LANGUAGE ANXIETY AMONG FIRST-YEAR MALAY STUDENTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL

ISLAMIC COLLEGE: AN INVESTIGATION OF L2 SKILLS, SOURCES OF ANXIETY, AND L2

PERFORMANCE

BY

MOHD HILMI BIN HAMZAH

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

2007

“There is something fundamentally different about learning a language, compared to

learning another skill or gaining other knowledge, namely that language and self are

so closely bound, if not identical, that an attack on one is an attack on the other.”

- Cohen and Norst, 1989

LANGUAGE ANXIETY AMONG FIRST-YEAR MALAY STUDENTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL

ISLAMIC COLLEGE: AN INVESTIGATION OF L2 SKILLS, SOURCES OF ANXIETY, AND L2

PERFORMANCE

BY

MOHD HILMI BIN HAMZAH

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human

Sciences (English Language Studies)

Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

JULY 2007

ii

ABSTRACT

This study investigates language anxiety experienced by 91 college students while learning English. In particular, the study explores three aspects: L2 skills in which the students feel anxious; the potential sources of their anxiety; and the relationship between the students’ level of language anxiety and their performance in end-of-semester examination. Three instruments were used to obtain the data – questionnaire, interview, and end-of-semester exam papers. The data from the questionnaire were analyzed to find out the L2 skills in which the students feel anxious. The interview provided data to examine the potential sources of their anxiety. The end-of-semester exam papers were scrutinized to determine the relationship between the students’ level of anxiety and their L2 performance. Results showed that about 88% of the students felt either moderately or highly anxious in all L2 skills, with speaking being the highest. Personal and interpersonal anxieties were identified as the main sources of their anxiety. It was also demonstrated that students with higher level of anxiety tend to obtain lower marks in their end-of-semester examination, with grammar being the lowest. These findings provide insights into the students’ language anxiety which can equip English language teachers with better knowledge about their students.

iii

البحث صملخ

وتر القلق لقد قام هذا البحث بتحليل د أجري والت ى اللغوي وق ة في عل ا وطالب واحد وتسعين طالب

ذا البحث ویخص . ناطقين بها التعلم اللغة الانجليزیة لغير في الكلية ا ه روع ، منه ة ف ولا أ :ثلاث

م ، مهاأدائها وتعلّالطلبة في طرق مهارات اللغویة التي تخيفال، ا و حيث تجعله ر قلق وترا أآث ؟ ت

ا ، . اب الخوف وعواملها سبثانيا ، أ ين وثالث ة ب وتر القلق وب شعور الالعلاق ك ب و الت ائج ربط ذل نت

ى معلومات قد استخدمت ثلاث وسائل للح ل. النهائي في آخر الفصل الدراسي الامتحان صول عل

ل ومقاب نموذج عن وبيانات ٳرشادیة ، ى لة لل ٳستمارة التحلي ائج شخص والاشارة ٳل المرشحين نت

ائي ان النه ي الامتح ات ٳٍ. ف ات والبيان ق ن المعلوم ا القل ف لن دى تكش ة الطل ل م اللغ ي تعل ة ف ب

ة أ. الخوف عندهم ومدى ، ناطقين بهااللغير الانجليزیة ا المقابل تطرق ال مكن ت فهى بالشخص م

ى ٳ لل يبه تحلي ذلك شخص ن وآ د أ تكشف ع وف ل باب الخ ة . یهم س ي نهای ات ف وأوراق الامتحان

وم بالكشف ي تق ن الفصل الدراس ة ع دى العلاق ول م ة ح ة الانجليزی م اللغ ي تعل ة ف ق للطلب القل

د أ با ٨٨ ن النتيجة ٳ. الامتحان المطروحة ومستواههم من خلال نتائج ة ق ة من الطلب شارت لمائ

ى أنٳ ون ل م قلق ت ه واء آان ة س ة الانجليزی م اللغ ي تعل ة ف ة أو معتدل توى العالي ا أن. مس وغالب

د . ممارسة التطبيق و الناطقين بها في الالطلبة الانجليزیة لغير ة هي مشكلة رئيسة لدىالمحادث ولق

أقل وأدنى درجات على اب ، وهم الذین حصلواآتئعض الطلبة یشعرون بالقلق وایضا بنا أوجد

