L2 writing education: Does “far” L2 writing education: Does “far” transfer of learning outcomes occur, transfer of learning outcomes occur,

and can it be promoted?and can it be promoted?

Mark Andrew JamesMark Andrew James

Arizona State UniversityArizona State University

BackgroundBackground

• University ESL writing courses are meant to lead to University ESL writing courses are meant to lead to learning outcomes that students will apply in (or learning outcomes that students will apply in (or transfer transfer toto) their other courses.) their other courses.

• However, the writing required in an ESL writing course However, the writing required in an ESL writing course can can differdiffer (e.g., in the way source texts are used [Leki & (e.g., in the way source texts are used [Leki & Carson, 1997]) from the writing required in other courses.Carson, 1997]) from the writing required in other courses.

• This mismatch means that there appears to be an This mismatch means that there appears to be an expectation in ESL writing education for expectation in ESL writing education for ““far” transferfar” transfer of of learning outcomes. learning outcomes.

Research questionsResearch questions

1.1. Will learning outcomes from an ESL writing course Will learning outcomes from an ESL writing course transfer to a writing task with characteristics very transfer to a writing task with characteristics very different from the kind of writing done in the ESL different from the kind of writing done in the ESL writing course but typical of the kind of writing required writing course but typical of the kind of writing required in other academic courses (i.e., involving in other academic courses (i.e., involving text-text-responsibleresponsible writing)? writing)?

2.2. Can learning transfer in this situation be promoted by Can learning transfer in this situation be promoted by asking students to look for similarities between the asking students to look for similarities between the writing task and the ESL writing course?writing task and the ESL writing course?

The participants (N=30)The participants (N=30)

• 80% were in their first year of university study.80% were in their first year of university study.

• The average age was 21.The average age was 21.

• 57% were male and 43% were female.57% were male and 43% were female.

• They represented 13 different nationalities, the most They represented 13 different nationalities, the most common being Indian (6 participants), Taiwanese (4), common being Indian (6 participants), Taiwanese (4), Korean (4), and Chinese (3).Korean (4), and Chinese (3).

• Their major areas of study were in business (15 Their major areas of study were in business (15 participants), liberal arts and sciences (9), engineering participants), liberal arts and sciences (9), engineering (5). (One participant had not yet declared a major.) (5). (One participant had not yet declared a major.)

The ESL writing courseThe ESL writing course

• 4 sections of a 1-semester, 3-credit freshman ESL 4 sections of a 1-semester, 3-credit freshman ESL writing course. (4 instructors, all experienced TAs.)writing course. (4 instructors, all experienced TAs.)

• Goal: “to introduce students to the importance of writing Goal: “to introduce students to the importance of writing in the work of the university and to develop their critical in the work of the university and to develop their critical reading, thinking and writing skills so that they can reading, thinking and writing skills so that they can successfully participate in that work”.successfully participate in that work”.

• Main course assignments: 4 multi-draft compositions, Main course assignments: 4 multi-draft compositions,

none of which involved text-responsible writing.none of which involved text-responsible writing.

• Textbook: Textbook: The St.Martin’s guide to writingThe St.Martin’s guide to writing

Data collectionData collection

• A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.

• Each student completed (individually, out of class):Each student completed (individually, out of class):– a 40-minute writing task;– a 15-minute interview;– a 1-page background questionnaire.

Biotechnology: The smell of wealthBiotechnology: The smell of wealth

A North Carolina State University scientist has developed a A North Carolina State University scientist has developed a simple method for processing animal waste, which may lead to simple method for processing animal waste, which may lead to productive uses for some of the 500 million tons of poultry and productive uses for some of the 500 million tons of poultry and livestock waste produced in the United States each year. livestock waste produced in the United States each year.

(... the article continues and is about 450 words long ...)(... the article continues and is about 450 words long ...)

Questions: Questions:

-- What is thermophilic anaerobic digestion?-- What is thermophilic anaerobic digestion?

-- Why is it an important biotechnology? -- Why is it an important biotechnology?

(Demonstrate your understanding by describing and (Demonstrate your understanding by describing and discussing this phenomenon.)discussing this phenomenon.)

The writing taskThe writing task

… … But But firstfirst … Try to think of … Try to think of similaritiessimilarities between this between this writing task and the writing tasks or assignments you do writing task and the writing tasks or assignments you do in your COMP107 class. Write down 4 similarities here:in your COMP107 class. Write down 4 similarities here:

1. 1.

2.2.

3.3.

4.4.

AfterAfter you have written down 4 similarities, read the you have written down 4 similarities, read the article and answer the questions.article and answer the questions.

The writing taskThe writing task

Data collectionData collection

• A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.

• Each student completed (individually, out of class):Each student completed (individually, out of class):– a 40-minute text-responsible writing task;– a 15-minute interview;– a 1-page background questionnaire.

