection reaches all areas of Kokstad at least once a week. One compactor is in service (acquired in 2011), and this is supplemented through the use of tractors and trailers. Waste disposed of to landfill averages around 35 tons per day (Thekwini Geocivils, 2007). This equates to approximately 1kg /p/day which corresponds with normal waste generation for formal dwellings.

According to the GKM Draft Integrated Waste Management Plan (Gibb, July 2012), 68% of the households receive formal refuse removal and thus a 32% backlog exists.

The existing landfill site next to Shayamoya is effectively closed, although current disposed waste is used as a sealing layer along with topsoil. The intention is to commence preparation of a new site by January 2013, for first receipts

in June. It is understood that there is council support for a site on the opposite side of the Mzintlava River on the farm “Kransfontein”.

Relocation of the landfill will improve the social compatibility of waste disposal, since the proximity of the landfill site to low-income housing is not ideal from an environmental quality perspective. However, the proposed new site is located within an identified Fresh Water Ecosystem Priority Area. Based on the geotechnical report, it would also appear that the proposed landfill is very near to a fresh water spring that seeps through a fracture in the Shale/Dolerite contact zone. It is not advisable to locate a landfill so close to a water source such as this because even with the best engineered lining system, leakage of leachate from the landfill into the surrounding environment can occur. Furthermore, the proposed site also has two sites of seasonal groundwater seepage. A

Also the location of landfill site should take into consideration opportunities for synergy with industrial area (e.g. gas from landfill could fire boilers in the industrial area) as well as any future recycling and waste to energy initiatives.

There are a number of waste pickers on the site that are paid a stipend from GKM. Waste picking is very inefficient and should not be encouraged due to the health and safety risks. These workers could potentially be more usefully employed in a recycling program where yields of recyclables is better.

There is no waste characterization figures for Kokstad and a detailed waste characterization is required to effectively plan for waste beneficiation programs (e.g. waste to energy and recycling)


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Fig 58. SANiTATiON: EXiSTiNg bULK iNFRASTRUCTURE AND SERViCE PROViSiONFig 57. POTAbLE WATER: EXiSTiNg bULK iNFRASTRUCTURE AND SERViCE PROViSiON



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Fig 59. ENERgY: EXiSTiNg bULK iNFRASTRUCTURE AND SERViCE PROViSiON

“Kokstad spends R5 million per month on Eskom electricity, but does not always sell that much – in which case the excess payment is forfeited”Somtseu, 2012

PHOTO 29. SOURCE iN ENERgY iN FRANKLiN

PHOTO 30. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRiCiTY CONNECTiON

PHOTO 27. ViP TOiLET iN HORSESHOE

PHOTO 28. SEWAgE bLOCKAgE

“Blocked sewage caused a blast in this pipe in this house’s backyard” Azolile Ndevu


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3BINFRASTRUCTURE: AFFORDABILITY AND FINANCIAL VIABILITY

Fig 60. EXiSTiNg bULK iNFRASTRUCTURE

6.5.3. AFFORDABILITY AND FINANCIAL VIABILITY (3B)

This section looks at the existing fees, charges and taxes for services as a means for raising government revenue, as well as existing financial priorities and areas of government spending, with the aim of understanding the extent to which the municipality is able to sustainably finance existing infrastructure, service provision and maintenance requirements, as well as projected requirements for upgrading existing infrastructure and/or provision of new infrastructure.

At present 75% of properties within the proposed Kokstad SDF Urban Edge and 60% of properties within the proposed Franklin SDF Urban Edge are not rateable as they fall below the minimum stipulated value of R100,000 – see Fig 59.

The large number of non-rateable properties, coupled with relatively high levels of non-payment for certain services, places a significant burden on the municipality, which must nevertheless ensure that basic services are provided to all citizens, as well as cover the costs of maintaining the infrastructure and community services in these areas. Resolving this challenge is core to achieving a sustainable future for Kokstad and Franklin. In the context of the global debate around environmental sustainability and the need to reduce the amount of energy and resources that humanity demands, there is a push for governments to incentivise

PHOTO 31. WATER TOWER

PHOTO 32. WATER TRUCK iN SHAYAMOYA



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Fig 61. CURRENT AND PROPOSED PROJECTS

There are a number of planned and proposed projects within the newly-proposed urban edge (both private and municipal). These are mapped here, with proposed zonings on various parcels of land also indicated.

residents to reduce their energy and water use. Paradoxically, many municipalities are unwilling to do this as it also represents a reduction in service fees that contribute to government revenue. However, the environmental imperative to reduce energy use through demand management becomes an obvious cost-saving strategy for the municipality when there is a culture of non-payment or an inability to pay on the part of the users – reduced energy use then constitutes a real cost saving for the municipality.

Another dimension of the affordability and financial viability of short, medium and long-term service supply is the social and economic costs of interruptions in service supply, i.e., the cost to businesses of a one hour power outage, or the cost of lost teaching time in schools when services are disrupted. For businesses, interruptions in service supply can cause large, sometimes irreparable economic losses - the exact costs vary for different kinds of businesses. The difference between the required and available service supply capacity also has an important effect on the industrial sector. Despite the importance of security of service supply, very little is known about the consequences and economic impact of lack of security of supply (Linares & Rey). However, this information is critical to respond optimally to these problems, i.e., the cost of interruptions in service supply should inform how much is spent to repair and maintain existing service infrastructure, as well as plan for improved or increased service supply.

The key financial challenges for water infrastructure identified in the desktop evaluation are:• To prioritise infrastructure investments

(either rehabilitation or new) in bulk water supply, drinking water services and sanitation.

• Balancing the need for water services to be paid for with the ability to pay by the indigent; in this regard the GKM Indigent Policy is out of date.

• Structuring tariffs so as to encourage water savings amongst the large water users.

Growth / MSFM

Aside from the sustainability concerns relating to land use change (and the resulting loss of agricultural land, biodiversity and ecosystem services), the perceived economic benefits and risks of opening up new land to development needs to be carefully considered, especially in relation to the affordability of infrastructure and service provision.

There is significant potential for growth in Kokstad, both within the existing urban footprint through densification as well as through expansion of the urban footprint. Accepted sustainability best practice promotes infill and densification first, as this increases thresholds of support for public transport and economic activity, limits impacts on agriculture and biodiversity, and is the most efficient in terms of infrastructure service provision. The potential for infill and densification within the current urban footprint is shown in Figure 62.

The current Draft SDF Review 2011 proposes densification as well as very extensive urban expansion, effectively doubling, if not tripling the urban footprint. This is indicated in the accompanying diagram of proposed projects (refer Fig. 58) When it comes to proposals for extending the urban footprint, the potential growth in rates and tariff income that may be generated needs to be understood in relation to the long term operating costs of managing and maintaining new infrastructure. An appropriate starting point is to understand the existing revenue and operating costs of the municipality, as a basis for testing proposals for future development.


91

The large areas of unrateable housing is not sustainable in the long run. These are inevitable also the areas that receive the worst service.

Fig 62. EXiSTiNg RATEAbLE AND NON-RATEAbLE ERVEN

The Municipal Services Financial Model (MSFM) is an infrastructure investment planning tool that gives a high level assessment of trends with respect to municipal infrastructure investment requirements over 10 years, how these investments may be financed, and the impacts of these investments on the operating account and on-going financial viability of a municipality. The MSFM was developed primarily for the DBSA and COGTA (then DPLG) on the Municipal Infrastructure Investment Framework and has evolved from other models developed since 1994. It has been used by National Treasury in the past in work on the Fiscal Framework and in assessing MIG Cities grant applications. It has been applied in over 30 municipalities to date.

The developers of this model have been brought into this project to prepare the GKM’s Municipal Services Financial baseline as a tool for then testing the implications of a selected number of development scenarios. It will set up some high level criteria that provide a basis for technical planning, with affordable service levels and the rate at which infrastructure can be delivered being the two most important of these. A report on the full details and preliminary findings of the first draft of the baseline study are included with the annexures to this report. The first draft should be treated with some caution as many required data inputs were not available and so the model includes a number of assumptions. The headline findings of this draft are the following:• Current GKM capital budgets are roughly in

line with needs• Rehabilitation is the most needed capital

expenditure ‘type’• Just over half of capital expenditure required

is for low income households• The capital expenditure required is

affordable, provided budgeted operating surpluses are realised and reserves are accessible

These results will be refined with the inclusion of more data and then used as a basis for modelling a number of development scenarios.

