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www.greenpeace.de
Krill oil – are there alternatives?
Imprint Greenpeace e. V., Hongkongstraße 10, 20457 Hamburg, Tel. 040/3 06 18 - 0 Responsible for Content Thilo Maack Foto Titel: © http://krill.rutgers.edu/Greenpeace
No funding from government or corporationsGreenpeace is an international environmental organization that is completely independent of governments, political parties and industry. It uses non-violent actions in campaigns to protect the capacity of our planet Earth to nurture life in all its diversity. Some 580,000 people in Germany support Greenpeace financially, making our daily work to protect the environment possible.
Authors:
Clarissa Gödde, Institute for Alternative and Sustainable Nutrition
Dr. Markus Keller, Fachhochschule des Mittelstands (University of Applied Sciences)
Giessen/Bielefeld, 07.02.2018
Krill oil – are there alternatives?
03/2
018
S
S02
19 1
2
Index
IndexofTables..........................................................................................................................3
IndexofAbbreviations..............................................................................................................3
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................5
2 PhysiologicalroleofLCn-3PUFAs....................................................................................5
3 Recommendedintakeoflongchainomega-3fattyacids.................................................6
4 EffectsofLCn-3PUFAsonhumanhealth.........................................................................8
4.1 Cardiovasculardiseases..............................................................................................9
4.2 Inflammatorydiseases................................................................................................9
4.3 Neurologicaldevelopmentanddegeneration..........................................................10
4.4 Other.........................................................................................................................10
4.5 HealthclaimsforEPAandDHA.................................................................................10
5 Sourcesofn-3PUFAs:krillandplant-basedalternatives................................................11
5.1 Krilloil.......................................................................................................................11
5.2 Plant-basedLCn-3PUFAsources.............................................................................12
5.2.1 Microalgaeoil....................................................................................................12
5.2.2 Transgenicland-basedplantcrops....................................................................13
5.3 Comparisonofkrillwithmicroalgaeoil....................................................................13
5.3.1 Bioavailabilityofmicroalgaeoilversuskrilloil..................................................13
5.3.2 Safetyofmicroalgaeoilversuskrilloil..............................................................14
6 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................15
References...............................................................................................................................16
3
Index of Tables
Table1: Recommendationsforn-3PUFAintake1
Table2: TransgenicplantswithEPA/DHAcontent2
Index of Abbreviations
AA Arachidonicacid
AAP AmericanAcademyofPediatrics
AFFSA French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational
HealthandSafety
AHA AmericanHeartAssociation
ALA α-linolenicacid
AND AcademyofNutritionandDietetics
CVD Cardiovasculardisease(s)
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DHA Docosahexaenoicacid
EE Ethylester
EFSA EuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority
EPA Eicosapentaenoicacid
EU EuropeanUnion
FAO TheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
FFA Freefattyacid
GL Glycolipid
GMO Geneticallymodifiedorganism
GOED GlobalOrganizationforEPAandDHAOmega-3s
HDL High-densitylipoprotein
ISSFAL InternationalSocietyfortheStudyofFattyAcidsandLipids
LA Linoleicacid
LCn-3PUFA Longchainomega-3polyunsaturatedfattyacid
LDL Low-densitylipoprotein
n-6PUFA Omega-6polyunsaturatedfattyacid
PCB Polychlorinatedbiphenyl
4
PL Phospholipid
SCAN ScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonNutrition
TAG Triacylglycerol
VITAL VitaminDandOmega-3Trial
WHO WorldHealthOrganization
5
Introduction
Krill are shrimp-like marine crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea. Krill oil is primarily
obtainedfromAntarctickrill(Euphausiasuperba).Duetoitshighcontentofthelongchain
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docosahexaenoicacid(DHA)krilloiliswidelyusedasaLCn-3PUFAsupplement,inaddition
toLCn-3PUFAsupplementsderivedfromfishormicroalgae.Incontrasttoterrestrialplants,
marinemicroalgaearenotonlyabletosynthesizeLCn-3PUFAs,butarethemainprimary
producersofthesefattyacids inthemarineenvironment.3Thus,bytrophicupgradingEPA
andDHAaccumulatealongthemarine foodchain inkrilland fish. InkrilloilEPAandDHA
occur in phospholipid (PL) and free fatty acid (FFA) form, while in fish oil they are
predominantlypresentintriacylglycerol(TAG)form.Basedonthesebiochemicalvariationsa
reviewhasdiscussedahigherbioavailabilityofEPAandDHAfromkrilloilthanfishoil,but
concludedtheavailablehumanstudiesareinconclusive4.
