Tuesday, May 16, 2006

Kung Fu Tze, Ahli Falsafah Terulung China

Setelah 48 tahun saya hidup dimuka bumi ini baru sekarang tergerak hati mempelajari tentang Ilmu Falsafah dan Kebudayaan Negara China.

Kung Fu Tze, ahli fikir terulung negara China ternyata meninggalkan buah fikiran yang teramat jelas dan amat baik dijadikan pegangan hidup kebanyakan manusia dimuka bumi ini seiring dengan mengikuti contoh teladan dan sunnah Nabi Sallalahu Alaihi Wassallam.

Saya teringat hadis Nabi SAW : ' Utlub `ilma walau fis Sin' yang bermaksud ' Tuntutlah Ilmu walau sampai ke negara China'.

Sudah tentu Ilmu Falsafah Kung Fu Tze adalah salah satu cabang ilmu yang termahsyur dinegara dimana terdapat peradaban manusia yang berusia beribu ribu tahun.

Semalam saya berpeluang mentelaah kata kata pujangga yang terbilang ini dan mendapati kebenaran pemikiran Kung Fu Tze amat sesuai di ajarkan kepada anak anak muda negara ini

Di antara kata kata Kung Fu Tze yang patut diberi perhatian adalah seperti berikut:

'Bila lima belas tahun usiaku, aku bercita cita menuntut ilmu,Bila tiga puluh tahun usiaku, aku memantapkan pendirian,Bila empat puluh tahun usiaku, aku hilang angan angan,Bila lima puluh tahun usiaku, aku tahu matlamat hidupku,Bila enam puluh tahun usiaku, aku tahu di mana kebenaran dalam segala yang kedengaran,Bila tujuh puluh tahun usiaku, aku dapat mengikut rasa hatiku tanpa melakukan kejahatan.

Dapat menimba ilmu dan mengamalkan apa yang dipelajari,berulang kali, bukankah nikmat namanya?Didatangi teman teman dari jauh*, bukan kah bahagia namanya?Tetap tenang meskipun tidak dihargai orang lain, bukan kah budiman namanya?*untuk sama sama menuntut ilmu

Anak muda harus ta'at di rumah, dan kasih sesama saudara di luar rumah. Anak muda harus berhemat dan amanah. Anak muda harus kasihkan semua manusia dan rapat dengan mereka yang ihsan. Setelah itu, sisa tenaga mereka harus ditumpukan pada mempelajari kesusasteraan.

Tanpa kesetiaan, orang budiman tidak dihormati, ilmunya tidak sempurna. Dia mengajar orang supaya setia dan amanah, dia tidak punya teman yang tidak setara. Dia tidak segan membetulkan kesilapannya sendiri.

Jangan khuatir jika orang lain tidak menghargaimu. Khuatiri lah yang kamu tidak menghrgai orang lain.

Belajar tanpa berfikir kerja adalah kerja sia sia. Berfikir tanpa belajar ketandusan namanya.

Makanan yang sederhana, air untuk di minum, berbantalkan siku berlipat, itulah kebahagiaan. Kekayaan dan pangkat tanpa ketulusan bagiku bagai awan yang mengambang lalu'.

Demikian lah diantara fatwa pujangga yang bergelar Kung Fu Tze. Ilmu yang baik harus di ikuti dan di amalkan kerana nilai nilai nya boleh di terima pakai oleh manusia sejagat.

Semoga ada manfa'atnya bagi kita semua. Bagi yang ingin belajar lebih lanjut tentang kata kata hikmah Kung Fu Tze boleh lah melawat http://www.confucius.org/main01.htm

Ikut lah saranan Nabi SAW untuk menuntut ilmu walau sampai ke negara China!

Budaya China tidak kurang hebatnya dari kebudayaan lain di dunia ini.

Bagi yang mahu memperkasakan diri dengan Bahasa Mandarin yang asli , sila lah layari http://www.globalhanyu.com

Hendak seribu daya ; ilmu pengetahuan wajib di cari. Baru lah hidup kita kan bererti.

Wan anh. Selamat malam

Secara garis besar ajaran Kung Fu Tze dapat dilihat dari dua sudut pandang yang

berbeda namun saling melengkapi, yaitu pemikiran Kung Fu Tze tentang Manusia dan

pemikirannya tentang Masyarakat. Kedua ajaran ini, Manusia dan Masyarakat,

mengarahkan pada bentuk yang ideal.

Pemikiran ini muncul setelah Kung Fu Tze melihat kekacauan dalam masyarakat, dimana

terdapat banyak peperangan, yang berakibat muncul masalah anarki sosial. Satu sisi

Kung Fu Tze tidak setuju dengan pemikiran pada realis yang mendahulukan kekuatan

atau kekerasan dalam menegakkan kepatuhan. Dilain pihak Kung Fu Tze juga tidak

terlalu setuju dengan konsep cinta kasih yang dipaparkan oleh kaum Mohisme karena

cinta kasih yang tidak mengenal perbedaan akan menyebabkan kemerosotan nilai.

Kung Fu Tze melihat ada satu titik terang dalam mengatasi masalah yang dihadapi oleh

masyarakatnya pada saat itu, yaitu menemukan kembali “lem perekat” yang selama ini

telah hilang. Perekat yang dapat menyatukan kembali setiap elemen yang ada dalam

masyarakatnya agar kembali berfungsi sebagaimana layaknya sebuah masyarakat.