PHOTO 33. OPPORTUNiTiES EXiST FOR iNFiLL iN KOKSTAD CENTRAL

PHOTO 34. SHAYAMOYA CURRENT gROWTH

PHOTO 35. FRANKLiN HOUSiNg PROJECT



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Fig 63. EXiSTiNg VACANT AND UNDER-UTiLiSED LAND

There is significant potential for infill and densification within the current urban edge. The advantage of this kind of development (as opposed to greenfield development) is that it makes use of already-existent infrastructure (thereby increasing the affordability of that infrastructure rather than requiring further expenditures) as well as actually requiring less resources and infrastructure because of densification.

Fig 64. EXiSTiNg LAND OWNERSHiP

A substantial amount of land around Kokstad is owned by local and national government (although a significant proportion of it is taken up by the Mount Currie Nature Reserve). This creates an unusual opportunity for the municipality to play a stronger role in shaping what kind of development takes place.


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3CINFRASTRUCTURE: INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE

PHOTO 36. RAiN WATER TANKS

PHOTO 37. SOLAR PANELS

“Many people going to the municipality (18 April 2012) to buy electricity had to turn back and go home without the electricity. Some people say the electricity in their homes is finished and that they will have to find other means to take care of their daily needs eg. Cooking, heating of water and lights.” - Marvin Mngweba

6.5.4. INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE (3C)

This section unpacks infrastructure management and service provision in terms of existing arrangements for decision-making, the allocation of powers, responsibilities, agreements and relationships between government and other actors, human resource capacity / competency and measurement systems within government and between government and other actors (Boshoff, 2010).

In terms of conventional perspectives and current institutional models, both water and sanitation services as well as energy (electricity) are not provided or managed by the GKM. Integrated and effective management of these services requires strong cooperation and coordination between the Sisonke DM on water and sanitation and with Eskom around electricity.

While the GKM is asking for the responsibility of water management to be devolved from district to local level, this is unlikely to happen as a Water Services Authority (WSA) is currently being set up in Sisonke District Municipality.

The Blue Drop assessment, amongst other things, is an indicator of the institutional strength of the WSA to provide water services. Sisonke was rated as the second worst performer in KZN in the 2011 Blue Drop Report, with and average score of 40.1%. Kokstad’s Blue Drop score for 2011 dropped from 54.13% in 2010 to 35.18% in

2011. Poor performance areas were in:• Water Safety Planning• Process Control, Maintenance &

Management Skills• Monitoring Programme• Drinking Water Quality Compliance• Performance Publication

Most of these are related to institutional weakness. Furthermore, discussions with Sisonke Dm officials indicate that they are approximately 50% to 60% understaffed in Kokstad. There is one Class III process controller who has to manage the Water and Wastewater treatment works. Thus, the reliance of GKM on Sisonke to provide water services is thus identified as a risk to GKM achieving the sustainability.

The existing instability of the electricity supply is partly owing to the difficulties of the relationship with Eskom, as well as capacity restraints relating to human resources and maintenance backlogs (Gwadwa, 2012).

Main capacity problems for the town relate to human resources (currently 37 staff) and maintenance backlogs.

The current (low) level of process control and plant maintenance suggest that the municipality reconsider with due diligence recommendations pertaining to the use of more sophisticated technologies and controls against the current staff and financial capabilities of the municipality:• to attract finances for making infrastructure

investments possible, making a business plan for long term sustainability in terms of operation and maintenance and cost recovery

• to deal with the limited skills level of the personnel (WSDP, 2011) managing the water treatment plant and the waste water treatment plant through adaption of the methods used and/or through improving these skills.

By diversifying the supply and technologies used to provide water, sanitation and energy there

is opportunity for the GKM to build resilience and sustainability by reducing dependence on external supplies for water and energy. Furthermore, by employing simpler technologies, maintenance and operation can be reduced thereby reducing the demand on staff.



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4. NATURAL RESOURCES



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6.6. NATURAL RESOURCES (4)A. Biodiversity and Ecosystem ServicesB. Environmental footprint: pollution, carbon,

water, etc.C. Cultural services/ landscape: spiritual,

recreational, psychological & aesthetic


Sustainable natural resource management will only be achieved if traditionally non-environmental sectors, such as energy, land use planning, agriculture and infrastructure can be convinced of the need to integrate environmental resources and protection into their fields of application. Biodiversity conservation and the application of sustainable methods will ensure that ecological functioning is ensured on a landscape level, and that renewable resources serve to replace the need to exploit non-renewable resources. Care must be taken though to prevent depletion of the non-renewable resources.

In Kokstad, great strides have been made in terms of integrating renewable energy into the energy supply mix through the wide-spread use of solar geysers, but the programme is unfortunately evidence of a lack of municipal involvement in such schemes. Institutional involvement and strategic planning is therefore required, in order to bring environmental concerns, policy imperatives and legal requirements to bear in municipal planning and budgeting. Inter-governmental relations must also be improved if trans-boundary issues such as catchment management are to be adequately managed.

Progress made towards the achievement of a sustainable use of, and co-existence with, natural systems must therefore be measured from three perspectives, namely Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation, Social and Institutional Use of Resources, as well as Landscape-level Integration. Respectively, the goals and objectives for the three dimensions are described

as:

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation:• Protect and enhance local biodiversity• Sustain ecosystem services• Reduce pollution, destruction of ecosystem

services• Protect and enhance landscape and natural

resources as a source of psychological wellbeing

• Enhance natural spaces as positive elements of the town for resident benefit as well as tourism potential

• Ensure safe and equitable access to green open spaces and recreation for all members of society

Social and Institutional Use of Resources (from the PgDS):• Percentage improvement in biodiversity

index.• Percentage improvement in Blue Drop

status.• Percentage improvement in Green drop

status.• Percentage increase in volume of solid

waste recycled.

Landscape-Level Integration (derived from Farr, 2011):• Spatial integration and continuity of urban

and local area green systems to support biodiversity and ecological resilience.

• Balance between recreational space, productive agricultural land and ‘wild areas’.

• Preservation of large, connected habitat patches, and create wild and vegetated buffers to minimize negative effects of urban development on habitats and water.

• Promotion of equitable access to a hierarchy and range of well-managed public green open space types/opportunities including productive open space/agriculture, active open space/sports, passive open space/parks and cultural and ceremonial spaces.

Accelerated Climate Change necessitates a consideration of threats and opportunities for the town. On the one hand, social, economic and ecological vulnerabilities will be exposed through climate-related stress, and on the other, new opportunities for focussed economic development will present themselves. The main thrusts of adaptation to Climate Change can be summarised as:• investment in new renewable energy

sources• attracting investment that applies green

principles and employs ‘green’ technologies• food security• sustainable resource management • taking advantage of the opportunities

presented by moving towards a green economy.


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4ANATURAL RESOURCES: BIODIVERSITY & ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Fig 65. EXiSTiNg ECOSYSTEMS THAT PROViDE REgULATiNg AND SUPPORTiNg ECOSYSTEM SERViCES

6.6.2. BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (4A)

Biodiversity loss is one of the nine planetary boundaries that humankind has transgressed (the other two are climate change and nitrogen use). Biodiversity loss leads to reduced resilience of ecosystems, which is exacerbated in the face of climate change. Biodiversity loss on a large scale can lead to sudden and irreversible consequences for ecosystems – once a threshold has been crossed, there is no way to revert to the earlier, more healthy ecosystem. As the “doughnut” framework demonstrates, it is necessary to balance meeting human needs through urban development and agriculture, and protecting and conserving biodiversity.

Kokstad generally falls within the Grassland Biome – which mostly consists of grassland vegetation types with remnant forests, and stretches across most of the Central and Eastern Part of South Africa. Grasslands are highly diverse and finely adapted to the micro-climatic conditions of their location. As a result, despite being spatially abundant, grasslands represent the third richest biome in Southern Africa in terms of distinct vegetation types. Many of these distinct vegetation types are considered to be prime agricultural or ‘development’ land and as a consequence are under immense pressure.

Vulnerable grassland ecosystems identified

in the immediate area are all associated with wetland areas. These are mapped in the accompanying diagram and include (as per the National List published by SANBI Dec 2011) Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands (Azf 3) and Swartberg/Franklin Vlei/Kokstad Ridge and Wetlands (KZN 80). The Franklin Vlei wetlands system represents 10.04% (26917.7ha) of the municipal area.