1 Physiological role of LC n-3 PUFAs
Whilesaturatedfattyacidspredominantlyareutilizedtoprovideandstoreenergy,PUFAs,
likeEPAandDHA,havestructuralandregulatoryfunctions.Thus,theydeterminethefluidity
ofbio-membranes,altertheinflammatorycapacityoftissuehormonesandinfluencecellular
signallingpathwaysandgeneexpression.5HighconcentrationsofDHAareespeciallyfound
inbraintissueandtheretina.ThereisscientificevidencethataPUFA-richdietisassociated
with a reduced risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD)6, inflammatory conditions, like
arthritis7, and neurodegenerative diseases8. It iswell known that DHA is essential for the
neurological and visual development of infants.9 The health effects of LC n-3 PUFAs are
discussedindetailinchapter3.
EPA and DHA are considered as conditionally essential for humans because they can be
synthesizedfromtheessentialfattyacidα-linolenicacid(ALA).10However,theconversionof
ALA to EPA andDHA in the humanbody is limited by the set of enzymes responsible for
elongationanddesaturation,whichtheysharewiththeomega-6fattyacids(n-6PUFA),i.e.
theconversionoflinoleicacid(LA)toarachidonicacid(AA).Modernhumannutritionisrich
inn-6PUFAslikeLA,therefore,theconversionofALAintolongchainn-3PUFAsisverylow
6
(ALA toEPA~8-12%;ALA toDHA<1%).Women seem tohavehigher conversions rates
(ALAtoEPAupto21%;ALAtoDHAupto9%)thanmen(ALAtoEPA0.3-8%;ALAtoDHA<
1%).5 The International Society for theStudyof FattyAcidsandLipids (ISSFAL) concluded
thattheconversionofALAtoDHAininfantsamountsto1%andis“considerablylower”in
adults.11
2 Recommended intake of long chain omega-3 fatty acids
Many international and national authorities and scientific organizations have published
recommendationsforthedaily intakeofn-3PUFAs.TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)
proposesan-3PUFA(allformscombined)intakeof1-2%ofthetotalenergyintake.12The
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
assessaminimumdietaryrequirement/adequateintakeforALAof0.5%oftotalenergyto
be sufficient to prevent deficiency symptoms in adults.13,14 Recommendations for the
combinedintakeofEPAandDHAforthegeneraladultpopulationmostlyvarybetween250
mg/day (EFSA13) and500mg/day (ISSFAL15) (Table1). These recommendations aremainly
basedonconsiderationsconcerningcardiovascularhealth.Duetoinsufficientdata,itisnot
possible to derive an average requirement for EPA and/or DHA. To date, LC n-3 PUFA
deficiencysymptomsarenotknown.13Inaddition,themajorityofinternationalandnational
organizations recommend a minimum intake of 200 mg DHA per day for pregnant and
lactating women, taking into account the role of LC n-3 PUFAs in visual and cognitive
developmentoftheinfants.16
Table 2: Recommendations of international and national authorities and scientificorganizationsforthen-3PUFAintakeofadults
Region Organization TargetPopulation RecommendationGlobal Foodand
AgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)14
Generaladultpopulation 0.5-0.6%ALAoftotaldietaryenergy250mgEPA+DHA/day
Pregnantandlactatingwomen
300mgEPA+DHA/day,ofwhich≥200mg/dayshouldbeDHA
7
InternationalSocietyfortheStudyofFattyAcidsandLipids(ISSFAL)17
Generaladultpopulation ≥500mgEPA+DHA/day
USA AcademyofNutritionandDietetics(AND)18
Generaladultpopulation 500mgEPA+DHA/day
AmericanHeartAssociation(AHA)19
Generaladultpopulation 500mgEPA+DHA/day
AmericanAcademyofPediatrics(AAP)20
Pregnantandlactatingwomen
200-300mgDHA/day
Canada DietitiansofCanada21
Generaladultpopulation 300-450mgEPA+DHA/day
