Music listening practices in workplace settings in the UK: an exploratory survey of office-based settings

Anneli Beronius Haake Department of Music

University of Sheffield, U.K. mup04@sheffield.ac.uk

ABSTRACT Recent research into good business practice suggests that well-being is of primary importance to employers and em-ployees today. When looking at the quality of employee health in workplaces, it is evident that this is not always the situation: stress, burn-out, job dissatisfaction, anxiety and depression are growing problems in many organisations. A small number of studies have begun to explore the influ-ence of music on well-being at work following evidence that music listening can enhance productivity and morale, and that people use music listening to manage their well-being in daily life. This study explores how music listening is used at work, and its effects on work performance and subjective well-being. An empirical study was conducted to further the understanding of music listening practices in workplace settings. A survey with 295 respondents was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data on occupa-tion, perceived workplace stress, the amount and type of music listening during a working week, the listening tech-nologies employed, the amount of control the respondent had over music in their workplace, the tasks performed concurrently with music listening, and the perceived func-tions that music listening had for the respondent. This re-search sheds light on whether, and how, listening tech-nologies are incorporated into workplaces. It also reveals the kinds of tasks that music listening accompanies, and the roles that employees perceive music listening to have for them.

Keywords Work, music listening, well-being

INTRODUCTION Work-related stress is related to ill-health (Donald et al., 2005; Perrew et al., 2002; Smith, 2001) and Health and Safety Executive (HSE) claim that one in five employees are stressed at work (HSE, 2006). Stress in the workplace can also reduce productivity, in particular when stress manifests itself as a reduction in psychological well-being (Donald et al., 2005). Much of the research into general health has been occupied with understanding how people develop illnesses, as opposed to how people maintain their health (Ruud, 1997), but there is a growing body of re-search into well-being and quality of life which has begun to address this aspect of health (ibid; Diener & Seligman, 2002; Fredrickson, 2000; Robinson, 2000). Studies of self-reported psychological well-being, or subjective well-being, have shown that positive emotional experiences are a key ingredient for evaluations of well-being (Diener & Lucas, 2000). If people experience positive emotions more often, they are more likely to report higher subjective well-being. In addition, recent emotional experiences matter more than events in the past, suggesting that there is a syn-ergy between frequency and recency of positive emotional experience and subjective well-being (Suh, Diener and Fujita, 1996). Recent studies of self-selected music listening in daily life report that functions of music listening often relate to mood regulating strategies (DeNora, 2000; North, Hargreaves & Hargreaves, 2004; Sloboda & ONeill, 2001; Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994). It has also been suggested that there is an untapped potential for improving public health by employing health-promoting natural and cultural activities, and that music listening can be used as a way of empowering peoples lives (Batt-Rawden, DeNora & Ruud, 2005, p. 121). It is possible for people to regulate mood on a daily basis wherever they are due to the devel-opment of small and mobile music listening devices (Har-greaves & North, 1999; Bull, 2005), as well as music lis-tening capacities via the internet. This has lead to an in-crease of individual listening (i.e. listening to self-selected music, in private or via headphones in public). As a conse-quence there is now increased opportunity for individual-ised listening in workplaces Although there is a growing body of research into music listening practices in daily life, little is known about the uses of music listening at work. Studies of music uses in

Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Music Perception & Cognition (ICMPC9). 2006 The Society for Music Perception & Cog-nition (SMPC) and European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM). Copyright of the content of an individual paper is held by the primary (first-named) author of that paper. All rights reserved. No paper from this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy-ing, recording, or by any information retrieval systems, without permis-sion in writing from the paper's primary author. No other part of this proceedings may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information retrieval system, without permission in writing from SMPC and ESCOM.

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

the workplace have often investigated the effects of im-posed music on productivity and morale (e.g., Fox, 1971; Uhrbrock, 1961; Wokun, 1969), and less often explored effects of self-selected music on psychological well-being. Two intervention-studies have investigated the effects of self-selected music listening on work performance and af-fective responses. A study by Oldham et al. (1995) investi-gated headset use by employees in a retail organisation-office and its effects on mood, performance, turnover in-tentions, job satisfaction and other work responses. Lesiuk (2005) studied music listening via personal stereo or head-set use in computer programmers and the effects on quality of work, time on task and affect. The results of both studies suggest that self-selected music listening generally in-creases work performance as well as positive affect in of-fice-based working environments.

AIM The aim of the current study is to explore current music listening practices in office-based workplaces to find out how, where and how often employees listen to music at work, as well as what activities they carry out concurrently. The study also aims to provide more detailed information about the functions of music, what type of music the re-spondents listen to, and whether and how music is used in these contexts as a means of regulating mood and improv-ing well-being.