These ecosystems offer incredibly valuable ecosystem services; services that are threatened if current patterns of land conversion, degradation and biodiversity loss are continued.

Much of the gKM is not under active cultivation but nevertheless most of the land services both the local population and the region, nation and planet at large. grasslands - which constitutes the majority of gKM land - are one of South Africa’s most productive landscapes, providing grazing land for cattle, storing water in its wetlands, and providing land for forestery. Other ecosystem services include pollination, soil production and conservation, flood amelioration, carbon storage (maintaining the earth’s atmosphere), cultural heritage and recreational amenities; and support to subsistence livelihoods (WWF 2012).

Yet this land is under intense pressure - land degradation is mapped in pink - which in turn threatens the long-term carrying capacity of the land for people and nature.



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What are Ecosystem Services?

In this context, ecosystem services can be defined as services that are generated by the natural environment, which enhance human well-being, and are directly used by people.

Why are ecosystem services important? Development decisions are primarily based on financial and social criteria. As the natural environment and associated ecosystem services are provided for free and not traded, they are perceived not to have financial value. Consequently, trade-offs around financial returns, jobs, and the environment are made with incomplete information in respect of the real value of ecosystem services that may be affected

or lost. For example, what are the economic and social implications of reduced access to water as a result of degraded water quality in rivers? So, while developments may be financially and socially feasible, the economic costs of the loss or reduction of ecosystem services are left to local government, and to the residents to bear.

Further to this, ecosystem services can only be supplied if the ecosystems from which they are derived are functional. For example, you cannot expect an irrigation scheme to continue to function if the pump is not working. Similarly, you can’t expect rivers to supply high quality water if the supporting systems, such as the wetlands, are removed or run down.

The ecosystems in and around Kokstad and Franklin offer many potential social and economic benefits. If protected and enhanced, the extensive river systems, local biodiversity, wetlands and forests have enormous ecosystem service capacity. The potential to provide these services is related to water systems, soil types, vegetation and so on. By mapping and evaluating the conservation status of different natural resource land categories and systems, it is possible to gain an understanding of the relationship between ecosystem types and society, and therefore also an understanding of the direct and indirect values that the systems represent.

Such an exercise has been undertaken by FutureWorks, and the resultant Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Analysis for the Kokstad/Franklin and gKM Region (full report attached as annexure), the key results of which are highlighted below.

These translate into numerous key ecosystem services offered by the surrounding natural areas of Kokstad and Franklin are:• Waste assimilation (including disease

control)• Waste dilution• Water supply• Water supply regulationFig 66. EXiSTiNg WATER SYSTEMS THAT PROViDE REgULATiNg AND SUPPORTiNg ECOSYSTEM SERViCES

Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, shoreline stability, groundwater replenishment and cultural values. Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life.

The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them to ‘more valuable’ intensive land use. As can be seen by the sections in pink and in lighter blue, few of these valuable ecosystems are in a pristine state, with many having been heavily to critically modified.


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• Land-based recreation• Soil formation and fertility• Flood attenuation• Fodder• Fibre• Meeting conservation targets

While putting a precise number on these services is a lengthy and intensive exercise, some preliminary calculations give the figures below. These represent what it would cost if these services needed to be done by engineering means.

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Fig 67. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERViCES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WiTHiN THE URbAN EDgE OF FRANKLiN, bASED ON CURRENT CONDiTiON, SiZE AND CONNECTiViTY

Source: FutureWorks (2012): Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Analysis

PHOTO 38. gRASSLANDS MAKE PERFECT CROPLANDS...

PHOTO 39. ...AS WELL AS bEiNg iDEAL FOR gRAZiNg

HABITATS FRANKLIN KOKSTAD COMBINED TOTALGRASSLANDS R 1 298 094 R 46 127 750 R 47 425 844WOODLANDS R 22 217 R 4 686 847 R 4 709 064WETLANDS R 116 293 960 R 236 213 632 R 352 507 593RIVERS R 946 7 97 R 9 960 381 R 10 907 178DAMS R 2 959 873 R 17 398 986 R 20 358 859TOTALS R 121 520 942 R 314 387 596 R 435 908 538

TAbLE.7. ESTiMATED VALUE OF SELECTED ECOSYSTEMS



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Fig 68. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERViCES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WiTHiN THE URbAN EDgE OF KOKSTAD AND FRANKLiN, bASED ON CURRENT CONDiTiON, SiZE AND CONNECTiViTY



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Fig 69. RANgE AND SUPPLY OF ECOSYSTEM SERViCES PER LAND COVER TYPE WiTHiN THE URbAN EDgE OF KOKSTAD bASED ON CURRENT CONDiTiON, SiZE AND CONNECTiViTY




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Fig 70. TOTAL ECOSYSTEM SERViCES SUPPLY PER LAND COVER TYPE WiTHiN THE URbAN EDgE OF KOKSTAD AND FRANKLiN, bASED ON CURRENT CONDiTiON, SiZE AND CONNECTiViTY



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4BNATURAL RESOURCES: ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT

SDF Urban Edge

Town Planning Scheme Boundary

Corridors

Corridors

Protected Areas

Protected Areas

Natural Heritage Sites

Conservancies

EKZNW TSCP

CBA 1

CBA 1

CBA 3

Threatened Ecosystems

Vulnerable

Endangered

Critically Endangered

Ntsikeni Nature Reserve

Fearnley Natural Heritage Site

Southern KZN Corridor

Mt Currie Nature Reserve

Two Rivers Conservancy

Eastern Cape Corridor

Eastern Cape Corridor

Bruce's ValleyNatural Heritage Site

Southern WezaState Forest

Fig 71. ENViRONMENTAL SENSiTiViTY MAP


6.6.3. ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT (4B)

Some of the greatest direct pressures on ecosystems are (adapted from Living Planet Report 2010: 12):• Habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation

(mainly through conversion of land for agricultural, industrial or urban use or damming and other changes to river systems for irrigation, hydropower or flow regulation)

• Over-exploitation of wild species population (e.g. overharvesting and/or overgrazing)

• Pollution (e.g. from excessive pesticide use in agriculture; urban and industrial effluents; excessive fertilizer use in agriculture)

• Climate change• Invasive species

Poor catchment management, water abstraction, invasive alien species and climate change further threaten the water resources of the province (KZN Provincial Government, 2011).

These global concerns are present in the Kokstad and Franklin area, in the form of encroachment onto vulnerable ecosystems, degradation of wetlands and water resources, and lack of formally protected natural resources. In fact, a large proportion of the natural grasslands in Sisonke have been irreversibly transformed or degraded. All remaining grasslands have conservation value

and provide habitat for threatened species of animals and plants. The Strategic Environmental Assessment has highlighted areas that are rich in rare/endangered species, and KZN Wildlife has distributed the maps generated to IDP consultants. (Sisonke DM Water & Sanitation Backlog Study Draft Final 2006). In Kokstad itself, evidence points towards plans for large scale transformation of natural areas, severe biological pollution of water, and neglect of urban pen spaces. Biodiversity areas and ecosystems are therefore considered to be highly fragmented and under threat from conversion to agricultural and urban uses and/or overgrazing.

Indigenous forests in KZN are considered to be particularly valuable wildlife refuges, but are generally threatened by fire and unsustainable use. It is essential that all remaining forest patches are protected and their use regulated.

Kokstad should consider the fact that it has an urban footprint that stretches across many scales – from local to regional. In terms of the ‘crossroads’ function of the town, for example, it plays a part in environmental impacts that can be local such as stormwater polluted by hydrocarbons from road surfaces or regional in the form of population density pressures on conservation areas. It also draws in resources from a wide ‘catchment’ that merely transfers impacts to a different location.

This map shows the areas of most critically endangered biodiversity, as well as protected areas and corridors falling within the Kokstad functional region.



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Fig 73. EFFECTS OF CLiMATE CHANgE ON biOMES iN SOUTH AFRiCA

Source: http://soer.deat.gov.za/Themes.aspx?m=273

Fig 72. KZN CLiMATE CHANgE ADAPTATiON CORRiDORS

Source: Climate Change Action Partnership (2011). Climate change adaptation corridors in KZN and the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Unpublished Report

Climate change experts predict dire consequences for South Africa if gHg emissions continue unabated. We are threatened with losing three of South Africa’s nine biomes, with the area semi-arid and arid areas drastically increasing while more productive and habitation-friendly biomes disappear. The South Africa on the right will not be able to support as many people - in terms of food, habitation, energy and living space - as the one on the left.