Kung Fu Tze menyadari bahwa “lem perekat” tersebut adalah Adat Istiadat. Ada dua

fungsi penting adat istiadat, pertama adalah kemampuan adat istiadat yang luar biasa

untuk mengendalikan perbuatan-perbuatan yang bersifat asosial. Kedua, tahap

sosialisasi dari adat istiadat ini berjalan dengan spontan tanpa pemikiran khusus.

Anggota masyarakat menerima adat istiadat itu tanpa bertanya dan tanpa sadar.

(Smith,1999,197)

Pada masa Kung Fu Tze, seperti telah diceritakan pada bab ini, terjadi banyak

peperangan dan penurunan moral. Kejadian ini disebabkan karena telah menurunnya

rasa kebersamaan yang diwujudkan dalam bentuk adat istiadat atau tradisi. Walter

Lippmann mengatakan bahwa ketika tradisi mulai ditinggalkan dalam masyarakat maka

masyarakat tersebut dalam keadaan terancam. Dan jika terputusnya kesinambungan

tradisi itu tidak diperbaiki maka masyarakat tersebut akan terjerumus kedalam

peperangan antar golongan.

Manusia dan masyarakat merupakan suatu elemen yang tidak dapat dipisahkan bagi

Kung Fu Tze, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Chen Jingpan bahwa Masyarakat harus

menyesuaikan diri pada individu untuk menghindari stagnasi, dan individu pun harus

menyesuaikan diri pada masyarakat untuk menjadi manusia, dan individu tidak bisa

hidup atau berkembang tanpa bantuan masyarakat. (Jingpan, 1994, 175).

Adat istiadat atau tradisi bagi Kung Fu Tze merupakan sumber perekat dalam

masyarakat. Ia sendiri amat tertarik akan tradisi, sebagai jawaban sebenarnya terhadap

masalah sosial. Kung Fu Tze percaya bahwa bangsa Cina pernah mengalami masa

keselarasan yang agung dan tradisilah yang menciptakan abad gemilang tersebut.

Kung Fu Tze memang memimpikan kejayaan masa lampau, dan menginginkan agar

masa itu terulang kembali, namun Ia sungguh hidup dalam zamannya, yang waspada

melihat hal-hal baru yang menyebabkan zamannya berbeda dengan zaman yang

lampau. Kung Fu Tze sadar bahwa tidak semua tradisi lama itu bisa diterapkan terus

untuk masa sekarang. Tradisi harus mengalami penyesuaian sedangkan yang harus

dijaga adalah kesinambungan tradisi itu agar terus hidup dalam masyarakat.

Kung Fu Tze selalu mempertimbangkan hal-hal baru yang mnyebabkan tradisi lama tidak

bisa lagi dijalankan, kemudian Ia melakukan penafsiran kembali yang disertai

perubahan-perubahan. Bukti otentik dari penyesuaian itu Ia mengeluarkan 6 buah kitab

klasik yang Ia rangkum dari banyak tradisi-tradisi masa lampau yang Ia nilai masih

relevan terhadap kehidupan di masanya.

Tradisi ini akan berjalan baik dalam masyarakat apabila ada kesadaran dalam diri

manusia yang ada dalam masyarakat. Dengan kata lain tradisi akan berjalan jika

manusia yang ada dalam masyarakat mau menjalankannya secara sukarela tanpa

paksaan dan sadar bahwa tradisi itu penting bagi kehidupannya dalam masyarakat.

Penjelasan diatas menunjukkan bahwa dibutuhkan orang-orang yang cinta akan

kebenaran, patuh terhadap adat istiadat, dan selalu melakukan kebajikan. Maka untuk

mewujudkan suatu bentuk masyarakat yang ideal dibutuhkan suatu wujud manusia yang

ideal pula. Manusia ideal disini adalah manusia yang sangat sadar akan keberadaannya

didalam masyarakat. Mereka adalah manusia yang telah mengerti akan jalan hati,

rahasia transformasi benda-benda, sebab dari yang misterius dan kudus, lalu

menyesuaikannya dengan sumber dan prinsip peredaran (prinsip yang mengatur hidup

dan mati ). Hanya oleh ini manusia direalisasikan. Jadi seorang mengetahui “jalan langit”

dan dalam hidupnya melaksanakan kebijakan kemanusiaan yang sempurna (jen) dan

keadilan dalam hubungan antarpribadi (yi); ia menghiasi dirinya dengan ritus dan musik.

Kemanusiaan, keadilan, ritus dan musik: inilah kebajikan dari orang yang telah

mewujudkan dirinya; pengetahuan akan prinsip spiritual tentang transformasi: inilah

yang menunjukkan keberhasilan kuasanya. Manusia seperti inilah yang oleh Kung Fu Tze

dinamakan Chun Tzu.

Daftar Rujukan

Jingpan, Chen. (1994). Confucius As A Teacher. 2nd Ed. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press

Smith, Huston. (1999). Agama-agama Manusia. ed.5. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia

Secara garis besar ajaran Kung Fu Tze dapat dilihat dari dua sudut pandang yang

berbeda namun saling melengkapi, yaitu pemikiran Kung Fu Tze tentang Manusia dan

pemikirannya tentang Masyarakat. Kedua ajaran ini, Manusia dan Masyarakat,

mengarahkan pada bentuk yang ideal.

Pemikiran ini muncul setelah Kung Fu Tze melihat kekacauan dalam masyarakat, dimana

terdapat banyak peperangan, yang berakibat muncul masalah anarki sosial. Satu sisi

Kung Fu Tze tidak setuju dengan pemikiran pada realis yang mendahulukan kekuatan

atau kekerasan dalam menegakkan kepatuhan. Dilain pihak Kung Fu Tze juga tidak

terlalu setuju dengan konsep cinta kasih yang dipaparkan oleh kaum Mohisme karena

cinta kasih yang tidak mengenal perbedaan akan menyebabkan kemerosotan nilai.

