Language

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Language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,searchThis article is about the properties of language in general. For other uses, seeLanguage(disambiguation).

Cuneiformis one of the first known forms of written language,but spoken languageis believedto predate writing by tens of thousands of years at least.

Languagemay refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complesystems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complecommunication. !he scientific study of language in any of its senses is called linguistics.

!he approimately "###$%### languages that are spoken by humans today are the most salienteamples, but natural languagescan also be based on visual rather than auditive stimuli, foreample in sign languagesand written language. Codesand other kinds of artificially constructedcommunication systemssuch as those used for computer programmingcan also be calledlanguages. & language in this sense is asystemof signsforencodingand decodinginformation.!he 'nglish word derives from (atinlingua, )language, tongue.) !his metaphoric relationbetween language and the tongue eists in many languages and testifies to the historical
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prominence of spoken languages.*+When used as a general concept, )language) refers to thecognitivefaculty that enables humans to learn and use systems of comple communication.

!he human language faculty is thought to be fundamentally different from and of much highercompleity than those of other species. -uman language is highly comple in that it is based on

a set of rules relating symbols to their meanings, thereby forming an infinite number of possibleutterances from a finite number of elements. (anguage is thought to have originated when earlyhominids first started cooperating, adapting earlier systems of communication based onepressive signs to include a theory of other mindsand sharedintentionality. !his developmentis thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume. (anguage isprocessedin manydifferent locations in the humanbrain, but especially in roca/sand Wernicke/s areas. -umansacquirelanguage through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speakfluently when they are around three years old. !he use of language has become deeplyentrenched in human cultureand, apart from being used to communicate and share information,it also has social and cultural uses, such as signifying group identity, social stratificationand forsocial groomingand entertainment. !he word )language) can also be used to describe the set of

rules that makes this possible, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.

&ll languages rely on the process ofsemiosisto relate a signwith a particular meaning.0pokenand signed languages contain aphonologicalsystem that governs how sounds or visual symbolsare used to form sequences known aswordsor morphemes, and asyntacticsystem that governshow words and morphemesare used to form phrases and utterances. Written languages usevisual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntacticrules that govern the production of meaning from sequences of words. (anguages evolveanddiversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed bycomparingmodernlanguages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had for the later stagesto have occurred. & group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a

language family. !he languages that are most spoken in the world today belong to the 1ndo2'uropean family,which includes languages such as'nglish,0panish,3ussianand-indi4 the0ino2!ibetan languages,which include 5andarin Chinese,Cantoneseand many others4 0emiticlanguages, which include &rabicand -ebrew4 and the antu languages, which include 0wahili,6ulu, 7hosaand hundreds of other languages spoken throughout &frica.

Contents

*hide + 8efinitions

o +.+ & mental faculty, organ or instinct

o +.9 & formal symbolic system

o +." & tool for communication

o +. What makes human language unique

9 !he study of language
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o 9.+ 'arly grammarians

o 9.9 -istoricism

o 9." 0tructuralism

" (anguage and its parts

o ".+ 0emantics

o ".9 0ounds and symbols

o "." ;rammar

".".+ ;rammatical categories

".".9 Word classes

"."." 5orphology

".". 0ynta

(anguage and culture

< =rigin

% >atural languages

? &rtificial languages

@ &nimal communication

A >otes

+# 0ee also

++ 3eferences

+9 Further reading

+" (ists

+ 'ternal links

[edit] Definitions

!he word )language) has two meanings: language as a general concept, and )a language) Baspecific linguistic system, e.g. )French). (anguages other than 'nglish often have two separatewords for these distinct concepts. French for eample uses the word langagefor language as aconcept and langueas the specific instance of language.*9
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When speaking of language as a general concept, several different definitions can be used thatstress different aspects of the phenomenon. *"

[edit] A mental faculty, organ or instinct

=ne definition sees language primarily as the mental facultythat allows humans to undertakelinguistic behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. !his definitionstresses the universality of language to all humans and the biological basis of the human capacityfor language as a unique development of the human brain.**oam Chomsky,define language as a particular set of sentences that can be generated from a particular set ofrules.*%!he structuralist viewpoint is commonly used in formal logic,semiotics, and in formaland structuraltheories of grammar, the most commonly used theoretical frameworks inlinguisticdescription.1n thephilosophy of languagethese views are associated with philosophers such asertrand 3ussell,early Wittgenstein, &lfred !arskiand ;ottlob Frege.