Present Biomes

Future Biomes (after climate change)

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Fig 74. THREATS TO biODiVERSiTY (KOKSTAD AND FRANKLiN)

“The GKM is experiencing challenges in finding the site for waste disposal as the one in Shayamoya is in a process of being closed. The mayor asked the community to consider other forms of disposing waste like recycling. If we do not recycle we will add to the climate change” – Zandile Msipha

PHOTO 40. STORM WATER

PHOTO 41. CLOSiNg THE EXiSTiNg LANDFiLL

Erosion, mines and quarries are threats to biodiversity and the landscape itself. Dams are points of abstraction where there is always the risk of drawing off more water than downstream riversystem can cope with, while all dams, unless specifically designed to accomodate local water-life, can be extremely disruptive to fish and other waterlife. irrigated agriculture also pose a threat, with pesticides and fertilizers being washed into rivers.



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Fig 75. DOWNSTREAM USERS


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Fig 76. THREATS TO biODiVERSiTY (KOKSTAD)

There are numerous existing and potential hazards and pollution sources at the town scale. The current landfill site was placed over a stream that drains into the Mzintlava River, while improperly maintained ViP toilets in Horseshoe mean that there is a constant risk of sewage draining into the water system. This threat is repeated further downriver at the sewage plants, where there have been numerous reports of inadequately treated water coming out of the outlet.

Stormwater run-off is another threat, with outlets draining directly into the river without being treated. Run-off from poor-quality unsurfaced roads (mostly in the industrial area) are a hazard to aquatic ecologies.

There are approximately 8000 downstream households dependent on the Mzintlava River for water supplies.


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4CNATURAL RESOURCES: CULTURAL SERVICES / LANDSCAPE BASE

6.6.4. CULTURAL SERVICES/ LANDSCAPE (4C)

Global sustainability indicators refer to the cultural services provided by nature highlighting the psychological and emotional benefits gained from human relations with ecosystems. In South Africa, a healthy and safe living environment is even recognized as a basic human right. By implication, it becomes necessary to consider how much the open space and natural resources in and around Kokstad contribute to a quality living space.

As mentioned above, Kokstad has a strong natural character with the natural landscape forming powerful structuring elements within and around the town while Franklin is a small node within a very rural setting, surrounded by agricultural fields on three sides and a wetland on the other.

Unfortunately, Kokstad as an urban system is largely out of balance with its natural surrounds. Based on an overview of the state of natural resources, open space assets are not valued, celebrated and used for their landscape, cultural and spiritual potential. The river system and wetlands are polluted through higher inflows of sewage and contaminated storm water than they can absorb and green open spaces are generally not well maintained or accessible.

However there is still a strong network of river

corridors and hilltops - the urban footprint has largely stayed clear of river corridors, wetlands, and hilltops, although these remain largely unmanaged spaces.

A green open space system should include a hierarchy of different spaces that invite different activities. These include greenways, waterways, meadows, woodlands, playing fields, nature reserves, parks, urban agriculture and playgrounds. (English Partnersips; The Housing Corporation, 2007) Distances to green/open spaces are set differently by various agencies: English Nature sets it at 300m; New York City sets their goal as ensuring everyone is within a 10min walk. The Urban Design Compendium benchmark is that a local park is within 3 – 5 minutes walk (250 – 400m) from the majority of homes. The CSIR Red Book determines that play spaces should be within 300m of primary schools and crèches, and 500-1500m of other uses.

While there is ample green open space within and around Kokstad associated with the river corridors, Kokstad does not meet any of the accessibility standards for public open spaces, (refer to Fig 68). There is a severe shortage of parks and public open spaces, with existing maintained green spaces all located within the Kokstad central, and none – outside of school facilities – within the townships of Shayamoya and Bhongweni. Consequently, there is a huge demand for safe places for children to play.

The green spaces of Kokstad offer varying levels of access to the public. While much of it is unfenced and accessible, little to none of it is managed, maintained or safe. The only formally maintained POS are:• The park between Main and Hope at the

intersection of Barker which is surrounded by a razor wire fence. This is not a welcoming or easily accessed space but is still relatively well used and a welcome refuge from the busy streets around.

• Two picnic areas where the grass is cut and there are benches and tables, one at the south entrance to town on either side

of the R56, and one along the edge of Jim Payne Drive, on the edge of the wild open space area between the town proper and Extension 7.

• The small POS zoned spaces in the centre of the blocks running down the south-west side of town, between Hawthorn Street and Elliot Street. These range from well maintained to not at all maintained, but have huge potential to be special public open spaces that are safe for children to play in and which give these blocks a distinct character and appeal.

Zoned public open spaces do exist in Shayamoya and Bhongweni, but none are landscaped or maintained.

Fig 77. ACCESS TO PARKS AND PLAYgROUNDS

Parks (500m walking distance) and playgrounds (300m walking distance)

PHOTO 42. DiLAPiDATED PLAY PARK bETWEEN KOKSTAD CENTRAL AND bHONgWENi

PHOTO 43. THE CENTRAL PARK:

PHOTO 44. PARK AT ENTRANCE TO KOKSTAD: WELL-MAiNTAiNED bUT NEXT TO N2

Parks and playgrounds are extremely limited in Kokstad, with the majority of the population living beyond walking distance from one, and the existing ones often being poorly maintained or, in the case of playgrounds, broken down and unusable. With the exception of one, all current facilities are located in Kokstad central, while the entire (and much higher) populations of bhongweni, Horseshoe, Shayamoya and Extension 7 have no access to this kind of amenity.



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Fig 78. gREEN SPACES iN AND AROUND KOKSTADPHOTO 45. TREE-LiNED STREETS


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Fig 79. URbAN EDgE iNTERFACE

This drawing shows the extent to which the interface of the edge of the town with nature is a positive one. A positive interface (1) is described here as having a public right of way between any private property and the natural area, where the private properties have low to medium height walls and entrances onto the street. in this case access to nature is open and available to everyone, and there is activity on the street that overlooks the natural area and makes it feel safe. A poor interface (2) is described here as where there is a public right of way, but very high walls and no entrances onto that public right of way make it feel unsafe and neglected. A bad or negative interface (3) is where there is no public right of way and therefore little or constrained access to the natural area at all, and because there are only backs of properties facing onto the natural area there is no natural surveillance and it feels unsafe and neglected.

Of the interfaces between the urban area and natural areas in Kokstad, 22% are positive, 5% are poor and 71% are negative.



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PHOTO 46. JiM PAYNE DRiVE - URbAN EDgE WiTH PARK

PHOTO 49. POSiTiVE URbAN EDgE - bHONgWENi

PHOTO 50. URbAN EDgE: gRASSLANDS, WETLANDS AND RiVER EAST OF TOWN

PHOTO 51. URbAN EDgE: PASTORAL CHARACTER WEST OF TOWN

PHOTO 47. NO-MAN’S LAND’ AT THE RiVER bETWEEN KOKSTAD CENTRAL AND bHONgWENi

PHOTO 48. POSiTiVE URbAN EDgE - bHONgWENi

Adelaide, Australia and Graff Reinet, Eastern Cape, South Africa are relevant precedent to both understand the structure of Kokstad, and when considering an approach to sustainable growth and development of the town.

All three settlements respond positively to their river systems, using the river course to structure the layout of the settlement. The edge treatment of both Adelaide and Graaf Reinet represent a sustainable approach to place making, locating appropriate land uses (i.e. sports fields and large parks) between the built edge and the sensitive riverine environment. This approach limits inappropriate intrusive and insensitive development on the edge of towns, and reinforces urbanity and the natural landscape, while protecting the place-making elements and the setting of the town.

The green system of Adelaide also serves to integrate a dispersed settlement, something that could be implemented in Kokstad to unify and consolidate the different part of the town. The green space in Adelaide is a focus for communal facilities such as sport fields, parks, concert venues, botanic gardens, memorials and related education facilities (i.e. environmental centre and aquatic centre etc), and in Kokstad could be used to respond to local needs such as communal food production and agricultural training.

PHOTO 52. gRASSLANDS ARE THE PREDOMiNANT ECOSYSTEM iN THE gKM, AND AN iNCREDibLE CULTURAL RESOURCE


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5. AGRICULTURE



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6.7. AGRICULTURE (5)A. Agricultural practices: Agricultural

production, production chains and product flows, and resource base and soil health

B. The “business” of agriculture: institutional dimensions, and rules of the game.

C. Skills, capacity & livelihood: skills, health, training.


For Kokstad and Franklin to be sustainable, the agricultural resource base needs to be protected and enhanced, the agricultural sector needs to become more inclusive and diverse and the local capacity and skills to engage in innovation in new sustainable agricultural practices must be expanded.