Kung Fu Tze melihat ada satu titik terang dalam mengatasi masalah yang dihadapi oleh

masyarakatnya pada saat itu, yaitu menemukan kembali “lem perekat” yang selama ini

telah hilang. Perekat yang dapat menyatukan kembali setiap elemen yang ada dalam

masyarakatnya agar kembali berfungsi sebagaimana layaknya sebuah masyarakat.

Kung Fu Tze menyadari bahwa “lem perekat” tersebut adalah Adat Istiadat. Ada dua

fungsi penting adat istiadat, pertama adalah kemampuan adat istiadat yang luar biasa

untuk mengendalikan perbuatan-perbuatan yang bersifat asosial. Kedua, tahap

sosialisasi dari adat istiadat ini berjalan dengan spontan tanpa pemikiran khusus.

Anggota masyarakat menerima adat istiadat itu tanpa bertanya dan tanpa sadar.

(Smith,1999,197)

Pada masa Kung Fu Tze, seperti telah diceritakan pada bab ini, terjadi banyak

peperangan dan penurunan moral. Kejadian ini disebabkan karena telah menurunnya

rasa kebersamaan yang diwujudkan dalam bentuk adat istiadat atau tradisi. Walter

Lippmann mengatakan bahwa ketika tradisi mulai ditinggalkan dalam masyarakat maka

masyarakat tersebut dalam keadaan terancam. Dan jika terputusnya kesinambungan

tradisi itu tidak diperbaiki maka masyarakat tersebut akan terjerumus kedalam

peperangan antar golongan.

Manusia dan masyarakat merupakan suatu elemen yang tidak dapat dipisahkan bagi

Kung Fu Tze, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Chen Jingpan bahwa Masyarakat harus

menyesuaikan diri pada individu untuk menghindari stagnasi, dan individu pun harus

menyesuaikan diri pada masyarakat untuk menjadi manusia, dan individu tidak bisa

hidup atau berkembang tanpa bantuan masyarakat. (Jingpan, 1994, 175).

Adat istiadat atau tradisi bagi Kung Fu Tze merupakan sumber perekat dalam

masyarakat. Ia sendiri amat tertarik akan tradisi, sebagai jawaban sebenarnya terhadap

masalah sosial. Kung Fu Tze percaya bahwa bangsa Cina pernah mengalami masa

keselarasan yang agung dan tradisilah yang menciptakan abad gemilang tersebut.

Kung Fu Tze memang memimpikan kejayaan masa lampau, dan menginginkan agar

masa itu terulang kembali, namun Ia sungguh hidup dalam zamannya, yang waspada

melihat hal-hal baru yang menyebabkan zamannya berbeda dengan zaman yang

lampau. Kung Fu Tze sadar bahwa tidak semua tradisi lama itu bisa diterapkan terus

untuk masa sekarang. Tradisi harus mengalami penyesuaian sedangkan yang harus

dijaga adalah kesinambungan tradisi itu agar terus hidup dalam masyarakat.

Kung Fu Tze selalu mempertimbangkan hal-hal baru yang mnyebabkan tradisi lama tidak

bisa lagi dijalankan, kemudian Ia melakukan penafsiran kembali yang disertai

perubahan-perubahan. Bukti otentik dari penyesuaian itu Ia mengeluarkan 6 buah kitab

klasik yang Ia rangkum dari banyak tradisi-tradisi masa lampau yang Ia nilai masih

relevan terhadap kehidupan di masanya.

Tradisi ini akan berjalan baik dalam masyarakat apabila ada kesadaran dalam diri

manusia yang ada dalam masyarakat. Dengan kata lain tradisi akan berjalan jika

manusia yang ada dalam masyarakat mau menjalankannya secara sukarela tanpa

paksaan dan sadar bahwa tradisi itu penting bagi kehidupannya dalam masyarakat.

Penjelasan diatas menunjukkan bahwa dibutuhkan orang-orang yang cinta akan

kebenaran, patuh terhadap adat istiadat, dan selalu melakukan kebajikan. Maka untuk

mewujudkan suatu bentuk masyarakat yang ideal dibutuhkan suatu wujud manusia yang

ideal pula. Manusia ideal disini adalah manusia yang sangat sadar akan keberadaannya

didalam masyarakat. Mereka adalah manusia yang telah mengerti akan jalan hati,

rahasia transformasi benda-benda, sebab dari yang misterius dan kudus, lalu

menyesuaikannya dengan sumber dan prinsip peredaran (prinsip yang mengatur hidup

dan mati ). Hanya oleh ini manusia direalisasikan. Jadi seorang mengetahui “jalan langit”

dan dalam hidupnya melaksanakan kebijakan kemanusiaan yang sempurna (jen) dan

keadilan dalam hubungan antarpribadi (yi); ia menghiasi dirinya dengan ritus dan musik.

Kemanusiaan, keadilan, ritus dan musik: inilah kebajikan dari orang yang telah

mewujudkan dirinya; pengetahuan akan prinsip spiritual tentang transformasi: inilah

yang menunjukkan keberhasilan kuasanya. Manusia seperti inilah yang oleh Kung Fu Tze

dinamakan Chun Tzu.

Daftar Rujukan

Jingpan, Chen. (1994). Confucius As A Teacher. 2nd Ed. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press

Smith, Huston. (1999). Agama-agama Manusia. ed.5. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia

For other uses, see Confucius (disambiguation).

Confucius

孔丘 Kǒng Qiū

A portrait of Confucius, by Tang Dynasty artist Wu Daozi

(680–740).

