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Labour Migration, Transnational Farm Ownership, and the Transformation of Global Agriculture: Identifying Pathways to Intercultural Connection and Shared Belonging in Changing Rural Spaces FINAL REPORT FOR TOYOTA FOUNDATION RESEARCH GRANTS PROGRAM Dr Victoria Stead

June 2017 Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Burwood, Melbourne, Australia victoria.stead@deakin.edu.au

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SUMMARY

Thisprojectsetouttoexploretheinterculturaldimensionsofglobalagriculture,andtoexaminethepossibilitiesfornewvaluesofsharedbelonginginincreasinglydiverseruralplaces.ItsfocuswastheAustralianstateofVictoria,whichhasarichhistoryofmigrationandanextensiveagriculturalindustry.Specifically,theprojecthastargetedtheregionalcentreofSheppartonanditssurrounds,whicharekeysitesofhorticulturalproduction,particularlyofapplesandpears.Withanannualvalueof$9billion,horticultureisAustralia’sthirdlargestagriculturalindustry,asectorwithsignificantexportstrength,andanemployerofapproximately57,000peoplein2012-13.Itisanindustrydeeplyimplicatedinthelivelihoods,histories,andidentitiesofmanyruralcommunities.

Overthecourseofayear,repeatedfieldworkvisitshaveyieldedrichdataintheformofethnographicfieldnotes,withapproximately25semi-structuredinterviewsconductedwithmigrantworkers,localworkers,farmers,labourhirerepresentatives,localgovernmentstaff,andstaffinnon-governmentalandservicedeliveryorganisations.Interactionsandconversationswithmanyotherindividualshavealsotakenplace.Ihavespenttimelabouringinfruit-pickingjobs,alongsidediversegroupsofworkers,andhavealsoconductedparticipant-observationatcommunityevents,farmers’andhorticulturalindustrymeetings,andeventsandactivitiesrunbylabourhirecompanies.

Resultsfromtheprojecthavehighlightedthehorticulturalsectorasasiteofgreatinterculturaldiversity,andalsoasiteexperiencinggreatchallengesinrelationtothatdiversity.Today,theindustryfacespressingchallengesrelatedtolabourandworkforce,includingshortagesofseasonal,‘low-skilled’labour—mostoftenperformedbymigrantworkersandnon-Whiteresidentworkers—allegationsofmistreatmentandunderpaymentofsomeworkers,anddifficultiesintheimplementationoftheSeasonalWorkerProgramforPacificIslanders.However,shortagesofharvestlabouralsoco-existwithpersistentandchroniclocalunemployment.Researchrevealsthatquestionsofwhoworks(andwhodoesn’t),whoworkswell(andwhodoesn’t),andwhodoeswhatwork,aresubjecttolocalunderstandingsthatareoftenstronglyracialised,andreflectiveofdissonantlyimaginedpasts.Oft-heardstatementsthat‘localsdon'twanttodothat[fruit-picking]workanymore’referencetheindustry’srelianceonmigrantlabour,butalsoobscurethelabourperformedbynon-Whiteresidentswhoareexcludedfromthecategoryof‘locals’.

Theoverallfindingoftheresearchisthattherearewaysinwhichdiversegroupsclaimbelonging,andthroughwhichsharedbelongingcanbenurturedindiverseruralcontexts,buttherearealsopowerfulandpervasivefactorsthatcurrentlyacttoinhibitsharedbelongingandproduceexclusion.

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Waysinwhichthestructureofglobalagriculturecurrentlyactstoinhibitbelonging,include:

• Thestructureofhorticulturallabour,andspecificallytheindustry’srequirementforseasonal,highlyflexibleworkforcesthatcanbemobilisedonshortnotice,anddissolvedagainquickly.

• Theuseofillegalorundocumentedworkers,whichrendersmanyvulnerable,non-Whitegroupsofworkerslargelyinvisible.

• Asharpdifferentiationandstratificationbetweentheseasonal/low-skilledworkforceandtheprofessional,middle-levelhorticulturalworkforce(orchardmanagers,etc.).

• Thefailuretoacknowledgethecontributionstotheseasonalhorticulturalworkforceoflocalresidents,particularlynon-Whiteresidentswhoarefrequentlyexcludedfromthecategoryof‘local’.

• Socio-economicfactorswhichdiminishworkers’capacitytoenactplace-makingpracticesandcreateasenseofbelongingtoplaceandpeople.

Nevertheless,evenindifficultandconstrainedcircumstances,peopledoworkandactinwaysthatbuildasenseofsharedbelonging.Theresearchhasidentifiedkeyfactorsinthis,including:

• Sharedexperiencesoflabour,andnarrativesaboutafarmingworkethic,whichprovidesomebasisforidentificationacrossculturaldivides.Suchidentificationsaretenuoushowever,withnarrativesaboutworkethicalsofuellingsharplydifferentiatedandoftenraciallyhierarchicallabourrelationswithinhorticulture.

• Theroleofchurchesinstrengtheningbelongingformanydiversegroups,and(insomeinstances)fosteringinterculturalconnection.

• Awarenessofglobalconnection.Inspiteofpopulardepictionsofruralplacesasparochial,ruralcommunitiesintheGreaterSheppartonRegionareinfacthighlyattunedtotheglobalconnectionsandpolitical-economiccontextshapingcontemporaryhorticulture.Thisawarenessalsohasthecapacitytofosterinterculturalconnection.Forexample,althoughracialisedandnegativediscoursesdoexistinrelationtoAsianinvestmentinfarming,thereisalsoastronginterestamongstmanyinpossibleconnectionsbetweenAustralianandAsianhorticulturalmarkets.

Fromthisitbecomespossibletoidentifytransformationsthatwouldencouragesharedbelonging,including:

• Continuingregulatoryreformtoreduceindustryuseofinformalcontractorsandillegallaboursystems.

• Continuingregulatoryreformtostrengthentherightsofmigrantworkerstoreturninsubsequentseasonsiftheywishto.

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• Transforminglocalnarrativesandrepresentationstochallengelimitedconstructionsofwhoisandisnotconsideredlocal’.

• Culturalandcreativeinitiativesorientedtotheconnectionsbetweentransnationalism,identity&place-making.

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PROJECT DESIGN

RESEARCHAIMS

Aroundtheworld,agricultureisbeingtransformedinwaysthathavefar-reachingconsequencesforsocialharmony,interculturalconnection,andrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandland.Diversepeopleandplacesencountermanysharedchallenges,including:thegrowthofglobalagri-business;‘land-grabbing’;pressuresofclimateandenvironmentalchange;urbanization;andthemigrationsofnewpeopletoruralareas(Burch,Goss,Lawrence,&Rickson,1999;Deninger,2011;Filer,2011;Kingsolver,2011;Zoomers,2010).Thesechallengesbringnewpeopleintoencounterwithoneanother,generatetransformedconnectionstolandandplace,andreconfiguresocial,culturalandpoliticalrelationshipsbetweencountriesandregions.

ThisresearchprojecthassoughttoexaminethesetransformingconnectionswithinthecontextoftheAustralianagriculturalsector.Indoingso,ithassoughttochallengetheprevailingemphasiswithinmuchscholarlyglobalizationliteratureon‘globalcities’assitesofchange(Roy&Ong,2011;Sassen,2001),withitsattendantcharacterisationofruralspacesasstatic,traditional,andconservative.Atthesametime,theprojecthassoughttopushbackonthefrequentvalorisationofmobilityasthedefiningfeatureofcontemporarylife,throughattendingtothesignificanceofconnectiontolandandplace.Specifically,theprojecthasasked:whatpotentialisthereforsharedconnectiontolandtogiverisetonewvaluesofsharedbelonging?