Specific goals may include:• Building resilience around diversity in crops

and scale of operations; • Reducing reliance on energy, chemicals

and decreasing pollution by moving away from resource dependent, large scale, commercial and industrialized or mechanised farming practices;

• Increasing inclusivity and expanding the potential for food security and sustainable livelihoods (jobs) by widening the scale and range of ownership options within the agricultural sector and broadening participation in agriculture;

• Improve food security by supporting and expanding of community based farming and urban agriculture;

• Expanding and creating local markets and the agricultural economy by promoting local use and beneficiation of products and materials;

• Protecting sources of indigenous medicine and foods;

• Improving resilience by protecting water supplies, crop selection, local markets;

• Developing agriculture skills and capacity in both primary agricultural production to

enhance livelihoods and promote economic development.


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5AAGRICULTURE: AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Fig 80. AgRiCULTURAL POTENTiAL (HigH PRiORiTY biODiVERSiTY AREAS ARE SHOWN WiTH WHiTE STRiPES)

6.7.2. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (5A)

Agricultural production

Kokstad and Franklin sit within a landscape of intense agricultural production; the East Griqualand is an area with a strong farming tradition. Some of the main agricultural products from this area include timber, eggs, beef, maize, cabbages and potatoes.

Agricultural activity benefits from the excellent location of GKM, with access to a good network of main roads and central to the surrounding forestry regions. There are four very active farmers associations in the area and a good presence of representatives from the Department of Agriculture. Despite this, agriculture has been declining over the last five to 10 years. The agricultural sector in South Africa as a whole has been declining with regard to GGP and employment since 2000 due to emigration, labour laws and the recession. Unfortunately, agriculture in GKM has been declining at a faster rate than the rest of South Africa (GKM LED 2011:33).

The majority of farms in the Kokstad and Franklin area are large commercial farms owned by third or fourth generation farmers (Roets, 2012). There are a handful of holistic farmers practicing methods that increase environmental health – with a view to increase profits, but only a small minority of growers are implementing agro-

ecological practices, and this only at a garden scale.

Currently, farming in Kokstad is centered around cattle (milk and meat), sheep (wool and mutton), maize, vegetables (such as cabbages and potatoes), egg production, as well as fodder/grazing crops like, lucerne, hay, etc. However, these traditional farming ventures are decreasing in profitability with profit margins being driven downwards by monopolies like Clover and others. Potato farming is becoming increasingly risky in the context of volatile markets and climates and is also resource input intensive.Some farms in the region are already seeking to diversify, with various farms experimenting with new crops and practices, like lavender (Ripplemead Farm), chestnuts and truffles (Willowdale), emus (Farm 715), etc. Intensive vegetable farming is possible but that is a very different form of agriculture that local farmers and labour are not accustomed or prepared for and is further complicated by the distances to markets.

Ferrero confectioners have earmarked the Kokstad region as a major hazelnut production area, further enhancing the diversity of the region. Ferrero’s South African subsidiary, Agrisudafrica, has purchased two farms near Franklin and imported a million hazelnut trees. It plans to facilitate local farms to diversify into hazelnut farming, with anything from two



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hectares upwards becoming viable to farm. Agrisudafrica is also a major supporter of sustainable and socially responsible farming practices (offering medical aid, provident fund, health and transport services and additional training to staff), and holds the potential to set an example of a socially sustainable operations model for other farms in the region. Whilst Ferrero’s presence in the area is in many ways positive, it will be important to ensure that farmers do not become reliant on both highly climate sensitive commodity as well as single export commodity, given future uncertainties around fossil fuel depletion and climate change.

Subsistence food gardening is relatively widespread in the region, with household and community food gardens common in Shayamoya, Bhongweni, Horseshoe and Extension 7. Crops include maize, cabbage, spinach and pumpkins and can greatly mitigate a household’s vulnerability to food shortages.

There is one area of municipally owned land, across the river from Horseshoe, that is being used haphazardly for farming and grazing, but this is not well managed nor organised.

The extent to which existing agricultural products grown or made in the area are processed or used within the Kokstad area differs widely for different products. The following set of diagrams describe which parts of the commodity chain happen within or near Kokstad, and which parts happen at distant national or even international farms or processing facilities. The commodity chains which have been documented include wheat and maize, vegetables, chickens and eggs, dairy and beef and timber.

Fig 81. EXiSTiNg CULTiVATED LAND


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Beef and Dairy

The Kokstad and Franklin area has predominantly dairy cattle and beef cattle operations. . Stud animals are bred at some operations in the area. Stud animals are supplied to local and national farmers at private stud breed sales. There are approximately five big dairy farms (1500 – 2000 head of cattle each) and approximately 20 smaller farms (300 head of cattle each). All farms operate sophisticated milking equipment with some operations using rotary dairies.

All the milk from local dairy farms is collected by Clover or Nestle; each farmer has a quota which he has to meet, and which he cannot exceed without incurring penalties.

The milk is taken to a collection centre just outside Kokstad (Rocky Ridge) then via Ixopo to regional and national processing and distribution centres. Fresh milk, powdered milk, UHT milk, yoghurt and cheese are then brought by truck to local Kokstad shops. No milk is processed or sold locally.

Most of the cattle (sheep and goats) that are reared in the region for meat are produced, slaughtered, packaged and sold locally. Dry dairy cows and bull calves from the dairy herds are also slaughtered locally.

Inputs for dairy and meat production commodity chains include equipment, infrastructure, pastures, feed, water, labour, pharmaceuticals and energy to run the milking systems.

By-products of dairy and meat production commodity chains include manure, blood, animal skins, bones, unwanted packaging, human manure once the product has been consumed and lots of methane.



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Grain production

Seed for wheat and maize is bought outside of the Kokstad area, typically from PANNAR Greytown (260km from Kokstad). There are several dryland white and yellow maize producing farms in the Kokstad area. Most of this maize is used for silage (maize harvested while green and preserved through anaerobic fermentation in a silo) in the dairy industry. The grain from the remaining maize growers is milled at two small mills outside of Kokstad (Bounapartes and Swartberg). One mills white maize (human consumption) and the other mills yellow maize (livestock and chicken feed).

PSP is the major feed mixing plant in the area. They obtain their raw materials from the mills in the area and elsewhere and mainly supply feed for the dairy industry in the area. Grainfoods is a re-distribution centre; receiving packaged beans, rice, maize meal, flour and several other commodities and splitting up the consignments for delivery to local retailers.

Inputs for the maize production commodity chain include equipment, infrastructure, sunlight, water, labour and nutrients to grow the crops and energy, infrastructure, equipment and labour to run the mills (most agricultural operations find it difficult to diversify because of equipment and infrastructure specificity; skills are easier to obtain.)

The maize and wheat farming production commodity chains include maize stover (‘waste’ plant material left over after the grain has been removed from the crop in the field) used as animal feed. Several traditional maize milling “by-products” from the production of mielie meal which are used in animal feeds include hominy chop (outer fibrous hull as well as the germ portion of the maize kernel - high protein value animal feed) or maize germ meal (high and low fat variants). By-products of wheat milling include wheat bran, wheat middlings, wheat pollard and wheat screenings also used as animal feed. All maize and wheat milling by-products are used (thus, there is no “wastage” from these operations).


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Eggs

Laying hens are bred, hatched and grown until they are ready to lay at 18 to 21 weeks old - outside the Kokstad area. Point-of-lay pullets are then transported into Kokstad for egg production. The two largest operations have approximately 60’000 laying hens (Peter Adam) and 15’000 laying hens (Braithwaite).

These 2 local egg production units provide eggs to Kokstad and the greater region as far south as Mthatha (and beyond); Peter Adam has packaging facilities on his farm. Additional eggs are brought in from Durban.

Spent hens (hens that have reached the end of their first production cycle at 60 weeks) are fattened up, and either slaughtered (at the new KwaXolo Chicken Abattoir near Port Shepstone) or sold live to local informal markets by a local operation, Panorama chickens.

Inputs for the chicken and egg production commodity chain include equipment, infrastructure, electricity, water, sawdust, labour, packaging material, pharmaceuticals (vitamins, medication, minerals, enzymes etc.) and chicken feed.