Full nameConfucius

孔丘 Kǒng Qiū

Born28 September 551 BC

Qufu, Zhou Dynasty

Died479 BC (aged 71–72)

Qufu, Zhou Dynasty

Era Ancient philosophy

Region Eastern philosophy

School Founder of Confucianism

Main interests Moral philosophy, Social philosophy, Ethics

Notable ideas Confucianism

Influenced by[show]

Influenced[show]

Confucius (Chinese: 孔子; pinyin: Kǒng Zǐ; Wade–Giles: K'ung-tzu, or Chinese: 孔夫子; pinyin: Kǒng Fūzǐ; Wade–Giles: K'ung-fu-tzu), literally "Master Kong",[1] (traditionally 28 September 551 BC – 479 BC)[2] was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period.

The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism (法家) or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty[3][4][5] (206 BC – AD 220). Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism (儒家).

Because no texts survive that are demonstrably authored by Confucius, and the ideas most closely associated with him were elaborated in writings that accumulated over the period between his death and the foundation of the first Chinese empire in 221 BC, many scholars are very cautious about attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. His teachings may be found in the Analects of Confucius (論語), a collection of aphorisms, which was compiled many years after his death. For nearly 2,000 years he was thought to be the editor or author of all the Five Classics (五經)[6][7] such as the Classic of Rites (禮記) (editor), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) (author).

Confucius' principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and, according to later interpreters, of husbands by their wives), and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself", one of the earlier versions of the Golden Rule.

Contents[hide]

1 Personal life and family 2 Names 3 Philosophy

o 3.1 Ethics 3.1.1 L ǐ , yì and rén

o 3.2 Politics 4 Disciples and legacy 5 Visual portraits 6 Memorials of Confucius

7 Descendants 8 Ahmadiyya views of Confucius 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Personal life and family

According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 B.C., in the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement. Confucius was born in or near the city of Qufu (曲阜), in the Chinese State of Lu (魯) (now part of Shandong Province). Early accounts say that he was born into a poor but noble family that had fallen on hard times.[8]

Confucius was from a warrior family. His father Shulianghe (叔梁紇) had military exploits in two battles and owned a fiefdom. The Records of the Grand Historian (史記), compiled some four centuries later, states that Confucius was born as a result of a yehe (野合), or "illicit union".[9]

His father died when Confucius was three years old,[10] and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of shì (士), a class whose status lay between that of the old nobility and the common people, that comprised men who sought social positions on the basis of talents and skills, rather than heredity. As a child, Confucius was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table.[9] He married a young girl named Qi Guan (亓官) at 19 and she gave birth to their first child, Kong Li, (孔鯉) when he was 20. Confucius is reported to have worked as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk, and a book-keeper.[11] His mother died when Confucius was 23, and he entered three years of mourning.

Confucius is said to have risen to the position of Justice Minister (大司寇) in Lu at the age of 53.[12] According to the Records of the Grand Historian, the neighboring state of Qi ( 齊 ) was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful. Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the Duke of Lu. The Duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was deeply disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the Duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving, so Confucius waited for the Duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the Duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized this pretext to leave both his post and the state of Lu.[9][13]

According to tradition, after Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China, including the states of Wei (衞), Song (宋), Chen (陳) and Cai (蔡).[14] At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

According to the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, Confucius returned home when he was 68.[12] The Analects depict him spending his last years teaching disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.[15][16]

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favourite disciples,[17][18] he died at the age of 72 or 73.[19]

Names

The tomb of Confucius in Qufu.

Kong Qiu (孔丘), as Confucius is commonly known, is a combination of his surname (孔) and his given name (丘), and he was also known as Zhong Ni (仲尼), which is his courtesy name.

The name "Confucius" was first Latinised and introduced to Europe by the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci. Other forms of Romanisations are Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin, and K'ung fu-tzu in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).

Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just "Master Kong", or Confucius, even in modern days. The character 'fu' is optional; in modern Chinese he is more often called Kǒng Zi (孔子).

In 1 C.E. (first year of the Yuanshi Era of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: 褒成宣尼公, Lord Bāochéngxūanni, which means "Laudably Declarable Lord Ni." His most popular posthumous names are 至聖先師, Zhìshèngxiānshī, lit. "The Most Sage Venerated Late Teacher" (comes from 1530, the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty); 至聖, Zhìshèng, "the Greatest Sage"; 先師, Xiānshī, literally meaning "first teacher". It has been suggested that '先師' can be used, however, to express something like, "the Teacher who assists the wise to their attainment".[20] He is also commonly known as 萬世師表，Wànshìshībiǎo, "Role Model for Teachers through the Ages".

PhilosophyMain article: Confucianism

The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the Temple of Confucius in Qufu.

Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven, but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of the soul.

The Analects of Confucius.

In the Analects (論語), Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing".[6]

He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study,[21][22] and it is the Chinese character for study (or learning) that opens the text. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master.[23] Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society or establish a formalism of rites, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world,[24] mostly through the old scriptures and by relating the moral problems of the present to past political events (like the Annals) or past expressions of feelings by common people and reflective members of the elite, preserved in the poems of the Book of Odes (詩經).[25][26]

Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules, Confucius's ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into proper context in order to be understood.[27][28] A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？” 不問馬。

When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, 'Was anyone hurt?' He did not ask about the horses.