METHODOLOGY

Theprojecthasemployedanethnographicmethodology,withtheprojectdesignandfieldworkfocusedonthelivedexperiencesandeverydaypracticesandunderstandingsofthediversepeoplewhoencounteroneanotherinthecontextofchangingagriculturalspaces.Principlesofinductiveanditerativeethnographicanalysis(O’Reilly,2012)haveinformedtheprocessofbothdatacollection—usingparticipantobservationandsemi-structuredinterviewsaskeymethods—anddataanalysis.

ITERATIVEANDRESPONSIVEDESIGN

TheinitialprojectdesignanticipatedtwocasestudiesforexploringthetransformationofagriculturalindustriesinAustraliaandtheworld:firstly,thegrowingsocialtensionsassociatedwithpurchasesoffarmlandbyChineseandotherAsianinvestors;andsecondly,thetemporarymigrationsofPacificIslanderstoAustraliatoworkasfarmlabourersthroughthenewSeasonalWorkerProgram(SWP).Mildura—aregionalcentreinthenorth-westoftheAustralianstateofVictoria—wasinitiallyproposedasthesiteforfieldwork.Inkeepingwiththeprinciplesofethnographicresearch,thisinitialprojectdesigndevelopedandevolvedinresponsetoprocessesofengagementwithkeystakeholders.Twodevelopments

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wereparticularlykey.Firstly,thesiteforfieldworkshiftedfromMilduratotheGreaterSheppartonRegion,alsoinVictoriabutinthenorth-centralregion.ThisshiftingeographicfocusreflectedthecentralityoftheGreaterSheppartonRegionintheAustralianhorticulturalindustry,anditssignificanceasasitewithbothhighlevelsofculturaldiversity,andcomplexchallengesrelatedtolabourrelations(seemorebelowinResearchFindings).Asecondkeyshiftrelatedtothetwocase-studies.Whiletheresearchhasbeenattentivetothethemesandempiricalfocirelatedtoboth,issuesrelatedtoseasonalhorticulturallabourhaveemergedasparticularlyparamountforresearchparticipantsandcommunities.Accordingly,thesebecametheprimaryfocusoftheresearch.ThecentralityofseasonallabourissuesintheGreaterSheppartonRegionreflectstheirsignificancewithintheglobalagriculturalsector,aswellaswithinAustralianagriculturemorespecifically.Thishasbeenhighlightedthroughouttheprojectperiodbydebatesovertheso-called‘BackpackerTax’—thelevelofincometaxchargedtoworkingholiday-makerswhoareakeysourceofhorticulturallabour—aswellasbymediaexposesofmistreatmentandunderpaymentofsomeworkerswithintheindustry(forexampleKnott,2016;McKenzie,2016).InsteadofalimitedfocusonPacificIslanderseasonalworkers,however,thecontemporarysalienceoftheseissuesanddebateshasencouragedawideningoftheinitialresearchfocustoalsoencompassotherdiverseculturalandethnicgroupsinvolvedinseasonallabour,includingAfghanandHornofAfricarefugees,MalaysianandotherAsianworkers,Europeanbackpackers,andWhiteAustralianworkers.

Inresponsetotheproject’semergentfindings,ethnographicfieldworkwasstructuredinordertogaininsightsintodifferentstagesacrosstheyearlycycleofproductionandharvest.Thetimeframefortheresearchwasthusasfollows:

Month Grantnotes Scheduleofresearchactivities

May2016 Firstdisbursal

Universityethicsprocesses,initialdeskandliteratureresearch

Initialfieldworktripandestablishmentkeystakeholderrelationships.Recordsemi-structuredinterviewswith2participants.

June2016 Continuedeskandliteratureresearch

July2016 Continuedeskandliteratureresearch

August2016

Continuedeskandliteratureresearch

September2016

Onemonthintensiveethnographicresearch.Developmentresearchrelationships,especiallyfamers,industryandcommunitysectorrepresentatives.Recordsemi-structuredinterviewswith5participants.Participant-observationonfarms

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andintowns.

October2016

Transcribinginterviews,analysisofinterviewandfieldnotedata

November2016

Seconddisbursal

Transcribinginterviews,analysisofinterviewandfieldnotedata

December2016

Twoshortfieldworktrip(1-3dayseach):follow-upwithkeyinformantsandrecordingsemi-structuredinterviewswith4participants.

Output1:Conferencepaper,‘Labourand(dis)trustintheGoulburnValley’,AustralianAnthropologicalSocietynationalconference,Sydney.

January2016

Transcribinginterviews,analysisofinterviewandfieldnotedata.Draftingofpublicationoutputs.

February2016

Transcribinginterviews,analysisofinterviewandfieldnotedata.Draftingofpublicationoutputs.

March2016

Onemonthintensiveethnographicresearch(midMarchtomidApril).Semi-structuredinterviewswith8participants,on-farmparticipantobservation(fruit-picking),participantobservationinSheppartonandnearbypopulationcentres(Mooroopna,Merrigum).Disseminationofemergentfindingsthroughindividualconsultationswithkeystakeholdersandcommunityrepresentatives.

April2016 Endofgrantperiod

May2016 Ongoingdraftingofpublicationoutputs.

June2016 Output2:Twodaynationalacademicworkshop,LabourLines:IndigenousandPacificIslanderExperiencesofLabourMobilityinAustralia

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RESEARCHFINDINGS

THEGREATERSHEPPARTON‘FOODBOWL’

TheGreaterSheppartonRegionislocatedacoupleofhoursdrivenorth-eastofMelbourne,withintheGoulburnValley.TheRegionisahubofhorticulturalproduction—particularlystone-fruitbutalsograpesandotherfruitandvegetablecrops,valuedat$229million(www.victoriasfoodbowl.com.au)—butalsofaceschallengesrelatedtowaterallocations,competitionforoverseasanddomesticmarkets,theclosureofoneofitsfruitcanningfacilitiesin2011,andthenearclosureoftheotherin2014.Relativelyhighlevelsofculturaldiversityfeatureprominentlyintheregion’s‘socialimaginary’(Moran&Mallman,2015,p.4).MigrationherebeganwithEnglishandScottishfrontierorchardistsinthelate1800s,continuingwiththearrivalofItalian,AlbanianandotherEuropeanmigrantsinthepost-Warperiod,andmorerecentlyPasifika,Sikhandothermigrants,aswellasrefugeesincludingfromIraqandAfghanistan.Publicnarrativescelebratethisdiversity,butalsoglossoverracialisedhierarchies,tensions,anddisconnects(MoranandMallman,2015).Storiesofpioneeringorchardiststoldintheregion’scivicspacesandagriculturalsocieties,forinstance,obscurethatthesettlementsoflandswas,aswithotherAustralianagriculturalindustries(B.Morris,1992),aprocessoffrontiercolonialism.