By-products of the chicken and egg production commodity chain include chicken manure, feathers, bones, blood and human manure once the product has been consumed.



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Chickens

Broiler chickens (chickens bred for eating) are not farmed at all in the Kokstad area – they are brought in from regional distribution centres and sold in local Kokstad shops. One free-range operation exists in the Swartberg region, but overall this is an entirely unexploited opportunity.


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Vegetables

Very few vegetables are grown at a commercial scale in the Kokstad and Franklin area other than cabbages and potatoes. Most vegetables are grown in other places in the country, trucked to regional fresh produce markets, processing facilities and distribution centres and then brought to Kokstad shops by truck. Cabbages and potatoes which are grown locally are not sold locally, but taken to fresh produce markets elsewhere, normally Durban, and then processed, packaged and brought back to Kokstad shops by truck (or other products from other regions are brought to Kokstad).

Inputs for the vegetable production commodity chain include equipment, infrastructure, sunlight, water, labour and nutrients to grow the product, as well as herbicides and pesticides; commercially grown potatoes are input intensive.

By-products of the vegetable production commodity chain include unwanted packaging, unwanted plant material (peelings, leaves etc.), human manure once the product has been consumed, and pesticide run-off which may be polluting the local rivers and underground water resources. Vegetable harvesting by-products can be used as animal feed.



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Wheat

Wheat is grown by a small number of farmers in the area, and it is is milled at Kokstad Milling.

PSP is the major feed mixing plant in the area. They obtain their raw materials from the mills in the area and elsewhere and mainly supply feed for the dairy industry in the area. Grainfoods is a re-distribution centre; receiving packaged beans, rice, maize meal, flour and several other commodities and splitting up the consignments for delivery to local retailers.

By-products of maize and wheat farming commodity chains include waste packaging once the product has reached people’s homes or farms, and human / animal manure once the products have been consumed (In all cases animal manure is again used as fertilizer in the same operations in which it is produced).


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Timber

There are commercial companies that provide seedlings to the forestry companies. Some plantations are privately owned but most are owned by bigger companies like SAPPI, Mondi etc.

The sawmill at Franklin receives logs from the surrounding area and produces dimensional timber / lumber. Poles and timber from Franklin does supply the Built-It in Kokstad, and goes out of the local area to regional and national processing and distribution centres, where it is made into furniture and trucked back to local Kokstad shops.

Inputs for the timber production and commodity chain include equipment, infrastructure, water, sunlight, seedlings, labour, nutrients and energy to run the sawmill.

By-products of the timber production and commodity chain include unwanted timber products (furniture sent to the dump), and sawdust (used in various products such as pressed board, and as bedding material for broiler production).



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Resource base and soil health

The soils in the Kokstad area, as with the soils in South Africa in general, lack the full range of minerals, including nitrogen and phosphorous, which are required to support conventional intensive agriculture farming methods (Roets, 2012). While the northern hemisphere has a problem with soil toxicity due to too much nitrogen and phosphorous being pumped back into the system from intensive animal production and human waste, South Africa’s soils are generally marginal. Local commercial farmers use fertilizers to provide the missing elements and minerals, greatly increasing yields. Fertilizers can be a useful and effective method of improving yields, however, it is questionable whether external fertilizer use is sustainable – since many fertilizers are extracted (mined) and/or synthesized from fossil resources in an energy intensive process, and then need to be transported to where they are used. Furthermore, problems occur when there is excessive use of fertilizers or when fertilizers are incorrectly applied leading to imbalances in the soil.

In general, the fertility of arable soils in KwaZulu Natal has declined as a result of continual, unsustainable agricultural production methods that remove nutrients. Thus, the managed use of fertilizers becomes important, as does no-till methods of production - which are gaining ground. The province is rated as one of the two provinces within South Africa with the most serious levels of land degradation, with erosion increasing rapidly over the last two decades (PGDS 2011). GKM’s climate and soils offer a range of agricultural potential; however, the most productive land often overlaps with the most critical biodiversity areas.

The SDF identifies the loss of productive land, due to bad land-use management, inappropriate development, land reform and insecure water supplies, as a key problem facing the agriculture sector (GKM SDF Review 2011/12). Local geology and the age of the soils mean that as little as 15-40% of farmland is appropriate for mainstream intensive agriculture.


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5BINSITUTIONAL DIMENSIONS:THE BUSINESS OF AGRICULTURE

6.7.3. THE “BUSINESS” OF AGRICULTURE (5B)

“institutions are the humanly devised constraints that structure human interaction. They are made up of formal constraints (rules, laws, constitutions), informal constraints (norms of behavior, conventions, and self imposed codes of conduct), and their enforcement characteristics. Together they define the incentive structure of societies and specifically economies.

institutions and the technology employed determine the transaction and transformation costs that add up to the costs of production…if institutions are the rules of the game, organizations and their entrepreneurs are the players… [and] the organizations that come into existence will reflect the opportunities provided by the institutional matrix.”

(North, 1993).

The existing scale and type of production in Kokstad is not the result of chance but is the specific outcome of the institutional aspects in which they operate – the so-called ‘rules of the game’. Currently, the ‘rules’ dictate that it is more efficient for fresh produce to be processed in Durban, Pietermaritzberg or Johannesberg than locally in Kokstad; that there are only two scales of food production (large-scale commercial and home-based subsistence farming), that diversification of agricultural production is increasingly rewarding (although the transaction

costs of switching to alternative farming methods and commodities are high), and that agriculture is not seen as an attractive or even sustainable future by the youth.

These ‘rules’ underpin and shape all economic behaviours and interactions. Actors adapt to these rules to be as successful as possible within existing constraints. It is these rules that determine which models of behaviours are successful, and which aren’t. While it is difficult to impossible for a central body – such as a municipality, government or any similar organization – to change the behaviours of individual actors, it is possible to change the ‘rules’ – any change which will rapidly lead to different behaviours from all the constituent parts as they seek to maximize their own success within the new paradigm. At the Kokstad level, there are many examples of such ‘rules’ – rules that determine a certain set of actions and choices that are not necessarily producing the maximum benefit for those involved.

Key rules that impact on the current status quo:

1. Access to markets

One of the key factors driving Kokstad’s successes and failures as an agricultural hub is the access it offers to markets, and the access markets have to it. The Kokstad region itself is a significant market, but while this does in some cases support local production, the town’s position on major road networks simultaneously allow more distant (and often, more economically efficient) producers to access the local market, thereby undercutting local producers.

2. Corporatisation of Food

Whereas until quite recently products produced locally were mostly sold to locally owned grocery stores and processed in local centres, national and multinational food corporations have increasingly monopolised commodity chains, as evidenced by the transformation of the cheese factory at Rocky Ridge into a collection point for Clover. Both Clover and Nestle dictate terms to farmers due to their dominance in the dairy market – for example, Clover’s imposition of

a 50,000l daily quota (no more, no less – if it cannot be obtained from the area they will stop collecting in the region) means that it is difficult to impossible for farmers to support a local dairy plant, and thus are left without any alternatives or back-ups. Yet they remain highly vulnerably to fluctuations in milk prices, fuel prices (which could soon make it impractical for Clover to continue trucking milk over such long distances), and other farmers’ ability to meet that quota.

Clover’s ability to outcompete local dairy processors is reliant on rules 3 – externalisation of costs, 4 – dominance of supermarket chains, and 5 – branding and packaging – rules which could theoretically change to encourage a different ‘institutional matrix’.

3. Externalisation of costs

A higher-order rule at play throughout the agricultural and manufacturing sectors nationally is the lack of real-cost pricing for trucks travelling by road. While trucks inflict far more damage that lead to far more regular and expensive road maintenance and upgrades, these costs are born equally by taxpayers and other road users, thereby providing a substantial subsidy to the trucking industry. Similarly, the environmental costs incurred by greenhouse gas emissions and the consumption of non-renewable energy are borne globally. This allows Clover (and other producers) to externalize the costs of its extended distribution network and outcompete local production facilities whose main competitive advantage would otherwise be avoiding those costs.

4. Dominance of supermarket chains

Kokstad’s location has made it a prime destination for national retailers and supermarket chains. The ability of these large chains to drive down suppliers’ prices, to externalize the costs of extensive transport networks, and to continuously supply fresh produce regardless of season (now the norm and not the exception) has given national supermarket chains a significant advantage over local grocers. This, however, has locked Kokstad into an extensive network of national and global supply chains,

severely undermining the ability of local producers to meet local demands, with the result that local producers have to feed their products into regional and national markets (where they are often picked up by the same supermarket chains, repackaged and sent back to Kokstad!). Thus foodstuffs produced locally often gain hundreds of vehicle miles travelled (VMT) from the GKM to Durban or Joburg and back again.