Analects X.11 (Arthur Waley translation) or 10-13 (James Legge translation)

The passage conveys the lesson that by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated that a sage values human beings over property; readers of this lesson are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's, and to pursue ethical self-improvement if it would not. Confucius, an exemplar of human excellence, serves as the ultimate model, rather than a deity or a universally true set of abstract principles. For these reasons, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius's teaching may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.[29]

One of his most famous teaching was the Golden Rule (in the positive form) and Silver Rule (in the negative form):

己所不欲，勿施於人。

"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."

子貢問曰：“有一言而可以終身行之者乎”？子曰：“其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。”

Zi gong (a disciple of Confucius) asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?"The Master replied: "How about 'shu' [reciprocity]: never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself?"

Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Lǐ, yì and rén

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In early Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it

may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for the right reason.

Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì.

To cultivate one's attentiveness to rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: "What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm) Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other.

Politics

Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, rather than by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great Learning (大學). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people.[30] Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage.[31][32] These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection,[33] and such a

ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.[34]

While he supported the idea of government by an all-powerful sage, ruling as an Emperor, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for according language with truth, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action.

Disciples and legacySee also: Disciples of Confucius.

Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius' disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子)[35] and Xun Zi (荀子)[36] both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.

This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in 223 BC when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Ssu, Prime Minister of the Qin Dynasty convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as counter to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Ssu had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.

Under the succeeding Han Dynasty and Tang Dynasty, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BC which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th Century. As Moism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat

absorbed, the teachings of Lao-tzu, whose focus on more mystic ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control.

During the Song Dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (AD 1130-1200) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different, and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Korea, and Vietnam[37] until the 19th century.

"Life and works of Confucius", by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687.

The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.[38] Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687.[39] It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.[40][41]

In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th Century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th Century.

Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Sinosphere, such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as was Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.[42]

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.

Visual portraits

No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher.

In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his hometown, Qufu. In other temples Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

Memorials of Confucius

Soon after Confucius' death, Qufu, his hometown became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In pan-China cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies.

The Chinese have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li (周禮) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius' birth. This tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s, did the

ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.

In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day does in the West.

DescendantsSee also: Family tree of Confucius in the main line of descent.

Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis thirty-five times since Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke forty-two times from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng was offered the position of puppet Emperor of China in 1937 by the Japanese, but Kung declined the offer.[43] Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.[44]

Another prominent descendant of Confucius was Premier of the Republic of China and Finance Minister H. H. Kung, of the 75th generation, as indicated by the generation name 祥 (Hsiang; pinyin: Xiáng)[45][46][47]

Confucius's family, the Kongs, has the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation,[48] has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, he has 2 million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated 3 million in all.[49] Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China.[49] In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today.[49] One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s, and eventually settled in Taiwan.[44]

Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members.[50] Among other things, this

would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time.[51] However, in 2009, the family authorities decided not to agree to DNA testing.[52] Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance," he said. "It's not just a scientific question."[52] The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.[53]

The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC). It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009.[54][55] Women are now included for the first time.[56]

Note that this only deals with those whose lines of descent are documented historically. Using mathematical models, it is easy to demonstrate that people living today have a much more common ancestry than commonly assumed, so it is likely that many more have Confucius as an ancestor

For other uses, see Confucius (disambiguation).

Personal life and family

According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 B.C., in the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement. Confucius was born in or near the city of Qufu (曲阜), in the Chinese State of Lu (魯) (now part of Shandong Province). Early accounts say that he was born into a poor but noble family that had fallen on hard times.[8]

Confucius was from a warrior family. His father Shulianghe (叔梁紇) had military exploits in two battles and owned a fiefdom. The Records of the Grand Historian (史記), compiled some four centuries later, states that Confucius was born as a result of a yehe (野合), or "illicit union".[9]

His father died when Confucius was three years old,[10] and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of shì (士), a class whose status lay between that of the old nobility and the common people, that comprised men who sought social positions on the basis of talents and skills, rather than heredity. As a child, Confucius was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table.[9] He married a young girl named Qi Guan (亓官) at 19 and she gave birth to their first child, Kong Li, (孔鯉) when he was 20. Confucius is reported to have worked as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk, and a book-keeper.[11] His mother died when Confucius was 23, and he entered three years of mourning.

Confucius is said to have risen to the position of Justice Minister (大司寇) in Lu at the age of 53.[12] According to the Records of the Grand Historian, the neighboring state of Qi ( 齊 ) was

worried that Lu was becoming too powerful. Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the Duke of Lu. The Duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was deeply disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the Duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving, so Confucius waited for the Duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the Duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized this pretext to leave both his post and the state of Lu.[9][13]

According to tradition, after Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China, including the states of Wei (衞), Song (宋), Chen (陳) and Cai (蔡).[14] At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

According to the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, Confucius returned home when he was 68.[12] The Analects depict him spending his last years teaching disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.[15][16]

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favourite disciples,[17][18] he died at the age of 72 or 73.[19]

Names

The tomb of Confucius in Qufu.

Kong Qiu (孔丘), as Confucius is commonly known, is a combination of his surname (孔) and his given name (丘), and he was also known as Zhong Ni (仲尼), which is his courtesy name.

The name "Confucius" was first Latinised and introduced to Europe by the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci. Other forms of Romanisations are Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin, and K'ung fu-tzu in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).

Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just "Master Kong", or Confucius, even in modern days. The character 'fu' is optional; in modern Chinese he is more often called Kǒng Zi (孔子).

In 1 C.E. (first year of the Yuanshi Era of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: 褒成宣尼公, Lord Bāochéngxūanni, which means "Laudably Declarable Lord Ni." His most popular posthumous names are 至聖先師, Zhìshèngxiānshī, lit. "The Most Sage Venerated Late Teacher" (comes from 1530, the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty); 至聖, Zhìshèng, "the Greatest Sage"; 先師, Xiānshī, literally meaning "first teacher". It has been suggested that '先師' can be used, however, to express something like, "the Teacher who assists the wise to their attainment".[20] He is also commonly known as 萬世師表，Wànshìshībiǎo, "Role Model for Teachers through the Ages".