[edit] A tool for communication

et another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans tocooperate. !his definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use itto epress themselves and to manipulate obGects in their environment. !his view of language isassociated with the study of language in a functionalorpragmaticframework, as well as insocio2linguisticsand linguistic anthropology. 1n the Hhilosophy of languagethese views are oftenassociated with Wittgenstein/slater works and with ordinary language philosophers such as ;. '.5oore, Haul ;rice, John 0earleand J. (. &ustin.

[edit] What makes human language unique

-uman language is unique in comparison to other forms of communication, such as those usedby other animals, because it allows humans to produce an infinite set of utterances from a finiteset of elements,*?and because the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language arelargely arbitrary, so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction. !he knownsystems of communication used by animals, on the other hand, can only epress a finite numberof utterances that are mostly genetically transmitted.*@-uman language is also unique in that itscomple structure has evolved to serve a much wider range of functions than any other kinds ofcommunication system.
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[edit] The study of language

Main articles: linguisticsandHistory of linguistics

!he study of language, linguistics,has been developing into a science since the first grammatical

descriptions of particular languages in 1ndiamore than 9### years ago. !oday linguistics is ascience that concerns itself with all aspects relating to language, eamining it from all of thetheoretical viewpoints described above.

(anguage can be studied from many angles and for many purposes: For eample, 8escriptivelinguisticseamines the grammar of single languages so that people can learn the languages4theoretical linguisticsdevelops theories how best to conceptualiIe language as a faculty4sociolinguisticsstudies how languages are used for social purposes, such as differentiatingregional or social groups from each other4 neurolinguisticsstudies how language is processed inthe human brain4 computational linguisticsbuilds computational models of language andconstructs programmes to process natural language4 and historical linguisticstraces the histories

of languages and language families by using the comparative method.

[edit] Early grammarians

Main article:Philology

&ncient !amilinscription at therihadeeswara !emplein !hanGavur

!he formal study of language began in 1ndiawith HnKini, the

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Hlatoin his &ratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal andeist in the world of ideas. !his work is the first to use the word etymologyto describe thehistory of a wordDs meaning.

&round 9@# C one of &leander the ;reat/s successors founded a university Bsee 5usaeum in

&leandria,where a school of philologists studied the ancient tets in and taught;reektospeakers of other languages. !his school was the first to use the word )grammar) in its modernsense, Hlato had used the word in its original meaning as )t\chn] grammatik]^ ) B_`j, the )art of writing,) which is also the title of one of the most important works ofthe &leandrine school by 8ionysius !hra.*+#

!hroughout the 5iddle &ges the study of language was subsumed under the topic ofphilology,the study of ancient languages and tets, practiced by such educators as 3oger &scham,Wolfgang 3atkeand John &mos Comenius.*++

[edit] istoricism

1n the +@th century, the first use of the comparative methodby William Jonessparked the rise ofcomparative linguistics.*+9loomfield attributes )the first great scientific linguistic work of theworld) to Jacob ;rimm,who wrote'eutsche %rammati".*+"1t was soon followed by otherauthors writing similar comparative studies on other language groups of 'urope. !he scientificstudy of language was broadened from 1ndo2'uropean to language in general byWilhelm von-umboldt, of whom loomfield asserts:*+"

)!his study received its foundation at the hands of the Hrussian statesman and scholar Wilhelmvon -umboldt B+?%?+@"

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phrases. When used in communication a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender through achannel to a receiver who decodes it Ba signal.

0ome of the properties that define human language as opposed to other communication systemsare: the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, meaning that there is no predictable connection

between a linguistic sign and its meaning4 the duality of the linguistic system, meaning thatlinguistic structures are built by combining elements into larger structures that can be seen aslayered, e.g. how sounds build words and words build phrases4 the discreteness of the elementsof language, meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are constructed are discreteunits, e.g. sounds and words, that can be distinguished from each other and rearranged indifferent patterns4 and the productivity of the linguistic system, meaning that the finite number oflinguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite number of combinations.*+%

!he rules under which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called syntaorgrammar. !he meaning that is connected to individual signs, words and phrases is calledsemantics.!he division of language into separate but connected systems of sign and meaning

goes back to the first linguistic studies of de 0aussure and is now used in almost all branches oflinguistics.