Even under current ‘rules’, this is not entirely necessary – some franchise agreements allow for a certain percentage of produce to be sourced locally (eg. the Spar in neighbouring Underberg sources 25% of fresh produce locally), and even tightly controlled supply chains like Woolworths’ are beginning to allow local produce to feature in local stores. However, it is often easier to source everything from a single supplier than to set up several separate, localised distribution networks, while – conversely – when a local supplier does become successful the challenges of supplying to retail (exacting standards, the volume of demand, etc.) can be extreme.

5. Branding and packaging

Branding, packaging and marketing play an increasingly large role in consumer preference. For local products to stay local, they need to compete against the massive marketing budgets of national producers (such as Clover, Nestle, Woolworths etc). Meat and eggs are currently not aggressively marketed under specific brands, which has made it easier for these products to remain local. Indeed, the local egg producers package their eggs under different brands for different customers, as does the abattoir with the meat it produces. Dairy, however, requires significantly more processing and has to compete against big brands on supermarket shelves. It is perhaps not surprising then that dairy is one of the products (the other being vegetables) that is processed entirely outside of Kokstad and the GKM.

The need for branding and packaging also works against small-scale commercial producers, who, working alone, can neither incur the costs



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Fig 82. EXiSTiNg LAND OWNERSHiPPHOTO 53. VEggiE gARDEN iN SHAYAMOYA

of branding and packaging nor guarantee the continuous supply that a branded product requires.

6. Economies of Scale

The economies of scale and specificity of equipment and infrastructure for various agricultural operations, the demands for constant and steady supply by shops and processing alike, and the difficulties with transporting and packaging products all discourage small-scale commercial farmers, so that the two predominant forms of food production within the GKM are almost entirely large-scale commercial farming and subsistence-based food gardens. An in-between scale – smaller commercial farms – is missing.

7. Low skills and little investment in agricultural training

The lack of investment in agricultural labour and limited resources for skills training has created the perception – currently mostly a reality – that agriculture is a dead-end, backbreaking job, reserved for those without any other alternatives. This is the outcome of a labour system that did not allow for alternative ownership models (such as cooperatives between farmers and labourers) and/or reward competence and ability with upward mobility. Agriculture, here, is not seen as a potential business, but as a last resort. This means that it is often the least qualified and least capable who end up as labour, thereby reinforcing both farmers’ reluctance to invest in their staff and their staff’s reluctance to stay in their jobs.

8. Diversification pays

The uncertainty regarding climate change and the volatility in global food markets has created an insecure environment for farmers, who are increasingly eager to lower their exposure to risk in any specific subsector by diversifying into others. Thus, there is increasing local willingness – and even demand – to explore alternative farming methods and crops, with a variety of initiatives taking root locally (from hazelnuts to lavender to truffles – expanded on in 5A). Farm Bed & Breakfasts, hunting, fishing and farm

tourism are also methods used in the Kokstad area to diversify farm incomes.

9. Nature of the low-end market

The low-end market is growing rapidly, and is often greatly misunderstood by the middle-income people who are its suppliers. If anything, this market is more discerning, demanding value for money – which is not the same as the lowest possible price. If this means paying more for meat with less fat at Woolworths than at a lower-end supermarket, then they will do so. At the same time, tastes are not the same as the traditional middle-income market (e.g. meat is often preferred tougher than is currently considered Grade A, and the bulk of this market is lactose intolerant, so that maas and yoghurt - value-added products- are the preferred dairy products). Needs in terms of packaging (e.g. for travelling by taxi, or smaller volumes for cheaper) are also different, and offer an opportunity for development.

These are some of the key rules that govern the current status quo. Some, such as the externalization of transport and environmental costs, are determined at a national level and/or global level, and cannot be changed through local institutions. Others, however, hold great potential to, through certain small but well-considered measures, effect significant change at the local level.


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5CAGRICULTURE: SKILLS, CAPACITY & LIVELIHOODS

6.7.4. SKILLS, CAPACITY & LIVELIHOOD (5C)

Agriculture and jobs

Agriculture is a key sector in Kokstad; it forms the base on which the town exists and operates. The primary sector makes up 36% of the GVA and offers employment to 29.3% of the working force, while much more GVA and employment is created in the secondary and tertiary sectors, together making it the biggest source of income and employment in the GKM (GKM IDP 2011).

Agriculture is typically a sector with very high multipliers – money spent by farmers stays in the local economy, and if its goods can be processed locally, that money can circulate again and again – through labour, processing and local consumption. This is clearly evident in Kokstad, where most of the existing light industry exists to support the agricultural sector.

In addition, in areas where development pressure exists, studies have repeatedly shown that agricultural land and uses “contribute more in tax revenue than they require in municipal services. Exactly the opposite is true for residential development and even most commercial and industrial development. So, it is actually fiscally responsible to maintain agricultural land in agriculture” (Ratner, 2011).

Furthermore, well-managed farmland provides

ecosystem services, such as “water filtration, ground water replenishment, soil enrichment, stormwater retention – all of which would have to be replaced with costly engineered systems if the land were converted to less permeable surfaces” (ibid.).

There is great potential for developing the economy through the development of agribusiness and agro-processing. As mentioned before, agriculture is a potentially potent force for industrial growth, manufacturing and job creation through its strong multiplier effects. In turn, this would reduce dependence on primary goods (milk, potatoes, etc) being trucked to Durban. The perception of agriculture as purely “farming” needs to change - agricultural development depends on “increasing the productivity of the entire system, not just farming” (UNECO, 2009). Efforts to increase efficiency throughout the physical transformation phases and transaction links of the commodity chains would involve an array of strategies to enhance research and development, input markets, farm level production, product processing, storage, handling, transport, marketing and trade, financing, etc” (ibid. - see Table.7).

Agri-tourism

Finally, agritourism is rapidly growing in popularity and the beautiful scenery and working landscapes are strong attractors for tourists. Yet there is limited engagement by local government with stakeholders in this sector.

While Kokstad and its hinterland does not show the capacity to become a strong agricultural player like for example the fruit regions of the Western Cape, it nevertheless has the potential to develop as a regional agri-attraction, both in terms of food distribution (as is already occurring through the Massmart distribution centre) and as a tourist destination, with local intensive dairies, vermiculture and other interesting and progressive farming operations. These agri-attractions are already being showcased through the newly started Encounter East Griqualand Country and Garden Festival hosted for the first time in 2011.

Skills and capacity

Farmers are desperate to diversify (they are acutely aware of their exposure to risks from volatile climates and markets) but they face many obstacles: severe skills shortages, lack of reliable labour, poor service delivery and poor transport links between town and farms all make it very difficult to farm more intensively (particularly crops that require some degree of skill and/or are dependent on very quick harvests and limited transport times).

Farm labourers similarly face many hurdles to being better and more effective - the limited availability and costs of skills training, the temporary/seasonal nature of farm work (meaning that you need always be ready to move to another paying opportunity), the cost of transport to farms, the lack of upward mobility within most farm positions, the lack of resources (health, educational, entertainment) available

living on a farm, and – at times – neglect of workers’ rights.

The skills of staff are very low. Most labourers do not understand technical terms or numeracy (volumes for spraying, hectares, acres etc). All skills training is done on site and inevitably staff leave for the city once they have skills (e.g. farmers send labourers for driving licenses and they buy taxis or move to the city to become drivers). This is a disincentive for farmers to provide skills enrichment to staff.

Farm labourers do not want to work on farms at current conditions. Wages offered as a farm labourer are less than public grants when one has several children. Furthermore, most people don’t want to live on farms – they want to build their own house in town. There is no affordable means of transport to get from the farms/rural areas of GKM into Kokstad town. For this reason staff have no access to services to the detriment

TAbLE.8. FOOD AND AgRiCULTURAL SYSTEM MATRiX: AgRiCULTURE AS bUSiNESS



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PHOTO 54. COUNTiNg COWS

PHOTO 55. VEggiE gARDEN iN SHAYAMOYA

PHOTO 56. WiLLOWDALE FARM iS DiVERSiFYiNg iNTO OAK TREES AND TRUFFLES

of their productivity levels and the lifestyle on public grants living in Kokstad Town is actually better. For these reasons, members of the labour force are reluctant to take up agricultural training or agricultural jobs. (GKM LED 2011:33-34)

Farmers face an additional and very significant obstacle in that their incomes are rapidly decreasing even as their asset values increase. Taxes are imposed when land is sold, making sales both difficult and expensive, which makes it difficult for farmers whose children do not want to take over the farm to exit the farming business. However, the younger generation who do choose to farm, generally return with agricultural degrees and even MBAs, and new perspectives and practices. This has led to a community where there are a number of progressive-minded farmers willing to experiment; a significant resource in and of itself.