PhilosophyMain article: Confucianism

The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the Temple of Confucius in Qufu.

Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven, but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of the soul.

The Analects of Confucius.

In the Analects (論語), Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing".[6]

He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study,[21][22] and it is the Chinese character for study (or learning) that opens the text. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master.[23] Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society or establish

a formalism of rites, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world,[24] mostly through the old scriptures and by relating the moral problems of the present to past political events (like the Annals) or past expressions of feelings by common people and reflective members of the elite, preserved in the poems of the Book of Odes (詩經).[25][26]

Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules, Confucius's ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into proper context in order to be understood.[27][28] A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？” 不問馬。

When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, 'Was anyone hurt?' He did not ask about the horses.

Analects X.11 (Arthur Waley translation) or 10-13 (James Legge translation)

The passage conveys the lesson that by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated that a sage values human beings over property; readers of this lesson are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's, and to pursue ethical self-improvement if it would not. Confucius, an exemplar of human excellence, serves as the ultimate model, rather than a deity or a universally true set of abstract principles. For these reasons, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius's teaching may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.[29]

One of his most famous teaching was the Golden Rule (in the positive form) and Silver Rule (in the negative form):

己所不欲，勿施於人。

"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."

子貢問曰：“有一言而可以終身行之者乎”？子曰：“其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。”

Zi gong (a disciple of Confucius) asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?"The Master replied: "How about 'shu' [reciprocity]: never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself?"

Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Lǐ, yì and rén

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In early Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for the right reason.

Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì.

To cultivate one's attentiveness to rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: "What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm) Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other.

Politics

Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, rather than by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and

moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great Learning (大學). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people.[30] Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage.[31][32] These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection,[33] and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.[34]

While he supported the idea of government by an all-powerful sage, ruling as an Emperor, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for according language with truth, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action.

Disciples and legacySee also: Disciples of Confucius.

Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius' disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子)[35] and Xun Zi (荀子)[36] both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.

This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in 223 BC when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Ssu, Prime Minister of the Qin Dynasty convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as counter to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Ssu had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.

Under the succeeding Han Dynasty and Tang Dynasty, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BC which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th Century. As Moism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Lao-tzu, whose focus on more mystic ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control.

During the Song Dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (AD 1130-1200) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different, and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Korea, and Vietnam[37] until the 19th century.

"Life and works of Confucius", by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687.

The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.[38] Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and

works of Confucius into Latin in 1687.[39] It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.[40][41]

In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th Century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th Century.

Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Sinosphere, such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as was Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.[42]

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.

Visual portraits

No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher.

In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his hometown, Qufu. In other temples Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

Memorials of Confucius

Soon after Confucius' death, Qufu, his hometown became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In pan-China cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies.

The Chinese have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li (周禮) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius' birth. This

tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s, did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.

In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day does in the West.

DescendantsSee also: Family tree of Confucius in the main line of descent.

Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis thirty-five times since Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke forty-two times from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng was offered the position of puppet Emperor of China in 1937 by the Japanese, but Kung declined the offer.[43] Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.[44]

Another prominent descendant of Confucius was Premier of the Republic of China and Finance Minister H. H. Kung, of the 75th generation, as indicated by the generation name 祥 (Hsiang; pinyin: Xiáng)[45][46][47]

Confucius's family, the Kongs, has the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation,[48] has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, he has 2 million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated 3 million in all.[49] Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China.[49] In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today.

[49] One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s, and eventually settled in Taiwan.[44]

Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members.[50] Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time.[51] However, in 2009, the family authorities decided not to agree to DNA testing.[52] Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance," he said. "It's not just a scientific question."[52] The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.[53]

The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC). It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009.[54][55] Women are now included for the first time.[56]

Note that this only deals with those whose lines of descent are documented historically. Using mathematical models, it is easy to demonstrate that people living today have a much more common ancestry than commonly assumed, so it is likely that many more have Confucius as an ancestor

Kedatangan Islam Dan Pembudayaan Alam Melayu | 2ISLAM: KESANNYA TERHADAP SOSIO-BUDAYA DAN PEMERINTAHAN

Dalam konteks kesan kedatangan Islam terhadap perubahan sosio budaya ini, saya ingin menyentuh beberapa aspek penting yang berhubung dengan (a) Pendidikan dan pengembangan ilmu (b) Bahasa dan persuratan (c) Kebudayaan dan kesenian (d) Politik dan pentadbiran, dan (e) isu dan cabaran semasa kehidupan sosial umat.

(a) Pendidikan Dan Pengembangan Ilmu

Pendidikan dan pengembagan ilmu adalah warisan Nabawi yang sangat utama. Firman Allah yang pertama disampaikan melalui Jibril kepada Junjungan Besar Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. adalah kewajipan terhadap pencarian ilmu dengan perintah ‘Bacalah dengan (menyebut) nama Tuhanmu Yang menciptakan. Dia telah menciptakan manusia dari segumpal darah. Bacalah, dan Tuhanmulah Yang Maha Pemurah. Yang Mengajar (manusia) dengan perantaraan kalam. Dia mengajarkan kepada manusia apa yang tidak diketahuinya’ Al ‘Alaq (Segumpal Darah) 96:1-5. Perkembangan ilmu telah membawa kesan yang cukup besar terhadap perubahan sosio-budaya umat Melayu sesudah kedatangan Islam. Sistem awal yang diperkenalkan, mungkin pada mulanya dengan menadah kitab di surau, langgar dan masjid atau di kalangan istana, sehingga kemudiannya terdirinya pondok dan pesantren di serata

wilayah dan daerah kepulauan Melayu. Ilmu adalah alat pertama bagi kesempurnaan keperibadian seseorang insan dan pembentukan akhlak.