Australia&NewZealand
DepartmentofHealth&Ageing,NationalHealth&MedicalResearchCouncil22
Generaladultpopulation Men:160mgEPA+DPA+DHA/dayWomen:90mgEPA+DPA+DHA/day
Europe EuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA)13
Generaladultpopulation 0.5%ALAoftotaldietaryenergy250mgEPA+DHA/day
Pregnantandlactatingwomen
Additional100-200mgDHA/day
UnitedKingdom
ScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonNutrition(SACN)23
Generaladultpopulation 450mgEPA+DHA/day
Germany,Austria,Switzerland
GermanNutritionSociety,AustrianNutritionSocietyand
Generaladultpopulation 0.5%ALAoftotaldietaryenergy
Pregnantandlactatingwomen
≥200mgDHA/day
8
SwissSocietyforNutrition24
France FrenchAgencyforFood,EnvironmentalandOccupationalHealthandSafety(AFFSA)25
Generaladultpopulation 250mgDHA/day500mgEPA+DHA/day
Pregnantandlactatingwomen
250mgDHA/day500mgEPA+DHA/day
3 Effects of LC n-3 PUFAs on human health
There is growing evidence that EPA and DHA have positive effects on several health
outcomes. Especially the improvement of cardiovascular health is convincing (see below).
Most studies which explore the association between LC n-3 PUFAs and health outcomes
concentrate on secondary prevention (e. g. patients after a first cardiovascular event).
Primaryprevention trials in thegeneralpopulationarecurrently rare, raising thequestion
whetherhealthy individualswouldbenefit fromahigherLCn-3PUFA intake.Forexample,
vegetariansandespeciallyveganstendtohavelowbloodlevelsofEPAandDHA,duetothe
absence of LC n-3 PUFAs in plant foods.26However, vegetarians and vegans show a good
long term health with a reduced prevalence for obesity and hypertension27 (both are
establishedcardiovascularriskfactors),andalowerriskforischaemicheartdisease.28These
positiveoutcomescanbeexplainedtoagreatextentbythehealth-promotingfoodchoices
of vegetarians and vegans, e.g. higher consumption of vegetables, fruit and whole grain
products, and no consumption of red meat and meat products, but also by an overall
healthierlifestyle.Itisunclearifandtowhatextendvegetariansandvegansbenefitfroman
improvedLCn-3PUFAstatus,e. g. ina furtherdecreaseofCVD risk.29 TheongoingVITAL
(VITaminDandOmegA-3TriaL)trialaimstoinvestigatethepotentialeffectsofamarineLC
n-3PUFAsupplementationontheprimarypreventionofcancerandcardiovasculardisease
inamulti-ethnicpopulationof20.000men(>50yearsold)andwomen(>55yearsold) in
theUSA.30
9
3.1 Cardiovasculardiseases
The influence of LC n-3 PUFAs on health outcomes, especially CVD, has been extensively
studied.Thestorybeganinthe1970s,whenDanishresearchershadbeeninformedthatthe
GreenlandEskimoshada lowprevalenceof coronaryheartdiseases (CHD).Theirdietwas
richinsealblubberandfishandthereforeinLCn-3PUFAs,whichledtheresearcherstothe
suggestion that this so called “Eskimo diet” was a key factor in the alleged low CHD
incidence(meanwhile,the“Eskimodiettheory”hasbeendisproven:moststudiesconducted
duringthelast40yearsfoundthattheGreenlandEskimos,aswellasCanadianandAlaskan
Inuit,haveCHDasoftenasthenon-Eskimopopulations).31,32
Nevertheless,subsequentstudiesfoundthatEPAandDHAdecreaseelevatedTAGlevels33,
reducehypertension34andexertothercardioprotectivefunctions35,likereductionofplatelet
aggregation. In line with these findings, epidemiological studies reported an association
betweenhighintakesandbloodlevelsofLCn-3PUFAs,and(slightly)reducedcardiovascular
events.6,36However, in recent trials lowdose LCn-3PUFA supplementation in addition to