METHOD

Respondents The sample constituted 175 females and 119 males. Re-spondents were aged between 18 and 65: 18-25 (N = 33), 26-35 (N = 132), 36-45 (N = 62), 46-55 (N = 53) and 56-65 (N = 14). One respondent did not indicate gender or age. The occupational categories included were managers, administrative occupations, teaching and research profes-sionals, business and public service professionals, science and technology professionals, health and social welfare associate professionals, secretarial occupations, protective services, business and public service associate profession-als, science and technology associate professionals and culture, media and sports occupations. The respondents were initially identified through personal contacts in a vari-ety of professions, using a snow-balling technique. Under-recruitment in a small number of occupational categories was resolved by contacting businesses, NHS care trusts, organisations and unions. A particular effort was made to include teaching and research professionals, protective ser-vice occupations, health and social welfare associate pro-fessionals, business and public service associate profes-sionals, corporate managers and administrative occupa-tions, who together account for half of the self-reported work-related stress, depression and anxiety (HSE, 2003). Further details of the specified job roles within each cate-gory were obtained through the Standard Occupation Clas-sification 2000 (National Statistics, 2006). The distribution

of the population was compared with the data on these groups from the 2001 census for England (National Statis-tics Nomis, 2006). The divergence between sample and survey proportions was less than 5% for all groups, meas-ured by gender and job category.

Instructions and questionnaire The questionnaire was administered online between De-cember 2005 and May 2006 (and as a paper copy when contacting groups employed in less IT-orientated environ-ments, e.g., protective services, certain health profession-als). Respondents recruited to the online questionnaire were sent an invitation e-mail with brief information about the study, its purpose, contact details for further informa-tion and a link to the online survey. Since the aim of the study was to investigate how music is currently used in office-based workplaces, the invitation email encouraged responses from those people who currently listen to music in the workplace. The invitation e-mail therefore asked: Do you listen to music at work? Does music help you at work in some way, if so how?. A participant informa-tion sheet was linked to the website, where the respondents could read about the purpose of the study more closely before they decided to take part. The invitation e-mail also invited respondents to spread the questionnaire further to friends, family and colleagues if they wished. The paper copies were returned via post in stamped return envelope. The proportion of data collected via paper copies was 7%. The questionnaire consisted of 22 items. The questions gathered quantitative and qualitative data on occupation, perceived workplace stress, the amount and type of mu-sic listening during a working week, the listening technolo-gies employed, the amount of control the respondent had over music in their workplace, the activities carried out concurrently with music listening, and the perceived func-tions that music listening had for the respondent. Respon-dents were also asked to state any reasons for not listening to music at work. The response choices contained a mixture of forced choices, free responses, multiple responses with Likert scale (i.e., respondents could choose more than one answer and respond on a scale of 1 to 5), and percentage-scale responses. Forced choice responses were used to col-lect contextual data, e.g., occupation categories and physi-cal workplace surroundings. The free text questions aimed to capture the respondents instinctive thoughts about func-tions of music, what music they listened to, their definition of stress and reasons for not listening to music at work. Percentage-scale responses collected data on the degree of choice over music at work, amount of music listening in a working week and also of headphone use. Multiple re-sponses with Likert scales were used to collect data on mu-sic listening technologies employed, activities carried out whilst listening, location and social environment when lis-tening, and functions of music discussed in previous re-search (DeNora, 2000; North, Hargreaves and Hargreaves, 2004; Sloboda & ONeill, 2001).

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Out of the total 294 respondents, 80% reported listening to music at work. Out of these 80%, respondents listened on average for 36% of their working week. The respondents reported a high degree of choice over music at work, on average 78% of the time. The high frequency of individual listening reported by respondents indicates the timeliness of research into self-selected, as opposed to imposed, music (e.g., Fox, 1971; Uhrbrock, 1961; Wokun, 1969). All the descriptive statistical results reported in the following sub-sections were rated by the respondents on a five-point Likert scale. For questions asking respondents to rate ac-tivities, listening devices and environment, 1 = never and 5 = always. For questions asking respondents to rate func-tions of music, 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The number of participants rating each item is illus-trated (N), and differences in these numbers indicate miss-ing data as these questions were not mandatory.

Activities Respondents were asked to indicate how often they carried out certain activities at the same time as listening to music at work, by rating them from 1 = never to 5 = always. The most common activities undertaken whilst listening to mu-sic during work were driving/travelling (N = 235, x = 3.5, SD = 1.7), doing routine tasks (N = 235, x = 3.4, SD = 1.7), doing word processing tasks (N = 236, x = 3.2, SD = 1.4) and surfing/e-mailing (N = 235, x = 3.1, SD = 1.3). Less common activities were talking to colleagues (N = 235, x = 1.9, SD = 1.2) and talking to others (N = 235, x = 1.6, SD = 1.1). The majority of the results are consistent with studies of music listening in daily life (e.g., North, Hargreaves & Hargreaves, 2004), therefore these results reinforce these previous findings with respect to the spe-cific location of the workplace. Word processing was the only more cognitively demanding task in the workplace that was frequently reported, suggesting that respondents did not find music particularly distracting when carrying out this task. Previous research has shown that a combina-tion of high arousal factors, including personality differ-ences and information load in music, can account for whether or not music listening distracts and therefore de-tracts from work performance (Furnham & Allass, 1999; Kiger, 1989). It is possible that the respondents in this study intuitively managed their music choices in order to minimize any distracting effects when listening to music at work. Worth noting, however, is that previous studies of musics effect on task performance used music chosen by the researcher. It is therefore also possible that by having a high level of choice over the music (which many respon-dents in this study had), the respondents found music less distracting (Parente, 1976).