ات في امتحان ك معلومات وبيانات جمع ستخلص من ٳذن نستطيع ان ن . اتهم النهائي ا تل سين للمدرّ ه

نتفاع بها الا و ینبغي عليهم ، أساليب التدریس المفيدةناطقين بها أسلوبا من اللغير اللغة الانجليزیة

. للعلاج وترویحهم في تعلّم اللغة الانجليزیة بأحسن الوسيلة والآداء خاصة

iv

APPROVAL PAGE I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

……………………………………………… Zahariah Pilus Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

……………………………………………… Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

……………………………………………… Mohammad A. Quayum A. Salam Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Language Studies).

……………………………………………… Hazizan B. Md. Noon Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

v

DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mohd Hilmi Bin Hamzah Signature ………………………………...… Date ………………………...

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION

OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2007 by Mohd Hilmi Bin Hamzah. All rights reserved.

LANGUAGE ANXIETY AMONG FIRST-YEAR MALAY STUDENTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC COLLEGE: AN INVESTIGATION OF

L2 SKILLS, SOURCES OF ANXIETY, AND L2 PERFORMANCE No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Mohd Hilmi Bin Hamzah. …………………………… …………………………… Signature Date

vii

To my students, who keep me inspired.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of many: Asst. Prof Dr. Zahariah Pilus, Rosmelia Taib, Zulhazman Hamzah, the management of International Islamic College, the lecturers at the Centre for Languages, and the students of IIC. Grateful thanks to them for making the time and space.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………… Abstract in Arabic ………………………………………………………………….... Approval Page ………………………………………………………………………. Declaration Page …………………………………………………………………….. Copyright Page ……………………………………………………………………… Dedication …………………………………………………………………………… Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………….. List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………... List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………..………… Background …………………………………………………………………... Statement Of The Problem …………………………………………………... Research Questions …………………………………………………………... Objectives Of The Study …………………………………………………….. Significance Of The Study …………………………………………………… Thesis Organisation ………………………………………………………….. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………….……………. Introduction …………………………………………………………………... The Concept of Affect ……………………………………………………….. Conceptualisation of Language Anxiety …………………………………….. Measuring Anxiety-Provoking L2 Skills …………………………………….. Reading ……………..…………………………………………………... Listening …………..……………………………………………………. Speaking …………..……………………………………………………. Writing …………..……………………………………………………… Summary …………...…………………………………………………… Potential Sources of Languages Anxiety …………………………………….. Socio-Psychological Issues of Language Anxiety …………..………….. Learner/ Instructor Beliefs on Language Learning and Teaching ……… Instructor-Learner Interactions/ Classroom Procedures …………..……. Language Anxiety and L2 Performance ……………………………………... Summary ……………………………………………………………………... CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY …………………………………….……... Introduction …………………………………………………………………... Design of Study ……………………………………………………………… The Participants ……………………………………………………………… The Questionnaire ……………………………………………………………. Design Of The Questionnaire ………………………………………………... Procedure For Administering The Questionnaire ……………………………. The Interview ………………………………………………………………… Interview Sample …………………………………………………………….. Design Of The Interview ……………………………………………………..

ii iii iv v vi vii viii xii xiii 1 1 2 4 4 5 5 7 7 7 9 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 16 17 18 20 22 23 23 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31