Proses pembudayaan rantau Melayu banyak sekali dimainkan peranannya oleh para ulama yang berrmula dari pusat-pusat pemerintahan Islam-Melayu seperti Melaka seawal abad ke-15, Jawa, Pasai, Acheh, Palembang dan Banjar, dan kemudiannya Kelantan–Patani, Banten dan Minangkabau. Dari pusat-pusat inilah terpancar keluarnya pengaruh kebudayaan Islam di Alam Melayu dari Semenanjung sehingga ke kepulauan Indonesia, bukan sahaja melalui pengajian pondok atau kegiatan dakwah seperti yang dinyatakan, tetapi juga lewat pengaruh perdagangan dan perluasan wilayah geopolitik baharu seperti Aceh-Pasai dan Johor-Riau itu. Sehingga suku pertama abad ke 20, gerakan ulama mengembangkan ilmu menerusi pendidikan agama tidak pernah surut. Sumbangan seperti ini, ditambah oleh hubungan dengan pusat-pusat kebudayaan Islam di al-Haramain atau Tanah Arab, Mesir dan Turki, juga India dan Pakistan, telah memberikan ciri-ciri khusus terhadap sebuah tamadun Islam di Asia Tenggara yang dikenali sebagai peradaban Melayu-Islam sebagaimana kita kenali adanya peradaban Arab-Islam, Parsi-Islam, India-Islam dan Turki-Islam. Peradaban Melayu-Islam berada dan berkembang di wilayah Alam Melayu.

Di pelbagai wilayah Alam Melayu luas, selain dari pusat-pusat kebudayaan Islam di atas tadi, terdapat cukup ramai para ulama yang berjasa besar dan terserlah sumbangan mereka dalam pembangunan tamadun Melayu. Nama-nama ulama besar itu termasuklah ulama-ulama dari Kelantan-Pattani, Terengganu, Pontianak, Sambas, Sumbawa, Makasar, Minangkabau, Kedah, Lingga dan sebagainya, bahkan tidak terkecuali, pada abad ke-19, Banten dengan tokoh besarnya – Syeikh Nawawie al-Bantaniy. Penerimaan terhadap ajaran Islam dan kebudayaannya menyebabkan kebudayaan Melayu disejajarkan dengan Islam. Maka Islam itu tidak sukar diterima oleh sebahagian besar umat serumpun Melayu itu.

Kalau diteliti lanjut, ulama-ulama tadi cukup aktif menghasilkan karya tulis dalam pelbagai bidang ilmu pengetahuan agama. Dengan kedatangan Islam dan tersebar ajarannya di Nusantara atau Alam Melayu, maka telah tumbuh dan berkembang ilmu-ilmu yang menentukan ciri-ciri kebudayaan Melayu besar serantau itu. Antaranya, yang paling awal, tentu sahaja ilmu-ilmu yang membahaskan tentang ketuhanan dan tasawwur (world view) Islam, iaitu ilmu yang menghuraikan dasar-dasar aqidah Islam. Dalam bidang karya tulis, kita lihat tradisi yang sangat penting ini yang boleh disebut pada abad ke 16 dan 17, dengan tokoh-tokoh di Acheh seperti Hamzah Fansuri, Syeikh Abdul Rauf Singkel, Syeikh Nuruddin al-Raniri dan Shamsuddin al-Sumatrani, berlanjut di Banjar dengan tokoh-tokoh seperti Syeikh Muhammad Arshad al-Banjari dan Muhammad Nafis al-Banjari. Kemudian Terengganu dengan Syeikh Abdul Malik atau Tok Pulau Manis, penulis kitab Syarh Hikam yang terkenal itu, Palembang dengan Syeikh Abdul Samad al-Palembani, dan kemudian Patani dan Kelantan dengan tokoh-tokohnya dikenal seperti Syeikh Abdul Rahman Pauh Bok, Syeikh Daud bin Abdullah al-Fatani, Syeikh Haji Wan Ahmad bin Wan Muhammad Zain al-Fatani, Tuan Minal, Tuk Wan Ali Kutan, Haji Mohd Yusoff Ahmad al-Kenali (Tuk Kenali), Tuan Tabal dan lain-lain, lebih awal lagi di Jawa dengan Wali Songo dan ulama-ulama besar Minangkabau yang bergerak secara langsung dalam gerakan bahasa, persuratan, kesenian dan kebudayan selain dari keagamaan.

Hasil karya para ulama Melayu itu, antara lain, menghuraikan dasar-dasar pandangan hidup Islam dengan menerangkan hakikat ketuhanan dan hubungannya dengan kenyataan-kenyataan yang perlu diketahui dan direalisasi dalam kehidupan seorang Muslim, sehingga dengan demikian, dasar-dasar pandangan hidup Muslim menjadi lebih jelas dan tidak hanya

sekadar menjadi suatu rukun daripada rukun-rukun iman yang dihafal dalam kepala sahaja. Beberapa peribadi Islam yang dikenal masyhur dalam menghuraikan ilmu ini seperti al-Ash’ari, al-Maturidi dan al-Ghazaliy, antara lainnya, mempunyai penerjemah-penerjemah dan penghurai-penghurainya di Nusantara.