Listening device and type of music In order to find out how music listening technologies were incorporated into offices, respondents were asked to indi-

cate how often they used certain listening devices by rating them from 1 = never to 5 = always. Radio (N = 236, x = 2.7, SD = 1.7) was the most commonly used listening de-vice at work, followed by CD-player on the computer (N = 234, x = 2.4, SD = 1.6) and listening via the internet (N = 232, x = 2.2, SD = 1.6). These three listening technologies may have included streamed media, Internet-radio or mp3-files stored on the computer, since the data does not pro-vide this level of detail. However, some respondents re-ported these kinds of listening facilities under other, men-tioning software including iTunes and RealPlayer, mp3-files stored on the computer and Internet-radio. The least common listening devices were public loud speakers (N = 231, x = 1.2, SD = 0.9) and cassette tape players (N = 231, x = 1.1, SD = 0.5). This result indicates that imposed mu-sic is less common at work than self-selected music, and it also highlights the decrease in popularity of cassette tapes in recent years, compared to previous studies (Bull, 2000). The respondents were asked to describe what music they listened to in a free response question. Analysis of the comments revealed that respondents used three different ways of describing their music choices. Some respondents referred to listening devices, including iPod and radio. Others named artists or albums, in more or less detail. Some respondents also described the music in terms of perceived functions, including relaxing music (Mu83, Crew Manager, Fire Station) or upbeat music which isn't too manic... so that you can concentrate but be perhaps influenced to keep your energy levels up (Mu38, Account Manager). Although many respondents stated that their musical preferences were not different at work compared to at home, some did describe particular musical parameters that they preferred when working:

While working at a computer [I listen to] more mel-low or instrumental music (Mu3, Business Develop-ment Manager)

This suggests that there may be certain sonic qualities that are more suitable for certain people, in certain situations when doing certain tasks. This does not necessarily mean that particular types of music are more or less suited to listen to in a workplace setting, but rather that there may be certain combinations of tasks, sounding music, individual factors and situations that could prove more suitable than others.

Environment The majority of respondents worked in an open-plan office (44%) and in a shared room (30%), whereas fewer worked in a private room (22%), from home (3%) or on the road (0.7%). Respondents were asked to rate locations for listen-ing to music at work on a scale of 1 = never to 5 = always. Results showed that they were most often in their offices when listening to music (N = 237, x = 4.0, SD = 1.4), and travelling between locations was the second most com-monly mentioned location for listening (N = 233, x = 2.8, SD = 1.7). Respondents listened to music less often when

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

working from home (N = 231, x = 2.1, SD = 1.5), and in break rooms (N = 232, x = 1.5, SD = 1.0). The fact that respondents reported listening to music in the office seems at first contradictory compared to earlier results showing that driving/travelling was the most common activity when listening to music. However, this may indicate that they generally spend more time in their offices than travelling, thus in a week listen to music more often in the office. The higher mean for driving/travelling-activities possibly sug-gests that the respondents listen to music for a higher pro-portion of the time when they travel, and for a lower pro-portion of the time in the office. Further research would be needed to clarify this. Respondents also rated who they were with when listening at work, on a scale of 1 = never to 5 = always. Most re-spondents reported being alone when listening to music at work (N = 232, x = 3.9, SD = 1.5), compared to listening together with other people (N = 234, x = 2.6, SD = 1.6). Listening alone also included listening by oneself in the presence of other people (e.g., in an open-plan office). These results are consistent with previous research showing that most of the music listening in daily life takes place in private when there is a high degree of choice of music (North, Hargreaves & Hargreaves, 2004).

Functions of music at work Music at work had clear mood-related functions, with re-spondents agreeing most strongly with statements that mu-sic Improves your mood, Helps you relax and Makes you happier (table 1). Many respondents commented that: listening to music makes me feel happy and relaxed (Fu183, Projects Assistant) Table 1. Functions of music listening at work (Likert scale 1-5: 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)

Functions x SD Improves your mood 4.4 0.9

Helps you relax 4.3 1.0 Makes you happier 4.1 0.9 Makes you less bored 3.9 1.1 Creates a suitable atmosphere 3.8 1.0 Improves your focus 3.8 1.0 Blocks out surrounding noise 3.7 1.3 Inspires/stimulates you 3.7 1.1 Helps your creative flow 3.6 1.1 Distracts you from unwanted thoughts 3.4 1.2 Makes you less tired 3.2 1.2 Provides a different perspective 3.1 1.2 Helps you pace your work 2.8 1.2 Other 1.9 1.5