x

Procedure For Conducting The Interview …………………………………… End-Of-Semester Examination Papers ………………………………………. Procedure For Assessing End-Of-Semester Exam Papers …………………… CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION……………...……………...... Introduction …………………………………………………………………... Research Question 1: Skills That Can Create Language Anxiety …………… Findings…..……………………………………………………………... Raw Scores of Each of the Students’ Language Anxiety ……….… Raw Scores of Each of the Statements in the Questionnaire ….…... Accumulated Raw Scores of Each L2 Skill ….……….…………… Discussion…..…………………………………………………………… Anxiety and Speaking ……………..…………………..…………... Anxiety and Grammar ……………..……………………..……….. Anxiety and Listening ……………..…………………………..…... Anxiety and Writing ……………..………………………………... Anxiety and Reading ……………..…………………………..…… Research Question 2: Potential Sources Of Language Anxiety ……………... The Six General Sources of Language Anxiety ………….…………….. Findings…...……………………………………………………….. Discussion….……..………………………………………………... Personal and Interpersonal Anxieties ……………..…..……... Learner Beliefs about Language Learning ……………..…..… Classroom Procedures ……………..…..…………………….. Language Testing ……………..…..………………………….. Instructor Beliefs about Language Learning ……………..….. Instructor-Learner Interaction ……………..…..……………... The Five Most Common Specific Sources of Language Anxiety …….... Findings………...………………………………………………….. Discussion…...……………………………………………………... Fear of Negative Social Evaluation ……………..…..……….. Fear of Failure ……………..…..……………………………... Perceived Proficiency ……………..…..……………………... Communication Apprehension ……………..…..……………. Competitiveness ……………..…..…………………………… Research Question 3: Relationship Between Language Anxiety and L2 Performance ……………………………………………………………… Findings……………………...………..………………………….……... General Relationship ………….…………………………………... Specific Relationship Between Anxiety Groups and End-of- Semester Exam ………….………………………………………… High-Anxiety Group ………….……….……..………………. Average-Anxiety Group ……..………………..……………... Low-Anxiety Group ……………..…..……………………….. Discussion…...……..……………………………………………………. Summary ……………………………………………………………………... CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ……………………………………….………… Summary of the Study………………………………………………………... Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………………...

32 33 33 35 35 36 36 37 39 44 45 46 47 48 49 51 52 53 53 53 54 54 55 56 57 57 58 58 59 59 61 61 62 63 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 69 70 71 71 72

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Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………… Recommendations for Future Research………………………………………. BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………… APPENDIX I: Results of End-Of-Semester Exam (Semester 1, 2006/2007)……….. APPENDIX II: Questionnaire ………………………………………………………. APPENDIX III: Results Of English Placement Assessment ……………………….. APPENDIX IV: Interview Schedule ………………………………………………... APPENDIX V: Pre-Interview Survey ………………………………………………. APPENDIX VI: Interview Transcriptions …………………………………………... APPENDIX VII: Question Paper (Diploma English 1)End-Of-Semester Exam (Semester 2, 2007/2006) …………………………………………………………….. APPENDIX VIII: Course Outline …………………………………………………... APPENDIX IX: Results of End-of-Semester Exam (Semester 2, 2006/2007) ……...

74 74 76 81 82 86 87 92 95 128 140 142

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1

3.1

3.2

3.3

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

Young’s Six General Sources of Language Anxiety Instruments and Participants The Breakdown of Statements in the Questionnaire Number of Students in Each Section of English Classes Range of Scores of the Students’ Language Anxiety Range of Scores of the Statements Mean and SD of Each Statement in the Questionnaire Range of Scores of the L2 Skills Correlations, Means and Standard Deviations of the Study’s Variables Correlations, Means and Standard Deviations of the Study’s Variables for High-Anxiety Group Correlations, Means and Standard Deviations of the Study’s Variables for Average-Anxiety Group Correlations, Means and Standard Deviations of the Study’s Variables for Low-Anxiety Group

20

24

27

29

38

41

42

45

66

67

68

68

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

Distribution of the Raw Scores of the Students’ Language Anxiety The percentage of Students Who Experienced the Different Levels of Anxiety Distribution of the Raw Scores of Each Statement Responses from Students for Statement 1 of the Questionnaire Responses from Students for Statement 24 of the Questionnaire Distribution of Accumulated Raw Scores of Each L2 Skill Frequency of Occurrence of the Six General Sources of Language Anxiety Five Most Frequently Cited Specific Sources of Language Anxiety

38

39

41

43

43

45

54

59

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

In Malaysia, English language plays a central role in many important aspects of the

society. It is not only the language of science and technology, but also the tool of

inter-cultural and cross-cultural communication. English is paramount in preparing

Malaysia for future advancement, as clearly laid out by the government in its

aspiration for Vision 2020. Malaysian society, generally, has accepted the fact that

English is a vital tool in communication. For example, the emergence of English-

medium newspapers and radio stations prove such influence of English among the

society.