Selepas ilmu tentang ketuhanan dan world view, maka ilmu yang paling dekat selepasnya ialah ilmu-ilmu tentang ibadat dan hukum-hakam atau fiqh, iaitu ilmu yang mengatur cara berhubung antara manusia sesama manusia dan manusia dengan Tuhannya. Hubungan antara manusia dengan manusia itu telah membentuk kebudayaan dan tata kehidupan sehingga proses penciptaan mereka tetap berpaut kepada aqidah dan tauhid. Manusia membentuk kebudayaan dan tamadun mereka tetapi terasnya adalah agama yang datangnya dari Allah s.w.t., Tuhan Yang Maha Esa. Kemudian, terhurai juga ilmu-ilmu yang menyangkut bidang etika dalam kerangka syariat yang syumul dan meliputi. Dalam bidang ini sifat-sifat utama yang merupakan nilai-nilai baik atau al-Mahmudah dan sifat-sifat tercela keji yang menjadi lawannya atau al-Mazmumah, dihurai dengan jelas dengan cara menghubungkannya dengan kehidupan sosial dan kehidupan seseorang. Malah, tidak jarang perbahasan tentang ilmu ini dikaitkan dengan soal-soal metafizika dan ketuhanan. Antara nama-nama yang sangat terkemuka dalam bidang ini ialah Syeikh Abdul Samad al-Palembani dengan karya besarnya Siyar al-Salikin dan Syeikh Muhammad Nafis al-Banjari dengan karya kontroversinya – al-Durr al-Nafis. Dengan berdasar kepada pemahaman doktrin dalam bidang ini serta pelaksanaannya dalam kehidupan perseorangan dan jamaah, maka terbentuklah suatu sistem nilai dan etika Islam di Nusantara, yang kemudiannya menjadi wadah dan acuan kepada sistem moral dan akhlak yang sekarang kita anuti sebagai nilai-nilai bersama.

Dari segi budaya intelektual, Dunia Melayu mempunyai sejarah dan tradisi intelektualismenya sendiri. Kedatangan Islam ke rantau ini telah memulakan tamadun keilmuan dan melibatkan para ilmuwan Melayu dalam perkembangan intelektualisme Dunia Islam. Memang rantau ini belum pernah melahirkan seorang ash-Shafiy atau al-Ghazaliy, tetapi setidak-tidaknya rantau ini memang sentiasa terdedah kepada pemikiran para ilmuwan besar Dunia Islam. Khazanah intelektualisme Melayu tidak cuma mengandungi sastera lipur lara, tetapi meliputi juga terjemahan dan saduran karya-karya besar al-Baydawiy, al-Mawardiy, al-Ghazaliy dan lain-lain di samping karya-karya asli ulama Melayu.Tradisi pengajian pondok (pesantren) yang dianggap oleh setengah kalangan peneliti sebagai bersifat indigenous itu telah memainkan peranan besar sebagai jambatan budaya yang menghubungkan tradisi keilmuan rantau ini dengan tradisi keilmuan Dunia Islam terutama yang berpusat di Asia Barat. Para ilmuwan Melayu tidak hanya menterjemah dan menyadur karya-karya dari luar, tetapi ada juga yang menghasilkan karya-karya asli termasuk karya-karya dalam bahasa Arab. Ash-Syeikh Nawawiy al-Bantaniy (Banten) misalnya telah menghasilkan beberapa buah kitab dalam bahasa Arab yang menjadi rujukan para ulama Hijaz.

Sejarah intelektualisme rantau ini juga mencatatkan adanya polemik-polemik intelektual yang menyegarkan budaya berfikir. Pada zaman tamadun Aceh telah terjadi polemik di sekitar faham wujudiyyah dan pada zaman kebelakangan ini lebih banyak lagi polemik-polemik tentang pelbagai isu termasuklah polemik Islam dan adat tentang pembahagian harta pusaka dalam sistem adat perpatih, polemik politik tentang Islam dan kenegaraan (antara Soekarno dengan Natsir) polemik Kaum Tua-Kaum Muda (tentang pembaharuan Islam), polemik di sekitar faham sekular, reaktualisasi Islam dan sebagainya.

Perkembangan-perkembangan mutakhir dalam bidang pendidikan di rantau ini telah membuka kemungkinan-kemungkinan baru. Penubuhan Universiti Islam Antarabangsa dan ISTAC (Institut Pemikiran dan Tamadun Islam Antarabangsa) di Malaysia umpamanya telah menjadikan rantau ini sebagai salah satu pusat tumpuan para ilmuwan dunia. Sekarang ini pun kita sudah menyaksikan semakin ramainya para pelajar dari pelbagai rantau dunia termasuk Dunia Arab yang datang untuk belajar di kampus-kampus kita.

Dari segi tradisi kerohanian pula, memang sejarah pengislaman rantau ini berkait erat dengan peranan kaum sufi. Kerana itu hingga sekarang rantau Melayu adalah termasuk daerah yang paling subur dengan tradisi kesufian. Ilmu Tasawwuf adalah merupakan antara jenis ilmu yang popular dalam masyarakat Melayu. Karya-karya al-Ghazaliy khususnya kitab ihya’ Ulumi ‘d-Din telah sejak lama diterjemah dan tersebar luas. Tradisi kerohanian masyarakat Melayu pernah membuktikan peranan positifnya sebagai salah satu kekuatan umat. Sejarah zaman penjajahan di Indonesia mencatatkan bahawa antara kekuatan yang paling ditakuti oleh Belanda ialah kumpulan-kumpulan tarekat pimpinan ulama-ulama rohaniah yang sangat berkarisma