Music at work could block out surrounding noise and im-prove focus (table 1), and these two functions were also frequently mentioned in a free response question about functions of music at work. Respondents reported that mu-sic at work can block the numerous distractions that are inherent in working in an open plan office (Fu5, Health & Safety Manager), leading to improved focus on tasks (Fu42, Associate Director). An independent T-test showed that headphone users agreed significantly stronger with: improves your focus (t=2.127, p=.035, df=226) and blocks out surrounding noise (t=5.411, p=.000, df=228) than respondents who did not use headphones. Studies have shown that a closer physical positioning between the person and the media object (i.e., listening via headphones as opposed to speakers) often leads to liking, higher atten-tion and positive attitudes towards the media object (Kal-linen & Ravaja, 2004), but it remains to be established whether these effects also spill over to tasks carried out whilst listening (i.e., not media objects). If a closer posi-tioning also influences attitudes towards, and liking of, other objects in the environment, then it may serve to ex-plain one way in which music listening can aid work per-formance. A study by Oldham et al. (1995), failed to dem-onstrate that a reduction of environmental interferences leads to improved work performance when listening to music at work. But the qualitative results from this study show that respondents experience a relationship between sound-blocking and focus. This combination presumably aids work performance, although more research is needed to establish the empirical truth of this effect. Music at work could stimulate and inspire employees (table 1), and respondents frequently described in a free response question how music could relieve boredom, particularly when doing mundane tasks (Fu187, Information Officer). Music could also create a suitable atmosphere at work (Ta-ble 1), and respondents commented that music sometimes makes office environment more pleasant (Fu70, Welfare Adviser). Two more themes emerged when responses to the free response question of musics functions at work were analysed. Firstly, two respondents suggested that mu-sic could stimulate social interaction between colleagues, as it often provides a talking point (Fu193, Web Editor, marketing). Secondly, two respondents argued that an in-terest in the sounding music could provide motivation for listening at work, as listening expands musical horizons (Fu192, Information Officer). The majority of these results support findings in other stud-ies of daily music listening (e.g., DeNora, 2000, North, Hargreaves & Hargreaves, 2004). However, the function of sound-blocking, which leads to improved focus, is espe-cially emphasized in the qualitative comments.

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

Music, well-being and work performance at work Many respondents (159 of 226) indicated in free response questions (why do you listen to this music at work and what functions do you believe it has for you) that music at work allowed them to regulate their mood and increase their relaxation (table 2). These strategies seemed to be connected to improvements in well-being and work per-formance. Table 2. Themes of musically induced well-being and positive affect at work.

Themes: Quotes:

Therapeutic

[Music] lets me think, allows me to chill and unwind, if it's a punky song I can imagine all my stresses being screamed out with the song even if I'm not screaming along with it. (Fu107, Administrative Assistant)

Inspiring It connects with my creative forces and ful-fils a need for deeper experience. Music satis-fies the hunger of the soul. (Fu25, Project Manager)

Relaxing Takes my mind off the things that are really stressing me out - calms me down and clears the mind. (Wh180, Purchasing Coordinator)

Mood improving

It puts me in a good mood and therefore I feel more cheerful at work and less stressed. (Fu257, Personal Assistant) It makes me more relaxed and puts me in a good mood, which means I am nicer to peo-ple, especially on the telephone.(Fu253, Unit Secretary) [I listen to] improve my mood and keep a balanced view to what you are dealing with e.g., it might help me remain calm or positive when dealing with a stressful situation. (Fu39, Account Manager)

Respondents reported that music listening could have a therapeutic function (table 2). In these circumstances, re-spondents described projecting negative emotions into sonic qualities of the music in a catharsis-like process:

We feel that rock music helps express our anger when we've been messed around by clients. (Wh11, Re-cruitment Consultant Manager)

Here, one respondent perceives that a number of employees in the same workplace collectively let off steam and ex-press negative emotions that derived from their job roles. This procedure can be described to assist psychological adjustment (Sloboda & ONeill, 2001, p. 427) and, as the Administrative Assistant in table 2 illustrates, to reduce stress without behaving in a way which may be perceived as inappropriate in the workplace. Respondents also stated listening to music for inspiration (table 2). Some explained that they felt more inspired to

continue their working day, whereas others argued that the inspiration related to a deeper experience, sometimes de-scribed as spiritual:

"I listen to the music during work breaks because it transcends the workplace and acts as a form of escapism (I sometimes go to the gym at lunchtime which has a similar effect but lacks the spiritual dimension)" (Wh26, Project Manager)