[edit] !emantics

(anguages epress meaning by relating a sign to a meaning. !hus languages must have avocabularyof signs related to specific meaningthe 'nglish sign )dog) denotes, for eample, amember of the genus &anis. 1n a language, the array of arbitrary signs connected to specificmeanings is called the leicon, and a single sign connected to a meaning is called aleeme. >otall meanings in a language are represented by single words2often semantic concepts areembedded in the morphology or synta of the language in the form ofgrammatical categories.

&ll languages contain the semantic structure ofpredicationa structure that predicates aproperty, state or action that has truth value, i.e. it can be true or false about an entity, e.g. )* *isy) or )* *does y.)

[edit] !ounds and symbols

Main article:Phonology

!he ways in which spoken languages use sounds to construct meaning is studied in phonology.!he study of how humans produce and perceive vocal sounds is called phonetics.1n spokenlanguage meaning is constructed when sounds become part of a system in which some sounds

can contribute to epressing meaning and others do not. 1n any given language only a limitednumber of the many distinct sounds that can be created by the human vocal apparatus contributeto constructing meaning

0ounds as part of a linguistic system are calledphonemes.&ll spoken languages have phonemesof at least two different categories: vowelsand consonantsthat can be combined into formingsyllables. &part from segments such as consonants and vowels, some languages also use sound inother ways to convey meaning. 5any languages, for eample, use stress,pitch, durationand tone
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to distinguish meaning. ecause these phenomena operate outside of the level of single segmentsthey are called suprasegmental.

Writing systemsrepresent the sounds of human speech using visual symbols. !he (atin alphabetBand those on which it is based or that have been derived from it is based on the representation

of single sounds, so that words are constructed from letters that generally denote a singleconsonant or vowel in the structure of the word.

1n syllabic scripts, such as the 1nuktitutsyllabary, each sign represents a whole syllable

1n logographicscripts each sign represents an entire word. ecause all languages have a verylarge number of words, no purely logographic scripts are known to eist. 1n order to represent thesounds of the world/s languages in writing, linguists have developed an 1nternational Hhonetic&lphabet, designed to represent all of the discrete sounds that are known to contribute tomeaning in human languages.

[edit] #rammar

Main article:grammar

;rammar is the study of how meaningful elements Bmorphemes within a language can becombined into utterances. 5orphemes can either befreeor bound. 1f they are free to be movedaround within an utterance, they are usually called words,and if they are bound to other words ormorphemes, they are called affies. !he way in which meaningful elements can be combinedwithin a language is governed by rules. 1n standard linguistic theory the rules of the internalstructure of words is called morphology. !he rules of the internal structure of the phrases andsentences is called synta.*+?1n the generativist tradition of Chomsky morphology is seen as a

part of synta.

[edit] #rammatical categories

;rammar contributes to producing meaning by encoding semantic distinctions in forms that aresystematic. !he predictability resulting from systematiIation allows language users to produceand understand new words and meanings by applying their knowledge of the language/sgrammatical categories.

(anguages differ widely in whether categories are encoded through the use of categories orleical units. -owever, several categories are so common as to be nearly universal. 0uch

universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical relations of participants andpredicates by grammatically distinguishing between their relationsto a predicate, the encoding oftemporaland spatialrelations on predicates, and a system of grammatical persongoverningreference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they arespeaking.

[edit] Word classes
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(anguages organiIe theirparts of speechinto classes according to their functions and positionsrelative to other parts. &ll languages, for instance, make a basic distinction between a group ofwords that prototypically denote things and concepts and a group of words that prototypicallydenote actions and events. !he first group, which includes 'nglish words such as )dog) and)song,) is usually called nouns. !he second, which includes )run) and )sing,) is called verbs.

&dditionally, some languages have adGectives, such as )red) or )big,) that describe properties orqualities of nouns, and adverbs, such as such as )quickly) and )hopefully,) that modify verbs.

!he word classes also carry out differing functions in grammar. Hrototypically verbs are used toconstructpredicates, while nouns are used asargumentsof predicates. 1n a sentence such as)0ally runs,) the predicate is )runs,) because it is the word that predicates a specific state aboutits argument )0ally.) 0ome verbs such as )curse) can take two arguments, e.g. )0ally cursedJohn.) & predicate that can only take a single argument is calledintransiti-e,while a predicatethat can take two arguments is called transiti-e.