state-of-the-arttherapydidnotreducetherateofcardiovascularevents.37Thisissupported
by a recent systematic review of clinical trials which concluded that LC n-3 PUFA
supplementationdoesnotseemtoshowanybenefitforthetreatmentofCVDorassociated
complications.Nevertheless,italsostatedthatasupplementationof≥1gLCn-3PUFAsper
day (through supplements or marine products) reduces cardiovascular risk factors and
therefore can be recommended to improve cardiovascular health.38 Amost recentmeta-
analysis(10trials)foundnosupportfortherecommendationtouseapproximately1gLCn-
3 PUFAs per day in people with a history of CHD for the prevention of cardiovascular
events.39
3.2 Inflammatorydiseases
LC n-3 PUFAs influence inflammatory cells, for instance by changing the fatty acid
composition of their membranes and by altering the eicosanoid-pattern. The regulatory
potential of LC n-3 PUFAs with regard to inflammatory processes suggests that a
supplementation may be beneficial in inflammatory diseases, e. g. rheumatoid arthritis,
inflammatoryboweldisease,chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease,psoriasis,andasthma.40
Studies confirm this assumption for rheumatoid arthritis41, but are not consistent for
10
inflammatory bowel disease42 and asthma40. For themajority of inflammatory conditions
evidenceisnotsufficient.40BesidestheabsoluteamountofLCn-3PUFAintakethen-6:n-3
PUFA ratio seems important. An increased n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio was found to act pro-
inflammatoryandpro-thrombotic (by theprimary formationofn-6serieseicosanoids, like
prostaglandinE2andthromboxaneA2)and,therefore,promoteinflammatorydiseases.43
3.3 Neurologicaldevelopmentanddegeneration
PUFAsarecrucialforbrainfunctioning,includingbraindevelopmentandcognitivefunction.
DHA,whichmakesupabout40%ofbrainPUFAs,forexampleincreasesinthegreymatter
andretinaPLduringearlydevelopment.44,45SomestudiesreportthatDHAsupplementation
duringgestationleadstohighercognitiveoutcomesandvisualacuityininfantsandchildren,
whereasotherscouldnotfindadifferenceincomparisontoplacebocontrols.44Asystematic
review and meta-analysis concluded that cognitive outcomes had not been improved by
DHAinterventionsandthatthetopicwarrantsfurtherinvestigation.46Theresultsconcerning
neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, are also
inconclusive.Some,butnotall,studiesobservedlowerDHAconcentrationsinbrainand/or
livertissueofindividualswithAlzheimer’sdisease.47Sofar,interventiontrialswhichsupport
thehypothesisthatLCn-3PUFAsdelaytheprogressionofneurodegenerativediseasesare
lacking.
3.4 Other
Abeneficial roleofLCn-3PUFAs incancer47anddiabetes36prevention isbeingdiscussed,
butthereisnosufficientevidenceyet.
3.5 HealthclaimsforEPAandDHA
BasedonthescientificevidencetheEFSAhasapprovedseveralhealthclaimsforDHAand
EPAwhichallfocusonnormalphysiologicalfunctions:
• DHAandEPAcontributetothenormalfunctionoftheheart(0.25gperday)
• DHAandEPAcontributetothemaintenanceofnormalbloodpressure(3gperday)
11
• DHAandEPAcontributetothemaintenanceofnormalbloodtriglyceridelevels(2g
perday)
• DHAcontributes tomaintenanceofnormalblood triglyceride levels (2gperday in
combinationwithEPA)
• DHAcontributestomaintenanceofnormalbrainfunction(0.25gperday)
• DHAcontributestothemaintenanceofnormalvision(0.25gperday)
• DHAmaternalintakecontributestothenormalbraindevelopmentofthefoetusand
breastfed infants (0.2 g DHA plus the daily recommended intake of omega-3 fatty
acids(EPA+DHAforadultswhichis0.25gperday).