It has been suggested that music can be perceived as spiri-tual because the perception and cognition of music shares elements of ineffability with spiritual experiences (Slo-boda, 2000). By providing an inexpressible experience at work, it appears that music has the capacity to stimulate employees in an environment where things are more often quantified and graspable. Respondents frequently reported that music listening at work helped them to relax and decrease their perceived stress levels. Although previous research has reported con-tradictory evidence of musics effect on relaxation (see review by Biley, 2000), it has been argued that self-selected music in particular is more efficient for relaxation and reduction of anxiety (Davis & Thaut, 1989; Burns et al., 1999). The results of this study indicate that self-selected music at work can have similar effects. Although relaxation has been seen as a part of mood states (Lesiuk, 2005; Oldham et al., 1995, and also as an emotion: Juslin & Laukka, 2004), many respondents in this study perceived the two as different and claimed that musically induced mood improvements led to relaxation. A general relaxation response consists of a reduction of activity in the sympa-thetic nervous system, including reduction of oxygen con-sumption, lower pulse, lower muscle tension, a decrease in breathing frequency, and lower blood pressure (Benson, 2001). The subjective experience can be varied but often manifests itself as a sense of calm and well-being (ibid). It is difficult to establish whether the respondents were refer-ring to cognitive, affective or physiological components of relaxation, but the qualitative comments suggests that res-pondents believed positive mood and relaxation to be dif-ferent, and that musically induced positive mood can lead to a reduction of stress. Musically induced mood improvements were also believed to lead to improvements in work performance. Music can aid work performance because it often generates mild posi-tive affect, which can influence how cognitive material is organised, and therefore improve creativity (Lesiuk, 2005). Also, by aiding relaxation, music can alter the perception of materials and consequently decrease so called mental blocks (ibid). Furthermore, people can get energised by the perception of and the response to music, and the sound-ing music can assist in pacing the work, i.e., spending less time on tasks (Lesiuk, 2005; Wokun; 1969). Finally, it has also been suggested that music at work can be perceived as something which the employees are in control of, which can influence work performance positively (Oldham et al., 1995). However, respondents in this study described how

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

their behaviour and attitude towards things that happened to them in the workplace would change as a result of mood improvements through music listening (e.g., being nicer to customers on the phone, remaining more positive in a stressful situation). The respondents seemed to believe that these changes in behaviour was a result of musically in-duced mood improvements, and interpreted them as im-proving their work performance. Given that respondents reported effects of music listening at work that related to well-being and relaxation, further analysis were carried out focusing on reported levels of job stress. Respondents were asked to rate how stressful they found their jobs on a five-point Likert scale (where 1 = not at all stressful to 5 = extremely stressful). The result showed moderate overall levels of stress (N = 295, x = 2.48, SD = 0.88). Fewer respondents reported their jobs as extremely stressful (1%), very stressful (10%), or not stressful at all (13%), whereas most respondents reported their jobs as moderately stressful (38%) or mildly stressful (38%). A Pearsons correlation test showed no correlation between levels of stress and weekly listening time. Simi-larly, a one-way ANOVA revealed no significant differ-ences in perceived functions of music according to reported stress levels. Respondents who rated their jobs as not at all stressful or mildly stressful (N = 151) were compared with respondents rating their jobs as very or extremely stressful (N = 32), to further explore possible differences in use and functions of music between the two groups. An independent T-test showed no significant difference in weekly listening time between the two groups, indicating that level of stress does not necessarily determine the amount of music that indi-viduals listen to at work. An independent T-test showed no significant differences in mood and well-being related functions (Improves my mood, Makes me happy and Relaxes me), indicating that respondents who rated their jobs very or extremely stressful were not less likely to find that music has relaxing or mood improving functions. However, respondents who found their jobs mildly stress-ful or not stressful at all agreed significantly more with the statement that music Makes you less bored (t = 2.28, df = 154, p = .024). This indicates that respondents reporting low levels of stress are more likely to use music for its stimulating and energising effects, than respondents with a high level of reported stress. This result is consistent with theories of arousal management which suggests that people choose music to optimize their responses to a particular situation (North & Hargreaves, 2000). Although the data in this study does not reveal anything about the particular music that respondents listened to, it is evident that respon-dents with low levels of stress found it more beneficial to listen to music in order to relieve boredom. To conclude, it appears that music listening can influence both self-reported well-being and work performance at work. This may be because both well-being and work per-

formance are closely linked; positive emotional experi-ences seem to be the key inputs for both well-being and work performance, and music often elicits these types of experiences.

Disadvantages with music listening at work Although respondents reported a fairly high level of choice over music at work, having no control over the music heard at work was associated with reports of music being found annoying and distracting:

Every December we are allowed a CD player in the of-fice and I have to listen to Christmas CD's on repeat - I believe this is detrimental to my health. (Senior Brand Manager)

One way of solving the problem of limited choice is for listeners to use headphones, which 31% of the respondents did. Many respondents reported that they used headphones as a consideration to other work colleagues, but that it also as mentioned earlier improved their focus on the task at hand. A drawback that headphone use can entail at work is that it can lead to feelings of social exclusion, where head-phone users can not interact socially with their colleagues to the same extent as those not using headphones:

I have to be selective about listening to music at work because I find that I miss out on a lot of discussions in the office, even eavesdropping manager conversa-tions (Technical Infrastructure Specialist)

Using headphones at work can signal to other colleagues that one is busy and needs to be left alone:

People tend to interrupt your work less if you are wear-ing headphones (Fu18, Grid Systems Manager);

And using headphones can create frustration among non-listeners who try to communicate with someone using headphones:

It can infuriate some work colleagues, if they are non-listeners. They sometimes get angry that they need to wait a moment for you to pause/unplug earphones (ad77, Computer programmer)

However, it appears that the problem of communication is smaller than that of forced listening, and many respondents regarded using headphones as a practical way of listening to music at work.