5any other word classes eist in different languages, such as conGunctionsthat serve to Goin twosentences and articlesthat introduces a noun.

[edit] $or"hology

5any languages use the morphological processes ofinflectionto modify or elaborate on themeaning of words. 1n some languages words are built of several meaningful units calledmorphemes, the 'nglish word )unepected) can be analyIed as being composed of the threemorphemes )un2), )epect) and )2ed). 5orphemes can be classified according to whether theyare roots to which other bound morphemes calledaffiesare added, and bound morphemes canbe classified according to their position in relation to the root:prefiesprecede the root,suffies

follow the root and infiesare inserted in the middle of a root. &ffies serve to modify orelaborate the meaning of the root. 0ome languages change the meaning of words by changing thephonological structure of a word, for eample the 'nglish word )run) which in the past tense is)ran). Furthermore morphology distinguishes between processes of inflection which modifies orelaborates on a word, and derivationwhich instead creates a new word from an eisting one 2 foreample in 'nglish )sing) which can become )singer) by adding the derivational morpheme 2erwhich derives an agentive noun from a verb. (anguages differ widely in how much they rely onmorphology 2 some languages, traditionally calledpolysynthetic languagesdepend so much onmorphology that they epress the equivalent of an entire 'nglish sentence in a single word. Foreample the ;reenlandicword )oaatiginerluppaa) )Bheshe speaks badly about himher)which consists of the root oaaand si suffies.*+@

[edit] !ynta%

(anguages that use inflection to convey meaning often do not have strict rules for word order ina sentence. For eample in (atinboth )dominus ser-os -ituperabat) and )ser-os -ituperabatdominus) mean )the master was cursing the slaves), because )ser-os) )slave) is in the accusativecaseshowing that they are the grammatical obGectof the sentence and )dominus) )master) is inthe nominative caseshowing that he is the subGect. =ther languages, however, use little or no
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inflectional processes and instead use the sequence of words in relation to each other to describemeaning. For eample in 'nglish the two sentences )the slaves were cursing the master) and )themaster was cursing the slaves) mean different things because the role of grammatical subGect isencoded by the noun being in front of the verb and the role of obGect is encoded by the nounappearing after the verb.

0ynta then, has to do with the order of words in sentences, and specifically how complesentences are structured by grouping words together in units, calledphrases, that can occupydifferent places in a larger syntactic structure. elow is a graphic representation of the syntacticanalysis of the sentence )the cat is on the mat). !he sentence is analysed as being constituted bya noun phrase, a verb and a prepositional phrase, the prepositional phrase is further divided into apreposition and a noun phrase, and the noun phrases consist of an article and a noun.

Verb Phrase/Sentence

/ | \

/ | \

/ | Prepositional Phrase

/ | / \ Noun Phrase | / Noun Phrase

/ \ | / / \

Article Noun Verb Preposition Article Noun

| | | | | |

the cat is on the mat

"The cat is on the mat"

[edit] Language and culture

Main article: &ulture

)!he !ower of abel) by Hieter ruegel the 'lder. =il on board, +

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*+A!he fact that different groups speak different, unintelligible languages is often consideredmore tangible evidence for cultural differences than other less obvious cultural traits.

(anguages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also apart of the larger culture of the community that speak them. -umans use language as a way of

signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. 'ven among speakers ofone language several different ways of using the language eist, and each is used to signalaffiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture. (inguists and anthropologists,particularly sociolinguists,ethnolinguistsand linguistic anthropologistshave specialiIed instudying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.

& communityDs ways of using language is a part of the communityDs culture, Gust as other sharedpractices are, it is way of displaying group identity. Ways of speaking function not only tofacilitate communication, but also to identify the social position of the speaker. (inguists calldifferent ways of speaking language varieties, a term that encompasses geographically orsocioculturally defined dialectsas well as theGargonsor stylesof subcultures. (inguistic

anthropologists and sociologists of language define communicative style as the ways thatlanguage is used and understood within a particular culture. *9#