Data collectionData collection

• A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.A 2-week period after the middle of the semester.

• Each student completed (individually, out of class):Each student completed (individually, out of class):– a 40-minute text-responsible writing task;– a 15-minute interview;– a 1-page background questionnaire.

• Students also submitted a copy of their most recent Students also submitted a copy of their most recent graded assignment from the ESL writing course.graded assignment from the ESL writing course.

Data analysisData analysis

1. Two raters examined each piece of writing (from the 1. Two raters examined each piece of writing (from the writing task and the ESL writing course assignment) for writing task and the ESL writing course assignment) for the use of 15 strategies. the use of 15 strategies. – 6 content-related strategies (e.g., exemplifying;

comparing/contrasting)– 5 organization-related strategies (e.g., using cueing

statements; using connectives)– 4 language-related strategies (e.g., avoiding fused

sentences; avoiding sentence fragments)

Data analysisData analysisExample of rubric for examining use of writing strategies: Example of rubric for examining use of writing strategies:

Strategy 10: Using connectives (i.e., temporal [e.g., Strategy 10: Using connectives (i.e., temporal [e.g., whenwhen], spatial [e.g., ], spatial [e.g., therethere], and/or logical [e.g., ], and/or logical [e.g., howeverhowever] ] transitions)transitions)

1 = No use1 = No use

2 = Minimal use2 = Minimal use (e.g., one word used in only (e.g., one word used in only one one or two places)or two places)

3 = Moderate use3 = Moderate use (e.g., two or three different (e.g., two or three different words used, in several places;)words used, in several places;)

4 = Extensive use4 = Extensive use (e.g., multiple words used, (e.g., multiple words used, throughout the text)throughout the text)

Data analysisData analysis

1. Two raters examined each piece of writing (from the 1. Two raters examined each piece of writing (from the writing task and the ESL writing course assignment) for writing task and the ESL writing course assignment) for the use of 15 strategies. the use of 15 strategies. – 6 content-related strategies (e.g., exemplifying;

comparing/contrasting)– 5 organization-related strategies (e.g., using cueing

statements; using connectives)– 4 language-related strategies (e.g., avoiding fused

sentences; avoiding sentence fragments) 2. I coded the interview transcripts for evidence of learning 2. I coded the interview transcripts for evidence of learning

transfer. transfer.

Research question 1Research question 1

Did learning outcomes from the ESL writing Did learning outcomes from the ESL writing course transfer to the writing task? ...course transfer to the writing task? ...

Research question 1: Interview dataResearch question 1: Interview data

• In the interviews, 13 of the 30 students (i.e., 43%) said In the interviews, 13 of the 30 students (i.e., 43%) said that they had made a conscious effort to use learning that they had made a conscious effort to use learning outcomes from COMP107 to do the writing task. Of outcomes from COMP107 to do the writing task. Of these, 7 (i.e., 23% of total) referred to writing strategies.these, 7 (i.e., 23% of total) referred to writing strategies.

Example of a report of transfer:Example of a report of transfer:Researcher: For this activity, did you try to use any of the skills Researcher: For this activity, did you try to use any of the skills

or strategies or things you have learned or practiced or strategies or things you have learned or practiced in in [COMP107]?[COMP107]?

Participant: Participant: Actually, yesActually, yes. I used some transition words like . I used some transition words like “however”, “although”, “also”. Some of those skills, “however”, “although”, “also”. Some of those skills,

like, like, not that much, to only maintain the essay.not that much, to only maintain the essay.

Research question 1: Writing sample dataResearch question 1: Writing sample data

COMP107 assignmentCOMP107 assignment Writing taskWriting task Sig.Sig.

1. Stating personal significance1. Stating personal significance 3.023.02 2.332.33 .027*.027*

2. Describing2. Describing 3.733.73 2.172.17 .000*.000*

3. Exemplifying3. Exemplifying 3.403.40 2.672.67 .011*.011*

4. Comparing/contrasting4. Comparing/contrasting 2.572.57 1.451.45 .000*.000*

5. Defining5. Defining 1.751.75 3.673.67 .000*.000*

6. Classifying6. Classifying 1.651.65 1.401.40 .457.457

7. Using introduction/conclusion7. Using introduction/conclusion 3.033.03 1.171.17 .000*.000*

8. Using logical sequence8. Using logical sequence 2.372.37 3.073.07 .015*.015*

9. Using cueing statements9. Using cueing statements 2.122.12 1.931.93 .111.111

10. Using connectives10. Using connectives 3.283.28 2.382.38 .001*.001*

11. Using cohesive devices11. Using cohesive devices 3.833.83 2.922.92 .000*.000*

12. Avoiding missing commas12. Avoiding missing commas 2.732.73 3.173.17 .022*.022*

13. Avoiding fused sentences13. Avoiding fused sentences 3.473.47 3.873.87 .007*.007*

14. Avoiding sentence fragments14. Avoiding sentence fragments 3.653.65 3.803.80 .233.233

15. Avoiding subject+pronoun15. Avoiding subject+pronoun 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00

Research question 1: Writing sample dataResearch question 1: Writing sample data

COMP107 assignmentCOMP107 assignment Writing taskWriting task Sig.Sig.