Conclusion This study aimed to shed light on the use of music in of-fice-based working environments and to provide explora-tory data on the use of music for well-being purposes. The results of this study suggest that many of the respondents used music listening to improve their well-being in the workplace. The results reveal that many respondents be-lieved that musically induced positive mood at work can lead to improved work performance (increased capability to deal with stressful situations, increased positive attitudes towards clients/colleagues). Although further empirical research is needed to clarify this claim, it supports previous

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

research suggesting that musically induced mood at work can influence work performance (Lesiuk, 2005; Oldham et al., 1995). Qualitative comments by the respondents sug-gest that self-selected music is an important element in im-proving both well-being and work performance, and statis-tical analysis indicates that headphone use can further en-hance some of the functions that music has at work. The results also indicate that music listening can influence so-cial interaction at work by providing a talking point, but also decrease social interaction when people using head-phones become withdrawn from their colleagues. Batt-Rawden, DeNora & Ruud have argued that listening to and talking about music may provide resources for a better quality of life and better health (2005, p. 122). Further research is therefore needed to explore how social interac-tion through music can be stimulated and whether this can provide employees with resources for improving their well-being. Finally, the results also imply that there might be certain sonic qualities that are more suitable when working, and further research is needed to shed light on relationships between musical parameters, task performance and the con-text of work. In interpreting the results, it must be remembered that all respondents were volunteers recruited for their use of mu-sic at work, which means this data cannot be used to draw any conclusions about the wider incidence of music listen-ing in workplaces, and that responses may therefore exhibit a bias towards the views of those people who use music rather than those who do not. This potential sample bias could also have contributed to the finding that subjective stress was not correlated with the frequency of music-listening, or with widespread differences in the perceived functions of music. It may be that even those respondents scoring highly on the stress scale were relatively less stressed than those who did not take part in the survey. This study provides a first glance at how music is being used, what the functions are and how music listening tech-nologies are incorporated into offices in the U.K. It is im-portant to further investigate this phenomenon as there is a need to focus on enhancing psychological well-being in workplaces, and also because individual listening devices are widely available in workplaces today. It is also of im-portance to investigate these questions across various workplace settings. The social context of music listening has been ignored in previous research, where most studies of emotion induction through music and of musics effect on work performance have been carried out in laboratory settings (Juslin & Laukka, 2004; Furnham, & Bradley, 1997). There is therefore a possibility that functions of mu-sic may vary depending on the context. Future research should also take into account the importance of self-selected music, and the adverse emotional reactions that imposed music can have, when empirical studies are de-signed.

This research is a step towards understanding how well-being in the workplace can be maintained and enhanced through the use of self-selected music, as opposed to un-derstanding how ill health at work can be reduced through music (see Ruud 1997, for a similar discussion within mu-sic therapy). This is an important distinction to make, as the latter view proposes a reactive, rather than proactive, ap-proach. Well-being is more than the absence of illness. Similarly, the effects of music and the reasons for why people listen to music at work are more complicated and far-reaching than its ability to reduce stress.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was carried out using data from the project An exploratory study of music-listening practices in work-place settings, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, in collaboration with Dr Nicola Dibben.

REFERENCES Batt-Rawden, K., DeNora, T., & Ruud, E. (2005). Music lis-tening and empowerment in health promotion: A study of the role and significance of music in every day life of the long-term ill. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 14(2), 120-136.

Benson, H. (2001). The relaxation response. New York: Har-perCollins Publishers Inc.

Biley, F. C. (2000). The effects on patient well-being of music listening as a nursing intervention: A review of the literature. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 9(5), 668-677.

Bull, M. (2000). Sounding out the city. Oxford: Berg.

Bull, M. (2005). No dead air! The ipod and the culture of mo-bile listening. Leisure Studies, 24(4), 343-355.

Burns, J., Labb, E., Williams, K., & McCall, J. (1999). Per-ceived and physiological indicators of relaxation: As different as Mozart and Alice In Chains. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 24(3), 197- 202.

Davis, W. B., & Thaut, M.H. (1989). The influence of pre-ferred relaxing music on measures of state anxiety, relaxation, and physiological responses. Journal of Music Therapy, 26(4), 168-187.

DeNora, T. (2000). Music in everyday life. Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press.

Diener, E., & Lucas, R.E. (2000). Subjective emotional well-being. In M. Lewis, & Haviland-Jones, J.M. (Ed.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13(1), 80 - 83.

Donald, I., Taylor, P., Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., & Robertson, S. (2005). Work environments, stress, and pro-

ICMPC9 International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition - Proceedings

ductivity: An examination using asset. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(4), 409-423.

Fox, J. G. (1971). Background music and industrial efficiency - a review. Applied Ergonomics, 2(2), 70-73.

Fredrickson, B. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to opti-mize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3.

Furnham, A., & Allass, K. (1999). The influence of musical distraction of varying complexity on the cognitive performance of extroverts and introverts. European Journal of Personality, 13(1), 27-38.

Furnham, A., & Bradley, A. (1997). Music while you work: The differential distraction of background music on the cogni-tive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(5), 445-455.