SEASONALLABOURINGLOBALANDLOCALPERSPECTIVE

Globally,thehorticulturalindustry(fruit,vegetableandnutproduction)isnotableforitscontinuedrelianceonintensivehumanlabouratkeypointsinitsproductioncycles.Taskssuchasfruitpickingoftenneedtobecompletedquickly.Thereisamatterofdays,forinstance,betweenwhenanapricotcropbecomesreadyforharvest,andwhenitisruined.Vagariesofweatherandenvironmentmakesuchwindowshardtopredict,andtheexactingspecificationsofdomesticandexportmarkets(forweight,colour,size,aswellasforthetimingofdelivery)addfurtherchallenge.Theindustrythusseeksouthighlyflexibleseasonalworkforcesthatcanbemobilised,oftenonshortnotice,anddissolvedagainquickly(Hanson,2007).Theworkitselfisoftenchallenging,involvingtiringandstrenuouslabour(Holmes,2013;Underhill,2015)(Holmes2013;UnderhillandRimmer2015),ofteninfullsun,orduringirregularhours(asparaguspicking,forexample,isoftendoneinthehoursbeforedawn).Horticulturalseasonallabourexemplifies,inmanyrespects,the‘dirty,difficult,anddangerous’workthat,withinGlobalNorthcountries,isincreasingdonebymigrantsfromGlobalSouthcountries,andforwhomitisoftenframedasapathwaytodevelopment(Ellerman,2005).WithinAustralia,theseasonallabouroftemporarymigrantsandnon-Whiteresidentsandcitizensoccursalongsidethelabourofyoung‘workingholidaymakers’(backpackers),whoarestereotypically,butnotexclusively,Europeans.

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SEASONALLABOURINAGLOBALCONTEXT

Agrowingbodyofanthropologicalscholarshipisexaminingtheintersectionsoflabourandracewithinhorticultureinternationally.InNorthAmerica,SethHolmes’(2013)FreshFruit,BrokenBodies:MigrantFarmworkersintheUnitedStates,explorestheexperiencesofMexicanOaxacanworkersinWashingtonState,usingamedicalanthropologicalapproachtohighlightbodilyexperiencesoflabourandsubjection.AnnE.Kingsolver(2011)looksatworkersontobaccofarmsinruralKentucky,highlightingtheeffectsofglobalisationandlabourcompetitiononidentitiesandlivelihoods.OthersignificantstudiesintheNorthAmericancontextareprovidedbyJamesQuesada(1999),DanielRothenberg(1998)andMiriamWells(1996).Elsewhere,significantanthropologicalcontributionstothestudyofglobalseasonalagriculturallabourincludeMaximBolt’s(2015)ethnographyofZimbabweanmigrantsworkinginfarmsonSouthAfrica’sborderlands.JanetMcLaughlin(2010)alsoconsiderstheexperiencesofZimbabweanmigrantworkers,alongwithJamaicanworkers,inCanadianfarmers.Notablenon-anthropologicalcontributionsincludestudiesfromDanielRothenberg(1998),HaraldBauder(2008),andJoachimEwertandAndriesDuToit(2005).

Commontothisliteratureistheidentificationofprecarity,physicaldifficulty,andpoorpayascommonfeaturesofthiswork,aswellashighratesofuseofinformallabour.Withintheglobalhorticulturalcontext,thisliteraturealsoidentifiessignificanttransformationswroughtbyeconomicglobalisation,thegrowthofglobalagribusinessandconcomitantdeclineoffamilyfarming,particularlyintheGlobalNorth,aswellasclimateandenvironmentalcrises,allofwhichintensifytheprecarityandmarginalityofworkinthisindustry.Thisliteraturealsorevealsthewaysthatraceandglobalpatternsofmigrationfunctiontostructureglobalhorticulturallabour,withexperiencesofracism,andracialandethnichierarchiesofpowercommonfeatures.

SEASONALLABOURINAUSTRALIA

WithinAustralia,scholarshiponthehorticulturalworkforcehasoftenbeenframedwithinpolicy-focused,technical,oreconomisticterms.ThisincludesseveralstudiesoftheSeasonalWorkerProgram(Ball,2010;Ball,Beacroft,&Lindley,2011;Doyle&Howes,2015;Gibson&McKenzie,2011;Mares,2005;P.Mares,2007;P.N.M.Mares,2007),whichresonatewithalargerbodyofworkonNewZealand’sparallelRecognizedSeasonalEmployers(RSE)scheme(Bedford,2010;Lovelock,2008).HansonandBell(2007)provideasurveyofchangingdemographicsofharvestworkers,whileUnderhillandRimmer(2015)describetheincreasedrisktooccupationalhealthandsafetycausedbyprecariousemployment,andGoodall(2015)drawsattentiontothevulnerabilityofmigrantworkerstodishonestlabourhireagents.Ruben’s(1995)chapterontheplace-makingpracticesoffruit-pickersintheGoulburnValleyisarare(butnowsomewhatdated)ethnographicconsiderationofAustralianhorticulturallabour,buthasasimilarlynarrowfieldoffocusandisnotcentrallyconcernedwithrace.

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AsecondbodyofresearchdrawsattentiontointerculturalencounterswithinregionalandruralAustralia,includingtheexperiencesofnewlyarrivedmigrantsandresettledasylumseekers(Edgeworth,2015;Jordan,Krivokapic-Skoko,&Collins,2011;Schech,2014),challengingthecommondepictionofthesespacesasculturallyhomogenous.AsidefromsomescholarshiponIndigenousinvolvementinpastoralandotheragriculturalindustries(forexampleBrock,1995),thesestudiesdonotaddresshorticultureorotheragriculturalsectorsasparticularsitesofindustry,livelihoodandlocalidentity,andnordotheyexaminelabourasaparticularsocialpracticeandrelationship.Anthropologyhasmadesomeimportantcontributionstothestudyofcultural(Merlan&Raferty,2009)andsocialandenvironmental(Connor,Albrecht,Higginbotham,Freeman,&Smith,2004)ruraltransformations.OutsideafocusonIndigenous-non-Indigenousrelations,however,thedisciplinehasengagedrelativelylittleinthestudyofraceandinterculturalencountersinregionalAustralia,withkeyexceptionsincludingHelenLeeandMakikoNishitani’scurrentresearch[ARCLinkageLP150100385]intotheexperienceofTonganpeopleinMildura(alsoHenry,2012).Aneffectofthisisthatthediscipline’sstrengthsinilluminatingpatternsofmeaningandpractice,andtherichnessoflivedexperience,haveyettobefullybroughttobearuponthestudyofAustralianlifeandcommunitybeyondmetropolitancentres.

Inhighlightingtheimbricationsofseasonallabour,race,andbelonginginruralAustralia,thisresearchhasthusbeguntomapthelacunabetweenthesetwobodiesofresearch.Ithasrevealedlocalnarrativesaboutlabourasnormativeanddeeplytiedtoquestionsoflocalhistoryandidentity.Ithashighlightedracerelationswithhorticultureasahighlychargedsetofdynamicsthatareshapedby,butthatalsoprovideabasisfromwhichtoconsider,transformingpatternsofmigration(includinganationalriseintemporarylabourmigration),politicaleconomyandglobalisation.

SEASONALLABOURASPRECARIOUSLABOUR

Forworkers,thedemandforflexibilityandtheunpredictablenatureofhorticulturalproductionresultsinsignificantlevelsofprecarity.Here,Iunderstandprecarityastheconditionofhyper-flexible,insecure,oftenriskylabourrelations.Thisisaconditionunderstoodwidelywithintheliteraturetobeontherisewithinthegloballabourforce,particularlywithinlate,neoliberalcapitalism(Bourdieu,1998;Harvey,2005;Kalleberg,2009).ThisshiftisassociatedwiththedemiseofFordistmodelsofproductionandtheemergenceof‘flexibleaccumulation’(Harvey,2005),andtheriseofimmateriallabour(Tsianos&Papdopoulos,2006).Akeyaspectofprecarity,sounderstood,isitsrelationshiptochangingtemporalitiesofworkandlabour.TsianosandPapdopoulos(2006)highlightthecollapsingofthedelineationofproductive/non-productivetime,andofhome/workandpublic/private,aswellasthelossofthesenseofthelifelongscopeoftheworker,withinwhichproductivelabourtimeformsoneelementofalifespanthatalsoincludesperiodsofunproductivity(whetherduetoillness,unemployment,oroldage).Precariousworkersare,asBridgetAndersondescribes,thosewhoare‘availablewhenrequired,undemandingwhennot’(2010,p.300).