!he differences between languages does not consist only in differences in pronunciation,vocabulary or grammar, but also in different )cultures of speaking). 0ome cultures for eamplehave elaborate systems of )social deiis), systems of signalling social distance through linguisticmeans.*9+1n 'nglish, social deiis is shown mostly though distinguishing between addressingsome people by first name and others by surname, but also in titles such as )5rs.), )boy),)8octor) or )our -onor), but in other languages such systems may be highly comple andcodified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language. 1n several languages of east &sia,for eample !hai, urmeseand Javanese,different words are used according to whether a

speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system withanimals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest. *9+

[edit] &rigin
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0kull of -omo >eanderthalensisdiscovered in (a Chapelle &u 0aints, France. 1t is unknownwhether >eanderthal humans had language.Main article: /rigin of language

!heories about the origin of language can be divided according to their basic assumptions. 0ometheories are based on the idea that language is so comple that one can not imagine it simplyappearing from nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved from earlier pre2linguisticsystems among our pre2human ancestors. !hese theories can be called continuity based theories.!he opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be comparedto anything found among non2humans and that it must therefore have appeared fairly suddenly inthe transition from pre2hominids to early man. !hese theories can be defined as discontinuity

based. 0imilarly some theories see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely geneticallyencoded, while others see it as a system that is largely cultural, that is learned through socialinteraction.*99Currently the only prominent proponent of a discontinuity theory of humanlanguage is>oam Chomskywho however does not present any scenario for how humanlanguage appeared. Continuity based theories are currently held by a maGority of scholars, butthey vary in how they envision this development. !hose who see language as being mostlyinnate, for eample 0teven Hinker, hold the precedents to be animal cognition, whereas thosewho see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as5ichael !omasellosee itas having developed from animal communication, either primate gestural or vocaliccommunication. =ther continuity based models see language as having developed from music.

ecause the emergence of language is located in the early prehistory of man, the relevantdevelopments have left no direct historical traces and no comparable processes can be observedtoday. !heories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if, for eample, primatesdisplay any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre2human language must have been like.&lternatively early human fossils can be inspected to look for traces of physical adaptation tolanguage use or for traces of pre2linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour.
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1t is mostly undisputed that pre2human australopithecinesdid not have communication systemssignificantly different from those found in great apesin general, but scholarly opinions vary as tothe developments since the appearance ofHomosome 9.< million years ago. 0ome scholarsassume the development of primitive language2like systems Bproto2language as early asHomohabilis, while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with

Homo erectusB+.@ million years ago orHomo heidelbergensisB#.% million years ago and thedevelopment of language proper withHomo sapiens sapiensless than +##,### years ago.

(inguistic analysis, used by Johanna >ichols, a linguistat theEniversity of California, erkeley,to estimate the time required to achieve the current spread and diversity in modern languagestoday, indicates that vocal language arose at least +##,### years ago.*9"

[edit] 'atural languages

Main article:0atural language

0ome of the areas of thebraininvolved in language processing: rocaDs areaBlue, WernickeDsareaB;reen, 0upramarginal gyrusBellow,&ngular gyrusB=range, Hrimary &uditory Corte

BHink

-uman languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science of studying themfalls under the purview of linguistics.& common progression for natural languages is that theyare considered to be first spoken and then written, and then an understanding and eplanation oftheir grammar is attempted.

(anguages live, die, polymorph, move from place to place, and change with time. &ny languagethat ceases to change or develop is categoriIed as adead language. Conversely, any language thatis in a continuous state of change is known as a li-ing languageor modern language.1t is forthese reasons that the biggest challenge for a speaker of a foreign language is to remain

immersed in that language in order to keep up with the changes of that language.

5aking a principled distinction between one language and another is sometimes nearlyimpossible.*9For instance, there are a fewdialectsof ;ermansimilar to some dialects of8utch.!he transition between languages within the same language familyis sometimes gradual Bseedialect continuum.
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0ome like to make parallels withbiology,where it is not possible to make a well2defineddistinction between one species and the net. 1n either case, the ultimate difficulty may stemfrom the interactionsbetween languages andpopulations.B0ee 8ialector &ugust 0chleicherfor alonger discussion.

!he concepts of &usbausprache, &bstandsprache and 8achspracheare used to make finerdistinctions about the degrees of difference between languages or dialects.

&sign languageBalso signed language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyedsound patterns, uses visually transmitted sign patterns Bmanual communication, body languageto convey meaningsimultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of thehands, arms or body, and facial epressions to fluidly epress a speakerDs thoughts. -undreds ofsign languages are in use around the world and are at the cores of local 8eaf cultures.