• DHAmaternalintakecontributestothenormaldevelopmentoftheeyeofthefoetus
andbreastfedinfants(0.2gDHAplusthedailyrecommendedintakeofomega-3fatty
acids(EPA+DHA)foradultswhichis0.25gperday).48
4 Sources of n-3 PUFAs: krill and plant-based alternatives
4.1 Krilloil
Trials investigating the association between LC n-3 PUFA intake and health outcomes are
typicallyconductedwithfishoilsupplementsoranincreasedintakeoffattyfish.Someofthe
supposedhealth-promotingeffectsofEPAandDHAhavealsobeentestedwithsupplements
derived from krill oil. As expected, the intake of krill oil supplements increased plasma
concentrations of EPA and DHA.49,50 A systematic review and meta-analysis on the lipid-
modifying effect of krill oil concluded that krill oil has a TAG and low-density lipoprotein
(LDL)loweringeffect,whileitelevateshigh-densitylipoprotein(HDL).51Thesemodifications
of blood lipids are known to be cardioprotective. Furthermore, one randomized, double-
blind, cross-over trial found improved endothelial function in individuals with type 2
diabetesmellitus after krill oil supplementation.52 In a randomized controlled trial krill oil
intakefor30daysimprovedmildkneepaininpatients.53Anotherrandomized,double-blind,
placebo controlled study indicates that krill oil intake (300mg/day) reduces inflammation
andarthriticsymptoms.54
12
4.2 Plant-basedLCn-3PUFAsources
TherisingrecognitionofLCn-3PUFAsasbeneficial tohumanhealthemphasizestheneed
for sustainable EPA and DHA sources, especially in consideration of the globally growing
population.Thereisanincreasingriskofexcessharvestingofnaturalmarinesourceslikeoily
fishesandkrill.Furthermore,conventionalsupplementsderivedfromfishoilorkrilloilare
notsuitableforthegrowingpopulationofvegetariansandvegans,forwhomLCn-3PUFAs
are considered critical nutrients.55 There are several alternative LC n-3 PUFA sources. The
two most prominent are: 1. single-cell oils extracted from several microalgae, and 2.
transgenic oilseeds and other plants (e. g. Camelina). Further options like EPA and DHA
producingtransgenicEscherichiacoliandtransgenicmicroalgaealsoarebeingexplored.56
4.2.1 Microalgaeoil
Asdiscussedearlier,severalmicroalgae, incontrasttoterrestrialplants,arecapableofde-
novosynthesisofLCn-3PUFAsandthereforearerichinEPAandDHA.Almostatthebottom
ofthemarinefoodchain,microalgaesupplythosefattyacidsformarineanimalslikefishand
krill. In photoautotrophic microalgae (e. g.Nannochloropsis oculata) EPA and DHA occur
partly in form of glycolipids (GL), which are bound to chloroplast membranes.57 Some
speciesproducehighamountsofEPAandonly littleDHA.Duetohighergrowthratesand
easier handling, heterotrophic microalgae (e. g. Schizochytrium sp.) are currently being
preferred as a source of EPA and DHA supplementation.56 They contain EPA and DHA
predominantly inTAGandPLform.Onerandomized,doubleblind,controlledtrialwith93
hypertriglyceridaemicparticipantsfoundthesameTAGloweringeffectsformicroalgaeoilas
forfishoil.58
CommerciallyavailableEPAand/orDHAcontainingoilsderivedfromcultivatedmicroalgae
contain10-95%EPAand/or20-45%DHA.59 Theseoilsusually areoffered in formofnon-
gelatinegelcapsules.Besides,thereareseveralplantoilsavailablethathavebeenfortified
withEPAand/orDHAofmicroalgalorigin,e.g.linseedoroliveoilwithEPA/DHA.60,61
13
4.2.2 Transgenicland-basedplantcrops
Amongotherplantscamelina(Camelinasativa)andcanola(BrassicanapusL.)areviewedas
potential hosts for the introduction of microalgal genes to facilitate LC n-3 PUFA
production.62In2014researchersproducedacamelinaoilwithupto24%EPAandasecond
versionwith11%EPAand8%DHA.63Table2showsexamplesofgeneticallymodifiedplant
oils.However,duetothe lowacceptanceofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs) inthe
public, especially in Europe, these oils are intended to be used in aquacultures.62
Furthermore, risks regarding the long term usage of GMO for human nutrition are not
assessed.64Currently,theyarenotavailableforhumannutrition.