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Precarityisalsowidelylinkedtotheimpactofincreasedmigrationonmanyworkforces,withprecarityidentifiedbymanyasaparticularconditionofmigrantlabour,including(andforsome,particularly)intheGlobalNorth.Thus,Lewisetal.(2015)arguethatprecarityisintensifiedasmigrantscreateaseeminglyendlesspoolofpotentiallabour,offeringcapitalthechoiceofdifferentbodiesofcomparablyefficient,butdifferentlypriced,labour.Take-upofmigrantlabourisnotonlymotivatedbyeconomicfactors,though,andtheynotethatitisalsoinformedbyunderstandingsofmigrantworkersasharder-working,morereliable,andpreparedtoworklongerduetotheirlackofchoiceorthelevelsofcompetitionforlower-endjobs.Systemsof‘stratifiedrights’(L.Morris,2001)formigrantworkersinGlobalNorthcountriesarealsounderstoodtocontributetotheexperienceofprecarity,asarecomplexarrangementsofsub-contractingandlabouragentsthatmakeitdifficulttoprotectlabourorhumanrights(Anderson&Rogaly,2005).

Inrelationtoseasonalhorticulturallabour,thesequalitiesofprecarityarereflectedintheheavilycasualisednatureofthework,inthepredominanceofpiece-rates(asopposedtofixedwages,orevenfixedhourlyrates),inthedemandforflexibility,andinthehighlyvariableandsometimesunpredictablehourseitherdemandedof,oravailableto,workers.Theparticularexperiencesofmigrantworkerswithinthehorticulturalindustry(whomakeupaverylargesectionoftheseasonalworkforce)alsoresonatewithkeyfindingsintheliteratureonprecarity.Particularlysignificantistheobservationaboutthelossofthelifelongscopeoftheworker.AsSethHolmes(2013)alsoobservesinhisstudyofMexicanmigrantfarmworkersinCalifornia,akeyadvantageofmigrantworkersforcapital,andfornation-states,isthattheyneednotexistforthestateoremployeroutsidetheirproductivecapacity.Whentheyaresick,pregnant,ortoooldtowork,theworkingsofmigrationregimes(informalinHolmes’case,formalinthecaseofSWPworkersandworkingholidaymakersinAustralia)ensuretheyarerelocatedbacktotheircountriesoforigin.

WithintheGreaterSheppartonRegion,asinotherAustralianhorticulturalsites,shortagesofharvestlabourco-existwithpersistentandchroniclocalunemployment.Researchforthisprojecthasrevealedthatquestionsofwhoworks(andwhodoesn’t),whoworkswell(andwhodoesn’t),andwhodoeswhatwork,aresubjecttolocalunderstandingsthatareoftenstronglyracialised,andreflectiveofdissonantlyimaginedpasts.IntheGreaterSheppartonRegion,theSWPisoneofanumberoflabourpoolstowhichfarmersturntorecruitseasonallabour.OtherpotentialsourcesoflabourincludebackpackersonWorkingHolidayMakervisas,whoareusuallynotexclusivelyEuropean;labourcontractorswhoorganisegroupsof(oftennon-White)workers,acrossaspectrumoflegality;and‘locals’.Thislattercategoryisbothnebulousandloaded.Popular,oft-heardstatementsfromfarmers,localresidents,andrepresentativesofcouncilandservicesectororganisations,declarethat‘localsdon'twanttodothat[fruit-picking]workanymore’.Thesestatementsreferencetheincreasedsignificanceofmigrantlabourwithintheworkforce,andtheshiftawayfromtheearlytomidtwentiethcenturywhenfamilymembersprovided

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muchofthelabouronfarms,supplementedatharvesttimebyitinerant‘cane-cutters’whowouldtraveldownfromQLDafterthecaneseasonandworktheharvestinSheppartonbeforemovingontoMildura.Butthepopularnarrativealsoservestoconcealandepistemicallyexcludemanycontemporaryworkers,includingsettledrefugees,newmigrantsandothernon-Whiteresidentswhoareexcludedfromthecategoryof‘locals’,aswellasthesmallnumberofWhite,settler-descendentworkers,oftenquitesocio-economicallymarginalised,whodocontinuetoworkinseasonallabour.CommonassessmentsofanabsenceofIndigenousparticipationintheindustryworkforce,meanwhile,belieanextensivehistoryofIndigenouslabourintheindustry’sformation,onethatisclearlyrememberedbylocalIndigenousYortaYortapeople,evenasitislargelyoverlookedindominantcollectiverememberings.

EXPERIENCESOFSEASONALLABOUR:EXAMPLEONE

TRUSTINCHANGINGTIMES

Labour,andthesharedexperienceoflabour,isonebasisfortrustingrelationships,onethathaspowerfulnormativeandimaginativetraction,butisalsounderstrain.

Manaia1,aSamoanworkerinhis60s,talkspositivelyabouttherelationshipwiththetwogrowers,Albanianbrothers,hehasworkedfor,for16years.Manaiacametotheareawithhis(thenyoung)familyin1997.Heworkedfirstonanotherorchard,beforemovingtothisonewherehehasbeensince.Thefirstorchardwasgood,fine,hesays,buttherewasahighlevelofsurveillance–managersoverseeingpeople’swork,monitoringwhentheycheckedinandout,theirhours,etc.Whathevaluesabouttheorchardwhereheisnowisthatthereis“trust”.Whenheisdoingworkthatpaysanhourlyrate(thinning,pruning,otherfarmworkotherthanpicking),hekeepsarecordofhisstarttimeandfinishtimeinhisnotebook.Attheendofeachweekhetakeshisnotebooktothemandtheywritedownthetimesthatheworkedandpayhimaccordingly.ThefarmerstrustandrespecttheworkthatManaiaandhisbrother-in-lawdo.Atthesametime,Manaiafeelstrustingtowardsthembecausetheyarefair,andtheybasetheirtreatmentofhimontheirownknowledgeoftheworkandtheconditions.Ifheisworkingthinning,forexample,andtheworkismoredifficultthanusual,theownersknowandareunderstandingaboutittakinglongertofinisharow.Sometimes,ifitisdifficultpicking(e.g.therearelessplumsonthetree),theownerswillincreasethebinratetocompensate.

AWhitefarmerandaprominentfigureinthecommunity,Richard,alsooffersaccountsoftheidealoftrustbasedonsharedlabourandlabourethic,whicharealsoaccountsofthethreatstothisideal.Likemanypeopleinthearea,hebemoansthelackof‘local’(bywhichhemeans‘White’)labourtoday.Backintheday,soto 1Allnameshavebeenchanged

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speak,everyonedidthatwork.Itwas,asanotherWhitelocalputit,a‘riteofpassage’tospendaseasonortwopickingfruit.ButthereisasenseofanewgenerationofWhiteyouthwhowon’t,orcan’t,dothework.AsRichardputsit,‘peopledon’tknowhowtoworkanymore’,andhecomparestheyounglocalgenerationtodaywiththecane-cutters–theitinerantworkerswhowouldstarttheirlabourroutesintheQLDcanefields,andwhoaretalkedaboutbyRichardandothersinmythicterms.Theycouldfill17binsinaday,hesays.It’snotthattheydidn’tfindtheworkhard–noonedeniesthatit’sincrediblyhard–buttheypushedthroughit.Thatis,theyhadaparticularkindofcharacter,asharedethicthatcreatedthebasisforsharedidentificationsandfortrustinglabourrelations,andthatisseenasmissinginthecurrentgenerationoflocalWhiteyouth,andparticularlythoseyouthwhoareassociatedwiththeurban,chronicallyunemployedandhighlymarginalizedunderclassconcentratedinSheppartontown.AsRichardputsit,‘Everythingthat’sbuiltthepersonupcomesoutthroughtheirhandsandtheirfeetandtheircharacter’.Laterinourconversationhesays,‘Differenttreesyielddifferentfruit’.