[edit] Artificial languages

!he first book ever published in 'speranto, the worldDs most widely spoken constructed

language.

&n artificial language is a language thephonology,grammar, andor vocabularyof which havebeen consciously devised or modified by an individual or group, instead of having evolvednaturally. !here are many possible reasons to create a constructed language: to ease humancommunicationBsee international auiliary languageand code4 to bringfictionor an associatedconstructed worldto life4 for linguisticeperimentation4 for artistic creation4and for languagegames.

!he epression )planned language) is sometimes used to mean international auiliary languagesand other languages designed for actual use in human communication. 0ome prefer it to the term

)artificial), as that term may have peGorative connotations in some languages. =utside the'speranto community, the term language planningmeans the prescriptions given to a naturallanguage to standardiIe it4 in this regard, even )natural languages) may be artificial in somerespects. Hrescriptive grammars, which date to ancient times for classical languages such as(atin, 0anskrit, and Chinese are rule2based codifications of natural languages, such codificationsbeing a middle ground between naive natural selection and development of language and itseplicit construction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Schleicherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausbausprache,_Abstandsprache_and_Dachsprachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausbausprache,_Abstandsprache_and_Dachsprachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&action=edit&section=21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabularyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_game_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_game_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive_grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unua_Libro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unua_Libro.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Schleicherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausbausprache,_Abstandsprache_and_Dachsprachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&action=edit&section=21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabularyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_game_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_game_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive_grammar

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!he &0C11!able, a scheme for encoding character strings.

5athematics, (ogicsand computer scienceuse artificial entities calledformal languagesBincludingprogramming languagesand markup languages, and some that are more theoretical innature. !hese often take the form of character strings, produced by a combination of formalgrammarand semantics of arbitrary compleity.

&programming languageis a formal language endowed with semanticsthat can be utiliIed tocontrol the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer, to perform specific tasks.Hrogramming languages are defined using syntactic and semantic rules, to determine structureand meaning respectively.

Hrogramming languages are employed to facilitate communication about the task of organiIingand manipulating information, and to epress algorithms precisely. 0ome authors*#ho1restrict theterm )programming language) to those languages that can epress all possible algorithms4sometimes the term )computer language) is applied to artificial languages that are more limited.*citation needed

[edit] Animal communication

Main article:nimal language
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Figure2'ight20haped Waggle 8anceof the -oneybee B&pis mellifera indicating a food source tothe right of the direction of the sun outside the hive. !he abdomen of the dancer appears blurredbecause of the rapid motion from side to side

!he term )animal languages) is often used for non2human systems of communication. (inguists

and semioticians do not consider these to be true )language), but describe them as animalcommunicationon the basis on non2symbolic sign systems,*9evertheless, some scholars

have tried to disprove this mainstream premise through eperiments on training chimpanIees totalk. arl von Frischreceived the >obel HriIe in +A?" for his proof of the sign communicationand its variants of the bees.*9%

1n several publiciIed instances, non2human animals have been taught to understand certainfeatures of human language. ChimpanIees,gorillas, and orangutanshave been taught hand signsbased on &merican 0ign (anguage. !he&frican ;rey Harrot, which possesses the ability tomimic human speech with a high degree of accuracy, is suspected of having sufficientintelligence to comprehend some of the speech it mimics. !hough animals can be taught tounderstand human commands, they are not capable of repeating those commands. Without theability to reason, animals are also unable to learn the concepts of comple philosophical ideas

such as the past and future, which are core fundamentals of comple language. Without thisability, animals are not able to pass these teachings on towards other animals of the same species.!hus, even though we can teach animals to understand aspects of human language, they areunable to develop that language around a culture suitable for them. -umans on the other hand,have been proven to learn languages not native to them, and use those languages as a nativespeaker would, and pass those along to other members of their native culture.

While proponents of animal communication systems have debated levels of semantics,thesesystems have not been found to have anything approaching human language synta.*9?

[edit] 'otes

+. ()language). The merican Heritage 'ictionary of the +nglish LanguageB"rd ed.. oston:-oughton 5ifflin Company. +AA9.