Table2:TransgenicplantswithEPA/DHAcontent2
Plant(company) EPA/DHA(g/100g)Oilseeds(CSIRO) 5.0gEPA
1.0gDHAMustard(BASF) 15.0gEPA
1.5gDHASoyabean(Dupont) 20.0gEPA
3.0gDHA
4.3 Comparisonofkrillwithmicroalgaeoil
4.3.1 Bioavailabilityofmicroalgaeoilversuskrilloil
Ingeneral,theFFAformofLCn-3PUFAsisconsideredtohavethehighestandtheethyl
ester(EE)formthelowestbioavailability,whilethePLandTAGformseemtohaveamedium
bioavailability.ThePLformappearstobebetterbioavailablethantheTAGform,but
conclusiveevidencefromhumanstudiesismissing.4Furthermore,thereisnodataavailable
torankfattyacidsinGLformintothisorder.Intheory,LCn-3PUFAsderivedfromkrilloilin
FFAandPLformmighthaveahigherbioavailabilitythanfromheterotrophicmicroalgaeoil
inTAGandPLform.BioavailabilityofLCn-3PUFAsfromphotoautotrophicmicroalgae
cannotbeestimatedbasedontheoreticalconsiderations.Studiestoconfirmthese
conclusionsarerare.
Sofar,onetrialcomparedthebioavailabilityofLCn-3PUFAs(1.5gEPA,noDHA)derived
fromthephotoautotrophicmicroalgaeNannochloropsisoculatawithLCn-3PUFAs(1.0g
14
EPA,0.5gDHA)derivedfromkrilloil.Afterconsumptionofasingledosetheincreaseof
plasmaconcentrationsofEPAwassignificantlyhigherwiththemicroalgaesupplement
comparedtothekrillsupplement.DHAplasmaconcentrationsalsoincreasedwithboth
supplements,buttherewasnodifferencebetweenthemicroalgaeandkrilloil.In
conclusion,theauthorssuggestabetterEPAbioavailabilityfromthealgaloilsupplement
comparedtothekrilloilsupplement,eventakinginaccountthedifferentEPA
concentrationsofthetwooils.Onepossibleexplanationforthehigherbioavailabilitymight
bethepresenceofGLinthemicroalgaeoil.65
NumerousstudiescomparedtheLCn-3PUFAbioavailabilityofkrilloilandfishoil.One
reviewsuggestsahigherbioavailabilityofEPAandDHAfromkrilloilthanfishoil,but
concludesthatfurtherstudiesareneededtoconfirmthisassumption.66Studiescomparing
krilloilandmicroalgaeoil,apartfromthementionedstudy,andmicroalgaeoilandfishoil
arenotavailable.
4.3.2 Safetyofmicroalgaeoilversuskrilloil
Persistentorganicpollutants,likeDDT(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane),chlordaneandPCB
(polychlorinatedbiphenyl),accumulatepreferablyinthemarineecosystemandareamajor
healthconcernforthepublic.Arecentreviewcomparedthetoxicologicalprofileofavailable
krilloilandfishoilsupplementsandrankedthekrilloilsupplementsintermediateregarding
the persistent organic pollutant content. Hexachlorocyclohexane, pentachlorobenzene,
hexachlorobenzeneandavarietyofPBCswerefoundinbothanalysedkrilloilproducts.DDT
occurred inoneproductandchlordanewasnot found in the twokrilloil supplements.All
analysedproductswere,attheirhighestrecommendeddosage,farbelowthetolerabledaily
intakeforallanalysedpollutants.67
Microalgaeareregardedasanon-pollutedresourceofLCn-3PUFAsupplementssincethey
areculturedundercontrolledconditions.56
15
5 Conclusion
AsevidenceofthebeneficialeffectsofLCn-3PUFAsonhumanhealthincreasesandseveral
international and national authorities and organizations recommend the dietary intake of
EPAandDHA,thedemandforLCn-3PUFAsupplementswillriseinthefuture.Inlightofthis
development,thesustainabilityofLCn-3PUFAsourcesshouldbetakenintoaccount.Froma
healthpointofview,fish,krillandmicroalgaeareconsideredtobesafesourcesofEPAand
DHAforhumannutrition.Currently,microalgaeseemtobetheonlysustainableandplant-
based alternative to fish and krill oil, since transgenic terrestrial plants raise ecological
questionsandarenotacceptedforhumannutritionbythepublic.
16
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