IfthepoorWhitepopulationinSheppartonyieldsbadworkers,betterfruit,torunwithhisanalogy,andnewidentificationsandalliancesareemergingacrossracelines.Richardtalks,forexample(andotherstalksimilarly)abouthissuccessemployingAfghanworkersandothers.‘They’knowhowtowork,andtheyhavethe‘character’requiredforit,thekindofcharacterthatRichardvaluesinhimselfandtheoldergenerationoffarmers.Theyalso‘understandauthority’.

Thefiguringoflabourasabasisfortrustalsoplaysoutinthedistrustthatfarmersexpressaboutpoliticians.AndI’mnottryingtosuggestherethatdistrustinthepoliticalclassisauniqueattributeoffarmers,butratherthatthewaysthatdistrustisarticulatedandfashionedisreflectiveofthisparticularvalueattributedtolabourasconstitutiveofrelationshipsandcommonality.SoMarco,aretiredfarmer,declaresaboutScottMorrison,theLiberalministerinvolvedindraggingoutthedebateovertheBackpackersTaxoverthepastyear–‘I’dliketoseehimcomeoutandputabagonhisbackandclimbaladderpickingapples’.

Atthesametime,however,manyfarmersarethemselvesincreasinglyremovedfromthekindsofworkthatMarcowouldliketoseeScottMorrisondo,andthatRichardseesasconstitutiveofcharacterandakindoffarmingidentity.Farmsarehierarchicalplaces,andtheygetmorehierarchicalthebiggertheyget.Richardmaywellseeinhisworkersqualitiesthathealsoidentifiesinhimself,andthuspointtosharedexperienceandcharacter,buthispositivedispositiontothemisalsoonthebasisoftheirrespectforauthority,whichistosaytheirperceivedwillingnesstoworkwithinahierarchythatisalsoquitemarkedlyracialised.Asfarmsgetbiggerandmorecorporatized,theworkdonebythoseatthebottomofthisracialisedhierarchybecomesincreasinglydifferentiatedfromtheworkdonebythoseatthetop,whooftenfindthemselves—andoftenunhappilyso—inrolesmoreakintobusinessmanagersthantofarmers.

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Inthiswideningspacebetweenfarmersandlabourers,exacerbatedbytheincreasinglybureaucraticdemandsofmanagingworkforces,anincreasinglysignificantroleisplayedbycontractorsandlabourhirecompanies.Labourhireagentscanprovideworkersonascalethatfarmersneed,andthatmanyfarmerscouldnotorganizethemselvesonaone-by-onebasis.Theyalsotakecare—oraremeanttotakecare—ofthemassofpaperworknowassociatedwithhorticulturalworkforce,including—nominallyatleast—checkingvisastatusandworkrights.Forsome,labourhireagentsandcontractorsrepresentawayto“cleanup”theindustry,toensurethatitisregulated,togivefarmersconfidencethattheworkerstheyareusingarelegit,andtogiveworkersconfidencethattheirvariousentitlementsarebeingmet.Inotherwords,theycanbemechanismsforincreasingtrustwithinlabourrelations.Butthegrowthofthesemediatingactorsalsoposesnewchallenges,bothforfarmersandforworkers.Unscrupulouslabourcontractorschargeworkersforallkindsofexpenses,deductingmoneyfromtheirpayforaccommodation,transport,food,etc,andstoriesaboundofworkers(oftentemporarymigrantworkers)whoexpectedtobeearninghundredsofdollarsaweek,andfoundthemselvesinsteadwithjusttwentyorfortydollarsintheirpaypacket.Butthepossibilityalsoemergesthathonestcontractorsmightbedupedbydishonestfarmers.Manaia,theSamoanfarmerquotedearlier,describesthedilemmalikethis.Whenthemiddlemenareinvolved,‘youdonotknowwherethetrustis’.Ifworkersareunderpaid,youdon’tknowifit’sbecausethefarmersdidn’tpaythemoney,orthemiddlemendidn’tdistributeit.Inthissituation,wherethereisnoimmediacyofrelationshipbetweentheworkerandfarmer,youcan’thavetrustinthissituation.Bothfarmersandworkersworryaboutthedangersthissituationposes.

EXPERIENCESOFSEASONALLABOUR:EXAMPLETWO

NI-VANUATUWORKERSINTHESEASONALWORKERPROGRAM(SWP)

Thisgroupof20workerswereemployedatafruit-packingshed,packingbinsofapples,pears,pomegranatesandplumssenttotheshedbyarangeoffarmerswhousetheshedtosortandpacktheirproduce.Theworkinvolvesstandingalongsideaconveyorbelt,sortingfruitasispassesalonginordertoseparateitintoClass1(bestquality),Class2,andjuicegrade(blemished)product,andpackitaccordingly.Ofthegroupoftwenty,18werewomen,ranginginagefromearlytwentiestoearly50s.Mosthadchildren.Fiveoftheworkerswereherefortheirthirdseasoninarow,andtherestwereontheirfirstplacementthroughtheSWP.ThegrouplivedatacaravanparkinatownoutsideofShepparton,whichwasalsohometoanothergroupof,mostlymale,ni-Vanuatuworkersworkingonalocaltomatofarm.

Allofthegroupoftwentyworkershadwillingly,oftenenthusiastically,pursuedemploymentthroughtheSWP.Whilesomeoftheliteratureonprecarityhas

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understoodprecarityasaconditionoflife,notsimplyofwork,thatismarkedbyabjection(forexampleButler,2004),it’simportanttosaythatthisisnothowthewomenIspoketodescribedtheirlivesorworkingstatus.Indeed,manypointedtopositiveaspectsoftheirlabourmigrationexperiences.Theydid,however,alsonarrateotheraspectsoftheirexperiencethatspeakstronglytoprecarity,oftendescribedbythemintermsofvulnerability,insecurity,unpredictability,oraperceivedabsenceoftrust.

Timepressure

Theni-Vanuatuworkersinthepackingshedarepaidanhourlyrate,whichisgenerallyconsideredpreferabletopiecerates.Theyfeelthepressuresoftime,though,inotherways.Insteadofthepressuresofpiecerates—needingtoworkfastenoughtomakeahalf-decentwage—itisthepaceoftheconveyorbeltthatsetsthespeedatwhichtheyarerequiredtowork.Addedtothisarethefarmerswhooftenstandinthesheds,behindtheworkers,watchingastheircropsaresortedandpacked.Theyexertpressureforspeed,butalsoongrading—iftoomanyfruitwith‘defects’arepackedintheGrade1orGrade2boxes,thefarmers(andthepackingshed)riskhavingshipmentsrejected.Butthefarmersalsowanttokeepasmuchoftheirfruitaspossibleoutofthelessprofitablejuicegradebins.Likeallaspectsofseasonalwork,it’saconstant,never-endingseriesofminorcalculationsthatweighrisk,cost,time,profit,andriskagainsteachother.Thepressuresthatthesecalculationsexertonworker’slabourarekeenlyfelt.Themanagerofthepackingsheddescribesthegroupasworkingwell,forthemostpart.It’sachallengethough,shesays,whensomanyworkon‘Islandtime’—apassingcommentthatatoncereferences(albeitunreflexively)theencounterofdifferentculturesofworkandtemporalitythatdooccurwithinthecontextoftheSWP,andrevealsthepersistentlyracialisedtermsthroughwhichgroupsofworkersarecategorised,imagined,andevaluated.