Hargreaves, D. J., & North, A. C. (1999). The functions of music in everyday life: Redefining the social in music psy-chology. Psychology of Music, 27, 71-83.

HSE. (2006). 1 in 5 are stressed at work. Information retrieved September, 2006, from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/stress/standards/index.htm

HSE. (2003). HSE press release E111:03 - 26 June 2003. Re-treived September, 2006, from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/press/2003/e03111.htm

Juslin, P. N., & Laukka, P. (2004). Expression, perception, and induction or musical emotion: A review and a questionnaire of everyday listening. Journal of New Music Research, 33(3), 217-238.

Kallinen, K., & Ravaja, N. (2004). Comparing speakers versus headphones in listening to news from a computer individual differences and psychophysiological responses. Computers in Human Behavior. Retrieved online April, 2006, from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/

Kiger, D. M. (1989). Effects of music information load on a reading comprehension task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 531-534.

Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work per-formance. Psychology of Music, 33(2), 173-191.

National Statistics. (2006). Standard Occupational Classifica-tion 2000. Retrieved May, 2006, from: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/methods_quality/ns_sec/soc2000.asp

National Statistics Nomis. (2006). Census data 2001 for Eng-land. Retrieved May, 2006, from: http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/

North, A., & Hargreaves, D.J. (2000). Musical preferences during and after relaxation and exercise. American journal of psychology, 113, 43-67.

North, A., Hargreaves, D.J., & Hargreaves, J.J. (2004). Uses of music in everyday life. Music Perception, 22(1), 41-77.

Oldham, G. R., Cummings, A., Mischel, L.J., Schmidtke, J.M., & Zhou, J. (1995). Listen while you work? Quasi-experimental relations between personal-stereo headset use and employee work response. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 547-564.

Parente, J. A. (1976). Music preference as a factor of music distraction. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 43, 337-338.

Perrew, P. L., Hochwarter, W.A., Rossi, A.M., Wallace, A., Maignan, I., Castro, S.L., Ralston, D.A., Westman, M., Wollmer, G., Tang, M., Wan, P. & Van Deusen, C.A. (2002). Are work stress relationships universal? A nine-region exami-nation of role stressors, general self-efficacy, and burnout. Journal of International Management, 8(2), 163-187.

Robinson, M. D. (2000). The reactive and prospective func-tions of mood: Its role in linking daily experiences and cogni-tive well-being. Cognition and Emotion, 14(2), 145-176.

Ruud, E. (1997). Music and the quality of life. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 6(2), 86-97.

Sloboda, J. A. (2000). Music and worship: A psychologist's perspe. In J. Astley, Hone, T., & Savage, M. (Ed.), Creative chords: Studies in music, theology and christian formation (pp. 110-125). Leonminster, U.K.: Gracewing.

Sloboda, J. A., & O'Neill, S.A. (2001). Emotions in everyday listening to music. In P. N. Juslin, & Sloboda, J.A. (Ed.), Mu-sic and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 415-429). New York: Oxford University Press.

Smith, A. (2001). Perceptions of stress at work. Human Re-source Management Journal, 11(4), 74-86..

Suh, E., Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1996). Events and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 1091-1102.

Thayer, R. E., Newman, J.R., & McClain, T.M. (1994). Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing a bad mood, rais-ing energy, and reducing tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), 910-925.

Uhrbrock, R. S. (1961). Music on the job: Its influence on worker morale and production. Personnel Psychology, 14, 9-38.

Wokun, W. (1969). Music for working. Science journal, 5a, 55-59.

Segn un estudio paneuropeo de Logitech

Escuchar msica en el trabajo mejora la productividad

Escuchar msica es el mejor mtodo de concentracin y relajacin en el trabajo, y puede ayudar a combatir mejor las cargas que genera, segn un estudio organizado por Logitech en varios pases de Europa.

12 Abr 2005 | REDACCIN, LAFLECHA

Segn este estudio, 8 de cada 10 europeos escucha msica en el trabajo y el 75% de los que lo hacen considera que les ayuda a relajarse y a concentrarse ms en su trabajo. Otras opciones que los encuestados mencionaron para aliviar el stress en el trabajo son hablar con los compaeros (52%) o pasear para aliviar la mente (41%).

Logitech, el lder en el diseo y fabricacin de perifricos para PC como altavoces, headsets o webcams, ha desarrollado este estudio para analizar el creciente uso del ordenador personal como un sistema de entretenimiento en el trabajo. El estudio ha mostrado que, el 44% de los trabajadores que escuchan msica en el trabajo la encuentran como una fuente de inspiracin, y un 24% afirma que incrementa su productividad.