9. ((yons, John.+A@+. (anguage and (inguistics. p. 9

". ((yons, John.+A@+. (anguage and (inguistics. pp. +$@

. (5arc 8. -auser and W. !ecumseh FitchB9##". )What are the uniquely human components ofthe language faculty). 1n 5.-. Christiansen and 0. irby.Language +-olution: The *tates of the
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rt. =ford Eniversity Hress.http:www.isrl.uiuc.eduamaglangevpaperhauser#"what&re.html.

oam B+A

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'volutionarylinguistics

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language

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Book:Language

ooksare collections of articles that can be downloadedor ordered in print.

[edit] eferences

loomfield, (eonardB+A+.n introduction to the study of language. >ew ork: -enry-olt and Company.

aepler, Haul B9##". )White slaves, &frican masters). The 00L* of the mericancademy of Political and *ocial *cience-++B+: A#$+++.doi:+#.++??###9?+%9#"@+2?#?2+9@2A.

Crystal, 8avidB+AA?. The &ambridge +ncyclopedia of Language. Cambridge:Cambridge Eniversity Hress.

Crystal, 8avidB9##+. The &ambridge +ncyclopedia of the +nglish Language.Cambridge: Cambridge Eniversity Hress.

;ode, &leanderB+A

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5c&rthur, ! B+AA%. The &oncise &ompanion to the +nglish Language. =ford: =fordEniversity Hress.

>}th, Winfried B+AA A?@2@@2?

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0apir(eonard loomfield6huangIi -enri ergson(udwig Wittgenstein(Philosophical 2n-estigations Tractatus Logico!

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&ragon\s

&rmneashce
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Featured_contenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Randomhttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Special:Landingcheck?landing_page=WMFJA085&language=en&utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=20101204SB002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Abouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_ushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Uploadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&oldid=410652230http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Language&id=410652230http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=render_article&arttitle=Language&oldid=410652230&writer=rlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&printable=yeshttp://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalhttp://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachehttp://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9http://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengachehttp://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_(%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%A0%DC%90)http://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Featured_contenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Randomhttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Special:Landingcheck?landing_page=WMFJA085&language=en&utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=20101204SB002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Abouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_ushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Uploadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&oldid=410652230http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Language&id=410652230http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=render_article&arttitle=Language&oldid=410652230&writer=rlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language&printable=yeshttp://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalhttp://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachehttp://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9http://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengachehttp://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_(%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%A0%DC%90)http://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba

5/22/2018 Language

24/30

&rpetan

&sturianu

&vaeD

&ymar aru

&Irbaycanca

amanankan

n2lm2g

asa anyumasan

B

oarisch

osanski

reIhoneg

Catal

Cebuano

esky

Cymraeg

8ansk

8eitsch

8eutsch

8in\ biIaad

'esti
http://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguahttp://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomahttp://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e'%E1%BA%BDhttp://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruhttp://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilhttp://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanhttp://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BEhttp://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AD-gi%C3%A2nhttp://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basahttp://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD)http://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD)http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0http://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprochhttp://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezikhttp://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezhhttp://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatgehttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5http://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5http://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulonganhttp://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_(lingvistika)http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaithhttp://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproghttp://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schproochhttp://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachehttp://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadhttp://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel_(keeleteadus)http://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguahttp://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomahttp://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e'%E1%BA%BDhttp://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruhttp://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilhttp://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanhttp://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BEhttp://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AD-gi%C3%A2nhttp://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basahttp://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD)http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0http://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprochhttp://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezikhttp://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezhhttp://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatgehttp://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5http://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulonganhttp://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_(lingvistika)http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaithhttp://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproghttp://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schproochhttp://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachehttp://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0http://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadhttp://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel_(keeleteadus)

5/22/2018 Language

25/30

j

'milin e rumagnl

'spaol

'speranto

'uskara

QY

FiGi -indi

Froyskt

Franais

Frysk

Furlan

;aeilge

;aelg

;idhlig

;alego

-rvatski

1do

1lokano

ahasa 1ndonesia

1nterlingua

1upiak
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1http://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguajehttp://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvohttp://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntzahttp://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86http://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhasahttp://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lhttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langagehttp://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalhttp://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga%C3%A7http://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teanga_(cumars%C3%A1id)http://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengey_(%C3%A7haghteraght)http://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0nanhttp://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaxehttp://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80ht

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