1. Stating personal significance1. Stating personal significance 3.023.02 2.332.33 .027*.027*

2. Describing2. Describing 3.733.73 2.172.17 .000*.000*

3. Exemplifying3. Exemplifying 3.403.40 2.672.67 .011*.011*

4. Comparing/contrasting4. Comparing/contrasting 2.572.57 1.451.45 .000*.000*

5. Defining5. Defining 1.751.75 3.673.67 .000*.000*

6. Classifying6. Classifying 1.651.65 1.401.40 .457.457

7. Using introduction/conclusion7. Using introduction/conclusion 3.033.03 1.171.17 .000*.000*

8. Using logical sequence8. Using logical sequence 2.372.37 3.073.07 .015*.015*

9. Using cueing statements9. Using cueing statements 2.122.12 1.931.93 .111.111

10. Using connectives10. Using connectives 3.283.28 2.382.38 .001*.001*

11. Using cohesive devices11. Using cohesive devices 3.833.83 2.922.92 .000*.000*

12. Avoiding missing commas12. Avoiding missing commas 2.732.73 3.173.17 .022*.022*

13. Avoiding fused sentences13. Avoiding fused sentences 3.473.47 3.873.87 .007*.007*

14. Avoiding sentence fragments14. Avoiding sentence fragments 3.653.65 3.803.80 .233.233

15. Avoiding subject+pronoun15. Avoiding subject+pronoun 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00

Research question 1: Writing sample dataResearch question 1: Writing sample data

COMP107 assignmentCOMP107 assignment Writing taskWriting task Sig.Sig.

1. Stating personal significance1. Stating personal significance 3.023.02 2.332.33 .027*.027*

2. Describing2. Describing 3.733.73 2.172.17 .000*.000*

3. Exemplifying3. Exemplifying 3.403.40 2.672.67 .011*.011*

4. Comparing/contrasting4. Comparing/contrasting 2.572.57 1.451.45 .000*.000*

5. Defining5. Defining 1.751.75 3.673.67 .000*.000*

6. Classifying6. Classifying 1.651.65 1.401.40 .457.457

7. Using introduction/conclusion7. Using introduction/conclusion 3.033.03 1.171.17 .000*.000*

8. Using logical sequence8. Using logical sequence 2.372.37 3.073.07 .015*.015*

9. Using cueing statements9. Using cueing statements 2.122.12 1.931.93 .111.111

10. Using connectives10. Using connectives 3.283.28 2.382.38 .001*.001*

11. Using cohesive devices11. Using cohesive devices 3.833.83 2.922.92 .000*.000*

12. Avoiding missing commas12. Avoiding missing commas 2.732.73 3.173.17 .022*.022*

13. Avoiding fused sentences13. Avoiding fused sentences 3.473.47 3.873.87 .007*.007*

14. Avoiding sentence fragments14. Avoiding sentence fragments 3.653.65 3.803.80 .233.233

15. Avoiding subject+pronoun15. Avoiding subject+pronoun 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00

Research question 2Research question 2

Was learning transfer promoted by asking Was learning transfer promoted by asking students to look for similarities between the students to look for similarities between the writing task and the ESL writing course? … writing task and the ESL writing course? …

Research question 2: Interview dataResearch question 2: Interview data

• Groups were compared using a Chi-square test:Groups were compared using a Chi-square test:– Group 1 (i.e., students who had not been asked to look

for similarities) vs. Group 2 (i.e., students who had been asked to look for similarities), for reported learning transfer.

• There was There was no significant differenceno significant difference between the groups. between the groups.