Segn los resultados del estudio, la msica Pop es el estilo musical preferido por los europeos cuando buscan eficiencia e inspiracin en el trabajo con un 62% de los encuestados que afirma que es el mejor gnero para conseguir motivacin. Artistas como U2 o Robbie Williams aparecen mencionados en el estudio como fuente de inspiracin en el trabajo. Como mtodo de relajacin, la msica Pop sigue siendo el gnero preferido por los europeos, con un 46% que considera que es el mejor mtodo para superar situaciones estresantes, seguida por la msica clsica (42%) y el Jazz (41%). La msica, el peor enemigo del estrs "La msica puede convertirse en el peor enemigo del estrs. Los efectos positivos de la msica relacionados con la parte emotiva, cognitiva e incluso fsica del ser humano, son una realidad contrastada. Desde tiempos de Mozart, quin afirm que la msica clsica ayudaba a los nios a incrementar su memoria, hasta nuestros das, la msica ha tenido efectos positivos en el comportamiento. El estudio de Logitech ha puesto de manifiesto que la msica tambin ayuda a incrementar la productividad y a mejorar el estado de nimo general de los entornos de trabajo", afirma la prestigiosa psicloga Linda Papadopoulos. La doctora Linda Papadopoulos, que ha colaborado en diversos programas televisivos como "Gran Hermano", comenta: "el gusto musical que tiene cada ser humano es sin duda la mejor gua para incrementar el rendimiento y relajarse mejor. Sin embargo, y en trminos generales, los tempos altos de la msica Pop probablemente contribuyan ms a la motivacin y a la eficiencia, mientras que la msica clsica es el mejor mtodo para concentrarse".

"La msica proporciona la banda sonora de nuestras vidas. Nos trae recuerdos, nos levanta el nimo y tiene un efecto muy positivo en el modo de comportarnos con los que nos rodean, tanto en el entorno personal como empresarial", concluye la Dra. Papadopoulos. Resultados en Espaa En Espaa, y de acuerdo con este estudio, la msica Pop es la mejor aliada para combatir la cantidad de trabajo con la que se enfrentan los espaoles a diario. Adems, el 64% de los espaoles que escuchan msica en el trabajo, desarrollan sus actividades de forma ms eficiente. As mismo, el 81% considera que escuchar msica en el entorno laboral tambin les inspira y les ayuda a concentrarse. En cuanto al estilo de msica ideal para relajarse en el trabajo, los espaoles prefieren la msica New Age, ya que ms de la mitad de los encuestados (55%) considera que es el estilo msical ms adecuado para reducir el estrs en determinadas situaciones. A este estilo le siguen muy de cerca la msica Pop con un 45% y los Grandes xitos de toda la vida con un 41% de la poblacin. Sobre otras opciones para reducir el estress en el trabajo, los espaoles se decantan por hablar con los compaeros de trabajo sobre las preocupaciones que tengan, en un 73% de los casos, o pasear, en un 55% de los casos.

Influencia fsica y psicolgica Con respecto al plano fsico, se ha demostrado que la msica es capaz de variar la cantidad de cortisol en nuestro organismo; la denominada hormona del stress. Dependiendo del tipo de msica se consigue disminuir o aumentar la presencia de esta hormona en la sangre. Por lo que en el plano fsico la msica es capaz de modificar nuestro comportamiento o el estado de relajacin de nuestro cuerpo ante una tarea determinada. En el plano psicolgico, se ha demostrado que la msica es capaz de generar determinadas ondas cerebrales relacionadas con los estados de calma y atencin, del mismo modo genera la estimulacin de determinadas conexiones neuronales de nuestro cerebro. Si se escoge una msica adecuada es capaz de provocar una mayor concentracin y creatividad.

Mejor desempeo laboral Aunque no es aplicable realizar la actividad musical para todo el mundo; ya sea por los diferentes tipos de personalidades y formas de pensar, as como algunas polticas de la empresa en relacin al escuchar o no msica en el trabajo, se ha conseguido demostrar empricamente sus beneficios en determinados grupos y estudios concretos. Gente introvertida realiza menos tareas que la extrovertida cuando escucha msica de fondo. Los introvertidos llegan a la sobrecarga sensorial ms pronto que los extrovertidos. Por otro lado, la gente muy extrovertida a veces se concentra mejor con la msica que sin ella, se sienten ms confortables con sus sentidos comprometidos al mximo. Investigaciones, afirman que la gente que regularmente escucha msica mientras trabaja o estudia se desempea mejor mientras lo hace que la gente que usualmente trabaja en silencio. As que tal vez seas capaz de entrenarte para trabajar mejor con msica de fondo, an si eres temperamentalmente adecuado para un ambiente ms tranquilo. La calidad de reproduccin es importante Usa auriculares para aumentar las capacidades mentales a la vez que estimulas la creatividad y la imaginacin. La capacidad de la msica de beneficiar ciertas conexiones neuronales y generar determinadas ondas cerebrales provocadas por efectos tan curiosos como la sincronizacin de ondas cerebrales o el efecto binaural, es concretada por la calidad de reproduccin y el uso de los auriculares. Todo ello se basa en los tonos, las frecuencias de sonido y la reproduccin en estreo. Si no tenemos unos buenos auriculares con un gran rango de frecuencias capaces de reproducir fielmente los sonidos, el efecto cerebral conseguido ser ms pobre. Suba el volumen de la msica Si usted no puede concentrarse, puede estar sufriendo demasiadas interrupciones. Un consejo para este problema es tomar sus auriculares, ponga la msica que mejor trabaja para usted y suba el volumen.