A further major problem relates to the changes in food commodity chains over the last two decades. Whereas before products produced locally were mostly sold to locally owned grocery stores and processed in local centres, national and international food corporations have increasingly monopolised commodity chains, as evidenced by the transformation of the cheesery at Rocky Ridge into a collection point for Clover. Both Clover and Nestle dictate terms to farmers due to their dominance in the dairy market, charging high rates to collect milk which threatens to price out smaller commercial dairy farmers in GKM. The lack of any local processing plants means that dairy farmers have absolutely no alternatives to the national and multinational monopolies.

In addition, the ecological footprint is needlessly expanded by extra food miles as items are transported to and from Durban. The same happens to potatoes, which are also regularly travel to the markets in Durban before being transported back by Pick&Pay, Spar and Shoprite.

There is a need to implement policies and guidelines, not only to monitor and control the impact on the environment, but also to

educate farmers on best agricultural practices, rejuvenation of land, minimizing input reliance, etc. This will allow farmers to feed themselves and their local communities with limited resources, yet still remaining viable over the long term. (PGDS)

Social problems also have extreme impacts on agricultural capacity, with the lack of services in rural pockets and especially Franklin severely hampering the availability of labour, to the point where - despite 30-50% unemployment rates - farms surrounding Franklin have to source half their staff from Kokstad.

“The health of staff is a major barrier to functionality of farms. Mobile clinics only come once a month, often less, and the Department of Health does not communicate their arrival or arrange proper access to farms. ‘Friends in Ireland’ attempted to open a permanent clinic in Franklin but after years of red tape imposed by the department, they had to withdraw this plan. NGOs such as ‘Friends in Ireland’ and TLC’ are mobilising HIV/AIDS counselling and family care in the Franklin/Swartberg area but are receiving no support from the department.” (GKM LED 2011:33-34)

Farmers identify their main challenges as inadequate infrastructure (poorly maintained district access roads, telecommunications infrastructure, fire management support etc.), high property rates (especially with regard to regional competitiveness), unsustainable and poorly serviced rural housing developments that increase crime and stock theft, and minimal official support in guarding against stock theft (pers. comm. Zwartberg Farmers Association).


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7.

CONCLUSIONS AND NEXT STEPS


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7. CONCLUSIONS AND NEXT STEPS

7.1. THE STATUS QUO SYNOPSISKokstad (and Franklin as a “satellite” of Kokstad for the purposes of this conclusion) is a relatively small node in the middle of a large sparsely inhabited hinterland, and in many ways epitomises the South African condition. However the point of this project is to look at it through a different lens. Planning for sustainability requires a detailed understanding of the uniqueness of this place, because it is in finding ways to optimise the resource base here that the area will be able to build resilience, becoming less dependent, through implementation of a diverse set of strategies that will facilitate adaptation to the climate change and energy shocks that are predicted, and hopefully also mitigation of these effects on the environment, people and livelihoods both here and further afield.

Kokstad has many positive attributes that offer significant scope to build resilience. The most significant ones include:• Substantial GKM land ownership,

which potentially enables pro-active implementation of sustainable strategies.

• Agricultural resource base (skills, land, climate and soils) which potentially enables a high degree of self-sufficiency.

• Local water supplies. This is one of the most valuable attributes and well managed will also contribute to self sufficiency.

• Well-organised local government. The best strategies in the world are meaningless without the capacity to implement them.

• Natural resources, and biodiversity, which if protected and well managed have the potential to provide essential services in a sustainable manner for the future.

• Willingness and enthusiasm to embrace the move towards a sustainable future, without which this project would be pointless.

However the long-term sustainability of Kokstad is also very exposed to severe risks and

challenges associated with climate change and increased energy shocks including:• Extreme vulnerability of the agricultural

economy to energy shocks such as fuel price increases impacting on the costs of freight movement and distribution of products

• Vulnerability of the agricultural economy to climate change and potential crop failure and water limitations

• Pressures on critical life resources including water and ecosystem services that are already degraded, depleted, or exported/ over abstracted.

• Infrastructure capacity challenges leading to failure of basic service provision

• Institutional fragmentation and dysfunction reducing the ability to deal with infrastructure challenges

• Low skills and employment levels and high levels of poverty

The main objective of an Integrated Sustainable Development Plan (ISDP) is to build resilience and improve the wellbeing of current and future residents (our children) within an uncertain global future. Emerging practices and potentials to achieve this resilience include:• Experiments in sustainable farming and

crop diversification in the agricultural sector• Exploring sustainable settlement pilot

projects• The opportunity for an end-to- end waste

management facility and programmes to replace the dump which has reached the end of its life

• A potential model land reform project• A young population with a willingness to

embrace new ideas and new ways of doing things (as demonstrated by the Green Ambassadors)

• Even the necessity to address water supply and reticulation challenges presents an opportune moment to think differently about water management

• Kokstad has the potential to become a national and global leader in sustainability,

through implementation of projects and practices that build resilience and agility, enabling Kokstad to adapt and thrive into the future.



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Republic of South Africa . (1998). Prevention of Illegal Eviction and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act 19. National Goverment, Department of Housing. Pretoria: Author.

Republic of South Africa . (1999). Act No 50 of 1999, Rental Housing Act. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa . (2004). National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998) as amended by Act No. 8 of 2004. National Government, Department of Environmental Affairs. Pretoria: Author.

Republic of South Africa . (2008). Act 16 of 2008, Social Housing Act. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (1997). Act 62 of 1997, Extension of Security of Tenure Act. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (1997). Act No 107 of 1997: Housing Act. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2000). National Land Transport Strategic Framework. Government, Department of Transport. Pretoria: National Government.

Republic of South Africa. (2002). National Land Transport Strategic Framework . National Government, Department of Transport. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2004). Comprehensive Housing Plan For Sustainable Human Settlements (Breaking New Ground Housing Vision). National Government , Department of

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Housing . Pretoria: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2006). National Rental Housing Strategy. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Pretoria: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2008). Act 23 of 2008, Housing Development Agency Act. National Government, Department of Human Settlement. Cape Town: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2011, 12 12). Human Settlements Policy Communique , No 4 . Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa: Author.

Republic of South Africa. (2011). Blue Drop Report. National Government, Department of Water Affairs. Pretoria: National Government.

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Republic of South Africa. The National Housing Code. National Government, Department of Human Settlement, Pretoria.

SHF. (2006). Community Residential Units (CRU) Policy Framework and Programme Guidelines. Author.

Sisonke District Municipality. (2006). Water and Sanitation Backlog Study Draft Final Report. District Authority, Water Services Department. Ixopo: Author.

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8.

LIST OF APPENDICES


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8. LIST OF APPENDICESInforming this Status Quo document is a number of more detailed reports produced by the City Think Space team and/or subcontractors. While too detailed for this report, they are provided in digital format:

• Kokstad ISDP - Kokstad-Franklin Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Analysis, FutureWorks (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP - Results of a Municipal Services Financial Model for Greater Kokstad Local Municipality - Report, PDG (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP - Results of a Municipal Services Financial Model for Greater Kokstad Local Municipality - Presentation, PDG (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP - LED Analysis and Proposals, Lees & Associates (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP - Proposed and Priority Project Sheets, CTS Team and Subcontractors (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP – Green Ambassador Report, Meshfield (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP - Stakeholder Engagement Records (DPA) 2012

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo - Human Settlement Desktop Evaluation, Lees & Associates (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo - Human Settlement Field Work Report, Lees & Associates (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo - Land Report Annexure, SSI (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo - Land Report, SSI (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo - Social Capital Report, Lees & Associates (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo – Infrastructure Desktop Analysis, SSI (2012)

• Kokstad ISDP Status Quo: Economic Analysis, Focus Project Management (2012)


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Documents

Kokstad Integrated Sustainable Development Plan: Status Quo Report