Research question 2: Writing sample dataResearch question 2: Writing sample data

Group1Group1 Group2Group2 Sig.Sig. Group1Group1 Group2Group2 SigSig

1. Stating personal significance1. Stating personal significance 2.972.97 3.073.07 .918.918 2.252.25 2.432.43 .697.697

2. Describing2. Describing 3.813.81 3.643.64 .667.667 2.382.38 1.931.93 .448.448

3. Exemplifying3. Exemplifying 3.383.38 3.433.43 .759.759 2.502.50 2.862.86 .275.275

4. Comparing/contrasting4. Comparing/contrasting 2.192.19 3.003.00 .043*.043* 1.221.22 1.711.71 .355.355

5. Defining5. Defining 2.062.06 1.391.39 .110.110 3.633.63 3.713.71 .697.697

6. Classifying6. Classifying 2.002.00 1.251.25 2.572.57 1.381.38 1.431.43 .552.552

7. Using introduction/conclusion7. Using introduction/conclusion 3.063.06 3.003.00 .822.822 1.191.19 1.141.14 .854.854

8. Using logical sequence8. Using logical sequence 2.162.16 2.612.61 .154.154 2.882.88 3.293.29 .334.334

9. Using cueing statements9. Using cueing statements 2.062.06 2.182.18 .400.400 1.941.94 1.931.93 .984.984

10. Using connectives10. Using connectives 3.383.38 3.183.18 .473.473 2.532.53 2.212.21 .448.448

11. Using cohesive devices11. Using cohesive devices 3.813.81 3.863.86 .984.984 2.882.88 2.962.96 .759.759

12. Avoiding missing commas12. Avoiding missing commas 2.752.75 2.712.71 .918.918 3.233.23 3.093.09 .691.691

13. Avoiding fused sentences13. Avoiding fused sentences 3.443.44 3.503.50 .790.790 3.943.94 3.793.79 .498.498

14. Avoiding sentence fragments14. Avoiding sentence fragments 3.753.75 3.543.54 .294.294 3.813.81 3.793.79 .918.918

15. Avoiding subject+pronoun15. Avoiding subject+pronoun 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00

COMP107 assignment Writing task

Research question 2: Writing sample dataResearch question 2: Writing sample data

Group1Group1 Group2Group2 Sig.Sig. Group1Group1 Group2Group2 SigSig

1. Stating personal significance1. Stating personal significance 2.972.97 3.073.07 .918.918 2.252.25 2.432.43 .697.697

2. Describing2. Describing 3.813.81 3.643.64 .667.667 2.382.38 1.931.93 .448.448

3. Exemplifying3. Exemplifying 3.383.38 3.433.43 .759.759 2.502.50 2.862.86 .275.275

4. Comparing/contrasting4. Comparing/contrasting 2.192.19 3.003.00 .043*.043* 1.221.22 1.711.71 .355.355

5. Defining5. Defining 2.062.06 1.391.39 .110.110 3.633.63 3.713.71 .697.697

6. Classifying6. Classifying 2.002.00 1.251.25 2.572.57 1.381.38 1.431.43 .552.552

7. Using introduction/conclusion7. Using introduction/conclusion 3.063.06 3.003.00 .822.822 1.191.19 1.141.14 .854.854

8. Using logical sequence8. Using logical sequence 2.162.16 2.612.61 .154.154 2.882.88 3.293.29 .334.334

9. Using cueing statements9. Using cueing statements 2.062.06 2.182.18 .400.400 1.941.94 1.931.93 .984.984

10. Using connectives10. Using connectives 3.383.38 3.183.18 .473.473 2.532.53 2.212.21 .448.448

11. Using cohesive devices11. Using cohesive devices 3.813.81 3.863.86 .984.984 2.882.88 2.962.96 .759.759

12. Avoiding missing commas12. Avoiding missing commas 2.752.75 2.712.71 .918.918 3.233.23 3.093.09 .691.691

13. Avoiding fused sentences13. Avoiding fused sentences 3.443.44 3.503.50 .790.790 3.943.94 3.793.79 .498.498

14. Avoiding sentence fragments14. Avoiding sentence fragments 3.753.75 3.543.54 .294.294 3.813.81 3.793.79 .918.918

15. Avoiding subject+pronoun15. Avoiding subject+pronoun 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00 4.004.00 4.004.00 1.001.00

COMP107 assignment Writing task

SummarySummary

• Far transfer of learning outcomes did occur from the ESL Far transfer of learning outcomes did occur from the ESL writing course; but, this transfer was constrained: writing course; but, this transfer was constrained: – some students tried to use learning outcomes from the

ESL writing course to do the writing task; others did not.

– some writing strategies (particularly those related to language use and those hinted at in the task instructions) transferred readily to the writing task; others (i.e., many of those related to content and organization) did not.

• Asking students to look for task similarities did not Asking students to look for task similarities did not stimulate transfer of learning outcomes.stimulate transfer of learning outcomes.

ImplicationsImplications

• L2 writing practitioners may be encouraged that far L2 writing practitioners may be encouraged that far transfer of learning outcomes from an ESL writing course transfer of learning outcomes from an ESL writing course can occur. They may also feel cautious because this can occur. They may also feel cautious because this transfer is not inevitable. transfer is not inevitable.

• L2 writing researchers may investigate questions like:L2 writing researchers may investigate questions like:– How far will learning outcomes from a L2 writing

course transfer?– Do some learning outcomes from a L2 writing course

transfer more readily than others?

• Both groups may be interested in the question of whether Both groups may be interested in the question of whether far transfer of learning outcomes can be stimulated.far transfer of learning outcomes can be stimulated.

Thank you! ...Thank you! ...