Insecurity

TheSWPissoldasaschemewithstrongsafeguardsforworkers,andit’sinthissensethatitisbilledasakeyplankofAustralia’sdevelopmentactivityinthePacific,aswellaspartofthecleanupoftheindustry(specifically,effortstodecreasetheuseof‘illegal’labour).Oneofthesafeguardsistherequirementforemployerstoguaranteeaminimumof30hoursperweekwork,averagedacrossthedurationofaworker’sstay.Inpractice,though,theworkingweekfortheni-Vanuatugroupishighlyunpredictable.Workersfindouteachdaywhetherornottheyareworkingthenextday,andwhethertheyareonthedaytimeornightshift.Mostwanttobeworkingmorehoursthantheyare.Morefundamentalistheunpredictabilityregardingwhethertheywillbeabletoreturninsubsequentyears.Theavailabilityofanexperienced,returningworkforceisalsobilledasafeatureoftheSWP(workerscantheoreticallyreturninsuccessiveseasons),buttheexperienceoftheni-Vanuatuworkershasbeenthatithasbeentheminoritywhohavebeenabletodothis.Overthelastthreeyears,thegrouphasfoundoutonlyattheendofeachseasonwhowasandwasn’tgoingtobeinvitedtoreturn.Theinsecurityactsasapowerful

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disincentiveagainstcomplaining,andintensifiestheday-to-daypressuresofspeedandperformance.

Fortheni-Vanuatuworkersonthetomatofarm,thisinsecurityisfurtherexacerbatedbythepaymentofpiecerates.Theworkershaveguaranteedminimumhours,butwhatearningsthistranslatesintodependsonarangeoffactorsincludingthetypeandsizeofthegroup.Thisharvestseason,thecropatthetomatofarmwasreportedlypoor.Smalltomatoes,andfewerfruitonplants,meanitislongerandharderworktofillbins,andfewerbinsequatestolowerpay.This,coupledwiththeregulardeductionsfromworkers’pay(foraccommodation,transport,healthinsurance,etc.–amajorsourceofgrievance),meansthatmanyweremakingapittance.

Negotiatingprecarity

TheexperienceofprecarityinseasonallabourisnotbyanymeansuniquetothePacificIslandersemployedthroughtheSWP:tovaryingdegrees,thisisfeltbyallworkersengagedinthiskindofwork.Thereisakeydifference,though,betweenthewaysinwhichSWPworkersandsomeotherworkers—specifically,Europeanbackpackers—areabletonegotiatetheexperienceofprecarity,andthisrelatestothedegreeofconstraintontheirmovement.Putverysimply,whereSWPworkersareeffectivelyboundtooneemployer,backpackerscan,anddo,moveinsearchofbetterconditions.Thisisnotinanywaytodiminishthewaysinwhichtheseyoungworkerscanalsoexperienceexploitation,butitistopointtoapowerfultoolthattheseworkersareabletomobiliseintheirnegotiationsofthework.Thekindsofmicro-calculationsofcostandbenefitthatfarmersandothersintheindustrymakearealsomadebyworkers,andbackpackerswillleavefarmswherecropqualityispoor,movetoareaswherethebinrateishigher,orseekoutcropswithbetterreturns.SWPworkersdonothavetheoptiontodothis.

InAprilthisyear,fiveoftheni-Vanuatugroupworkingonthetomatofarmranawayfromtheirdesignatedemployerandaccommodationatthecaravanpark.Thegroupwerereceivingconsistentlypoorwagesasaresultofthepoorqualityofthecrop,andthemen—allwithyoungfamiliesbackhome—werenotmanagingtosendbackthemoneytheyhopedto.Inleavinginsearchofbetterworkelsewhere,themenwereactinginmuchthesamewayastheEuropeanbackpackers,butwithdramaticallydifferentconsequences.Leavingthefarm,theywereimmediatelydesignatedabsconders.Anyworktheymightfindwould,necessarily,beillegal.TheSheppartonNewsranastoryaboutthemen.Theheadline,‘ATrailofDisappointment’,seemedaptenough,untilitbecameclearthedisappointmentsbeingreferencedwerethoseofthelabourhireagencyandthefarmer,who‘hasbeenburntbyhisexperiencewithforeignworkers’.Here,too,assooftenwhenevercracksemergeinthelaboursystem,racialisednarrativesemergedfromwithinthem.ThediscussionoftheSWPinthearticleraisedboththeassumptionthatPacificIslanderswouldbe‘accustomedtotoughmanuallabour’,andthesuggestionthatthemenhadfailedtomakemoneybecausethey’d‘beensittingaround’allday.

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‘Unfree’labour,raceandcoloniality

Inchallengingtheusefulnessoftheoppositionbetween‘free’and‘forced’labour,Lewisetal.(2015)advocateinsteadfortheideaof‘unfreelabour’.Here,coercionisnotfocussedatthepointofentryintowork(asinslavery,ortheblackbirdingthatechoescontemporaryPacificIslanderlabourmigrations),butatthepointofexit.InMiles’(1987)earliertheorisations,unfreelabouremergesfromtheimpositionofrestrictionsbythestatethatlimitmigrants’capacitiestocommodifytheirlabourpower.ThekindsoftemporarylabourmigrationthatAustraliaisincreasinglyenacting,includingtheSWP,workinmanywaystoproduceunfreelabour.Theydothisthroughactingtoensurethetemporarinessofpeople’smigrations,inturnpreventingthekindsofclaimsforbelongingandsocialcitizenshipthatlonger-termstaysmightenable.Theyalsoact,critically,throughtheirlegality.Thisfactresonateswithscholarsoflabourmigrationandprecaritywhohaveurgedustolookbeyondthekindsofexploitationandvulnerabilityproducedbyillegality(althoughthesecertainlywarrantourattention),tothewaysinwhichlegalityitselfproducesexploitationandvulnerability,andindeedthewaysinwhichimmigrationscontrolsthemselvesproduceillegality,asinthecaseoftheabscondedmen(Anderson,2010).

FACTORSINHIBITINGBELONGING

Ininquiringintothepotentialfornewvaluesofsharedbelonginginruralspaces,theresearchhasidentifiedsignificantfactorsthatworktoinhibitsuchbelonging.Theexperiencesofseasonalworkersarehighlysignificanthere,becauseinmanywaysstructuresoflabourrelationsandmigrationfunctioninwaysthatpurposefullyacttolimitpossibilitiesforworkers’belonging.Yet,seasonalworkersare,asfarmersandindustryrepresentativesthemselvesemphasise,absolutelycriticaltotheviabilityandprofitabilityoftheindustry.

Belongingdenotesbondsofattachmentbothtoplace,andtootherpeople.Indeed,theseareofteninextricable(Dominy,2001),andinsettlercolonialcontextslikeAustralia,botharenecessarilyalsoimbricatedwiththereverberatingeffectsofcolonialismandtheformsofcontestationtowhichthesegiverise(Read,2000).Belongingspeaksto‘terrainsofcommonalitythatdelineatethepoliticsanddynamicsof“fittingin”’(Fortier,1999,p.42).Itisbothrelationalanddialogical,negotiatedwithinparticularcontextsofidentity,emotion,andethicalandpoliticalvalues(Yuval-Davis,2011).Theliteratureonbelonginginsiststhatbelongingbeconsideredinrelationtonot-belonging(Slater2007).

Theresearchhasidentifiedanumberofkeyfactorswhichacttoinhibitsharedbelonging—or,inotherwords,toproducenot-belonging—bothforseasonalworkersandforculturallyandethnicallydiversegroupsresidentinthearea.

THESTRUCTUREOFHORTICULTURALLABOUR

Thestructureofhorticulturallabour,andspecificallytheindustry’srequirementfor

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seasonal,highlyflexibleworkforcesthatcanbemobilisedonshortnotice,anddissolvedagainquickly,actstoinhibitbelongingformanyhorticulturalworkers.Particularlysincethe1970s,theindustryhasreliedheavilyontemporarylabourmigrantsfromAsia,Europe,andthePacific.Inthiscontext,not-belongingcanbeseentobeproducedthroughtemporarylabourmigrationschemesthatforecloseanypossibilityofcitizenship.WorkingHolidayMakerandSeasonalWorkerProgramvisaprograms,forexample,prohibitworkersfrombringingfamilymemberswiththem,andplacestricttimelimitsonthetimemigrantscanspendinthecountry.Thesearesystemsof‘stratifiedrights’(L.Morris,2001)designedtopreventtheprogressionoftemporarylabourmigrationtomorepermanentformsofresidence,withtheirattendantrights.

THEUSEOFILLEGALORUNDOCUMENTEDWORKERS

Whilethereareeffortstoreducetheuseofundocumentedandinformallabourers,theuseofsuchworkersremainsamajorproblemintheindustry.Informalworkersareoftennon-White,andhighlyvulnerable.Bynatureoftheirprecariousstatustheyarehighlydependentonlabourhireagentsandcontractorswhoorganisethem,havelimitedrights,andareoftenintentionallyconcealedfrom—andthusdisconnectedfrom—widercommunities.

STRATIFICATIONBETWEENSEASONALANDMIDDLE-LEVELWORKFORCES

Interviewswithworkers,farmersandfarmmanagersrevealsasharpdifferentiationandstratificationbetweentheseasonal/low-skilledworkforceandtheprofessional,middle-levelhorticulturalworkforce(orchardmanagers,etc.).Manyfarmerswithintheindustryworryabouttheavailabilityofseasonallabour,butthisisgenerallyviewedintermsofnumbersfromyeartoyear,andthereislittleexpectationofthisbeingareturningworkforce.Farmersalsoworryaboutsecuringmiddle-levelmanagersandhorticulturalprofessionals.Thisworkforce,however,isenvisagedinongoingterms,aslinkedtothesustainability,culture,andlocalidentityoftheindustryandtheregion.Thereislittlemovementbetweentheseworkforces,withtheexceptionofasmallnumberofrefugeeresidentswhobeganinfruit-pickingworkandhavesincepurchasedtheirownorchards.Thisstratificationanddifferentiationmeansthatconcernsabout‘local’workforceandindustryandcommunitybelongingareusuallyframedintermsofmiddle-levelorprofessionalhorticulturalpositions,notso-called‘low-skilled’ones.

CONSTRUCTIONSOF‘LOCAL’

Oneconsequenceoftheindustry’sincreasedrelianceonmigrantlabourhasbeenthatthishasbecomethedominantnarrativeaboutseasonallabour,totheextentthatthecontinuingcontributionstotheseasonalhorticulturalworkforceoflocalresidentsareoftenoverlooked.Theselocalresidentsincludemanynon-Whiteresidents(bothlocalresidentsandAustralianresidentswhotravelforwork)whoareexcludedfromthecategoryof‘locals’.ThisincludesworkerslikeManaia,inExample

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One,whohasworkedfordecadesintheindustryandisaresident.ItalsoincludesMalaysianandotherAsianworkerswhoareAustralianresidentsbutpopularlyassumedtobemigrants.Theoft-heardphrase,‘localsdon’tdothatworkanymore’,servestoperpetuateaconflationof‘local’and‘white’.

FACTORSCREATINGBELONGING

SHAREDEXPERIENCESOFLABOUR

Sharedexperiencesoflabour,andnarrativesaboutafarmingworkethic,doprovidesomebasisforidentificationacrossculturaldivides.Thus,forexample,manyfarmerswhobemoanthelackofaworkethicsamongyoung‘local’(White)youth—thoseyouthwhoaredisengagedfromseasonalwork—willpointfavourablytotheworkethictheyseeinmanynewlyarrivedmigrantorrefugeeworkers,ortemporarylabourmigrants.Theseassessmentscanincludeelementsofco-identificationandassertionsofcommonality.However,itshouldbestressedthattheseareoftenambivalentandsometimestenuous.Narrativesaboutworkethicarealsooftenhighlyracialized,andcanfuelsharplydifferentiatedandhierarchicallabourandinterculturalrelations.

KEYROLEOFCHURCHES

Localchurchesplayakeyroleforstrengtheningbelongingformanydiversegroups,and(insomeinstances)fosteringinterculturalconnection.Churchesarekeysitesofbelongingfordifferentculturalandethnicgroups,andalsoserveassitesofwelcomefortemporarylabourmigrants.Thegroupofni-VanuatuworkersdescribedinExampleTwohavestronglinkstoalocalAnglicanchurch,whichhasprovidedacommunityforthem,sharedresources,andgivenmaterialandemotionalassistance.Theyaredescribedbytheni-Vanuatuworkersas‘family’.Otherchurcheshavesimilarlyprovidedimportantspacesofsociality.

AWARENESSOFGLOBALCONNECTION

Inspiteofpopulardepictionsofruralplacesasparochial,ruralcommunitiesintheGreaterSheppartonRegionareinfacthighlyattunedtotheglobalconnectionsandpolitical-economiccontextshapingcontemporaryhorticulture.Thisawarenessalsohasthecapacitytofosterinterculturalconnection.Forexample,althoughracialisedandnegativediscoursesdoexistinrelationtoAsianinvestmentinfarming,thereisalsoastronginterestamongstmanyinpossibleconnectionsbetweenAustralianandAsianhorticulturalmarkets.Asoneprominentpublicfiguredescribedit,‘Asiaisthefuture’fortheAustralianindustry.Thisawarenessofconnectionprovidessomebasisforinterculturalexchangeandasenseofaentwinedinterestsandfutures.

STRENGTHENINGSHAREDBELONGING

Inexaminingtheexperiencesofdiversegroups,theresearchhasidentifiedfourfuturepathwaystowardsnewvaluesofsharedbelongingthroughconnectiontoland.

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1. Continuingregulatoryreformtoreduceindustryuseofinformalcontractorsandillegallaboursystems.

Thisisnotonlyabout‘cleaningup’theindustryorreducingincidencesofexploitationormistreatment.Reducingtheuseofinformallabourisalsokeytostrengtheningthesenseofbelongingofworkers,andtoenablingmoreequalinterculturalrelationships.

2. Continuingregulatoryreformtostrengthentherightsofmigrantworkerstoreturninsubsequentseasonsiftheywishto.ThisisrelevantparticularlytoworkersintheSeasonalWorkerProgram.AllSWPworkersinterviewedinthisresearchexpressedawishtoreturn,butworkersoftendonotknowiftheywillbereturninguntilaftertheyhaveleftthecountry.Thisexperienceofprecaritylimitstheircapacitytoenactformsofplace-makingandtobuildongoingrelationships.Itsustainsthe(incorrect)characterisationofseasonalworkersasinterchangeable,abstractunitswhocomeandthenleave,ratherthanascontributorstotheindustryandcommunity.

3. Transforminglocalnarrativesandrepresentationstochallengelimitedconstructionsofwhoisandisnotconsideredlocal’.

Thewaysinwhichconceptionsof‘local’functiontoexcludeandsilencecallforcriticalandcreativechallenge.Thisisataskforgovernment,industry,andcommunity-sectoractorsalike.

4. Culturalandcreativeinitiativesorientedtotheconnectionsbetweentransnationalism,identity&place-making.

Theartshaveanimportantroletoplayincelebratingnewanddiverseformsofbelonging.Thispathwayiscloselylinkedtotheoneabove,andinvolvesdisruptingandreframingideasofwhoandwhatis‘local’,andofthewaysthatpeopleforgeconnectionstopeopleandplace.Increasedtransnationalismandnewformsoflabourmobilityincreasinglyrevealthelimitsofidealsofbelongingthatassumepermanentmigrationandfixedsettlement.

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PROJECTOUTPUTS

Researchhasyieldedtwokeyprojectoutputstodate.

1. Conferencepaper,‘Labourand(dis)trustintheGoulburnValley’,presentedattheAustralianAnthropologicalSocietynationalconference,Sydney,December2016.Thiswasacontributiontoapanelexaminingthefinancializationofeverydaylife,andvaluesofspeculationandtrust.

Abstract:

Thispaperexplorestheprecariousrelationsof(dis)trustandsocialityassociatedwithseasonallabourintheGoulburnValley.Along-establishedpartoftheproductionsystemsofhorticulturalandagriculturalindustries,contemporaryseasonallabourisincreasinglyinflectedwiththeeffectsoftheeconomicandecologicaluncertaintiesthatpermeatethoseindustries:climatechangeandwatershortages,thegrowthofglobalagri-business,farmclosures,and(oftenheavilyracialized)panicsover‘landgrabs’.Theworkerswhoundertakeseasonallabourarealsochanging,asdedicatedtemporarylabourmigrationschemesbringPacificIslandersfromplacesalsoexperiencingecologicalandenvironmentaluncertainty,andastheWorkingHolidayMakervisaschemebringsEuropeanbackpackersbutalso(non-White)otherswhoseuseoftheschemewasunintendedbyitsdesigners.Theencountersthatresultinvolvecompetingassessmentsofvalue—ofland,labour,andtheirproducts—aspeopleworkinuncertaintimestowardsdifferentimaginedends.

2. Workshop,LabourLines:IndigenousAustralianandPacificIslanderExperiencesofLabourMobility,22-23June2017.Thistwo-dayworkshop,organisedbyDrSteadincollaborationwithProfJonAltmanandDrTiffanyShellamatDeakinUniversity,wasaninnovativeandproductiveactivitybringingtogetheranthropologists,historians,geographers,sociologistsandotherstoexplorethemesofrace,coloniality,transformationandcontinuityinrelationtolabourmobilityinAustralia.

Seventeenpresentationsfromleadingnationalandinternationalscholars,respondedtothefollowingquestions:

• Whatare,orhavebeen,theexperiencesofIndigenousand/orPacificIslanderpeoplesoflabourmobilityinbothruralandmetropolitanAustralia?

• Whatimaginaries,ideologies,andaffectiveexperiencesinformthelabourmobilityofIndigenousandPacificpeoples?

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• Forwhat,andwhose,endshavePacificpeopleandIndigenousAustralianslaboured,bothhistoricallyandtoday?

• Where,andinwhatways,dopastandpresentexperiencesoflabourmobilitybyPacificandIndigenousAustralianpeopleresonate,diverge,andintersect?

• Whatare,orhavebeen,theresponsesofIndigenousandPacificpeoplestolabourmobility,andtotheformsofinterculturalencounterthatlabourmobilityproduces?WhatculturalandimaginativeresourcesdoIndigenousandPacificpeoplesbringtotheirexperiencesandnegotiationsoflabourmobility?

• WhatdoesaconsiderationofIndigenousandPacificIslanderexperiencesinrelationtooneanotherrevealabouttheexperienceandpracticeofAustraliancoloniality,andthegeographiesofpowerunderpinningthehistoricalandongoingconstitutionof‘Australia’andAustralianspaces?

Thepaperswerediverse,coveringaspectsofmissionhistory,themid-19thcenturyoriginsofthePacificlabourtrade,contemporaryfly-in-fly-outmininglabour,horticulturalseasonalworkers,andmuchmore.Underlyingthisdiversity,strongcommonalitiesofexperienceemerged,withkeythemesincludingtheambivalentroleofregulationinbothamelioratingandreproducingcolonialinequalities,theprivilegingofparticularconceptionsofworkandlabourattheexpenseofothers,andtheroleoflabourrelationsincolonialisteffortstoproduceanddisciplineparticularkindsofIndigenousandPacificIslandersubjects.Therewasaterrificandgenerousexchangeofideas,andDrStead,ProfAltmanandDrShellamareworkingtowardsaneditedpublication.

AbstractforDrStead’spaper:

Thispaperconsiderstheexperiencesofagroupofni-VanuatuworkersemployedthroughtheSeasonalWorkerProgram(SWP)intheVictorianhorticulturalindustry,drawingonethnographicfieldworkintheGreaterSheppartonRegionover2016-2017.Seasonalhorticulturallabour—whichincludesfruit-picking,pruning,thinningandpacking—ishighlyprecariouswork.Theworkforcesthatarepulledtogethertocompletethisworkareoftenmarkedlydifferentiatedbyrace,aswellasbymigrationstatus,andthesedifferentiationsaffectthewaysinwhichdifferentgroupsofworkersexperience,andareabletorespondto,thisprecarity.Thus,PacificIslandersemployedthroughtheSWPexperiencemuchgreaterlevelsonconstraintontheirmobilitythan,forexample,EuropeanbackpackersemployedinsimilarjobsonWorkingHolidayMakervisas.Inconsideringtheexperiencesoftheni-VanuatuworkersintheGreaterSheppartonRegion,IarguethattheseconstraintsrenderPacificIslandersmorevulnerabletoexploitationandtotheprecarityofhorticulturalwork,producingformsof‘unfree’labourthatentrench22racializedhierarchies.Significantly,precarityisrevealedhereasaconditionproducedby,andthroughlegality.

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ONGOINGPRODUCTIONOFOUTPUTS

Additionaltothesetwocompletedoutputs,abookmanuscriptandtwojournalarticlesarecurrentlyindevelopment.AlsoindevelopmentistheeditedcollectionbringingtogetherthepaperspresentedattheLabourLinesworkshop,whichwillincludebothasole-authoredpaperfromDrStead,andaco-authoredintroductionbyDrStead,DrShellam,andProfAltman.Itisanticipatedthattheseoutputswillbefinalisedandpublishedinthe2017-2019period.

FundingfromtheToyotaFoundationResearchGrantsProgramhasprovidedcriticalsupportforthefieldworkonwhichtheseoutputsdraw.IextendmysincerethankstotheFoundationfortheirgenerosity.Ilookforwardtoseeingtheseoutputsthroughtofinalpublication,andtocontinuingtoengagewithprojectparticipantsandstakeholdersinordertosharethefindingsofthisresearch.

DrVictoriaStead

30June2017

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