In schools, English has been taught as a second language for students since

primary one. Most Malaysian students receive at least eleven to thirteen years of

English language learning before enrolling into any tertiary-level institutions. All the

major examinations in the country, such as Primary School Assessment Test (UPSR),

Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR) and Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM),

include English as one of the compulsory subjects which the students need to pass.

The fact that Mathematics and Science are currently taught in English for secondary

students conveys a strong message to the public that English is crucial in order to

attain academic achievements.

In higher learning institutions, the use of English has become more significant

and demanding. It has been the principal language of education. For many private

and public universities, English is a subject in the curriculum as well as the main

medium of instruction. Most of the established institutions opt for English-medium

2

instructions, while others still tolerate bilingualism. The academicians, students and

administrators are expected to have some degree of English proficiency. To illustrate,

the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) has been a full English-medium

university since its establishment in 1983. All students have to meet the standard

requirement for English before enrolling into the university. To prepare students for

this environment, English is taught intensively at the pre-university level at the IIUM

Matriculation Centre. These efforts reflect the importance of English in higher

education.

Nonetheless, English is not the first language for many Malaysian students,

especially the Malays, as it is neither the language they have acquired and used from

young, nor the dominant language of communication among family and friends. For

students who do not have many opportunities to use English outside the university, the

process of learning English may be anxiety-arousing. This is experienced by many

including students of the International Islamic College (IIC), a subsidiary of IIUM.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Being a subsidiary of IIUM, IIC has been adopting the same requirements aspired by

IIUM. This implies that the IIC students also have to be proficient in English in order

to cope with their academic life. The fact that English is the primary medium of

instruction in the college creates a challenge for these students since most of them are

selected based on other criteria for admission, notwithstanding their inadequate

proficiency in English. The admission is based on minimum passes of four subjects,

with English not being the compulsory subject.

Due to this fact, the issue of the weak performance of Malay students in

English tests has been a concern among the educators and the college’s

3

administration. In the previous end-of-semester examination in Semester 1, 2006/

2007, more than 40% of the students taking first level of English obtained grade “D”

in their papers, while only 5% of them obtained an “A” (See Appendix I). Since the

college is English-medium, various efforts have been undertaken to improve the

situation, such as English Intensive Class Program organized by the Centre for

Languages, plus extra classes by individual English lecturers. Despite these efforts,

most of the students’ level of English proficiency remains unsatisfactory.

Having realized this situation, the variables that affect L2 learning and teaching

are worth examining. One of these is language anxiety. According to MacIntyre &

Gardner (1989), the possible existence of language anxiety in various skills of L2

learning can be one of the constant challenges to the teachers, as it can potentially

hamper optimal learning and teaching from taking place in the classroom.

Due to its impact on L2 learners, language anxiety has been continuously

studied. To examine this matter, studies have been conducted within the setting of

various educational institutions (Brantmeier, 2005; Hussein Elkhafaifi, 2005; 2004;

Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002, Casado, 2001). These studies have found that language

anxiety can arise from different L2 skills such as writing tasks, oral presentations,

listening activities, reading practices and grammar exercises. Some studies have also

identified the sources of language anxiety like fear of failure, perceived proficiency,

and competitiveness (Han, 2003; Young, 1991; Bailey, 1983). A relationship between

language anxiety and language performance has also been found (Sanchez-Herrero &

Sanchez, 1992). However, the questions of L2 skills that can cause language anxiety,

the sources of language anxiety and the relationship between language anxiety and L2

performance have not been fully answered. In order to have a better understanding of

the nature of language anxiety, this study examined three issues related to language

4

anxiety: what skills of L2 learning can create language anxiety among students; why

students feel anxious; and whether language anxiety affects students’ L2 performance,

in relation to students of IIC.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study specifically addresses the following three research questions:

1. Which L2 skill (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar) can

create language anxiety for IIC’s first-year Malay students?

2. What are the potential sources of their language anxiety?

3. What is the relationship between language anxiety and their L2

performance in end-of-semester examination, with specific focus on

grammar and reading skills?

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To identify a specific L2 skill in which IIC’s first-year Malay students feel

anxious.

2. To investigate the potential sources of language anxiety associated with a

particular L2 skill.

3. To find out the relationship between students’ level of language anxiety

and their L2 performance in end-of-semester examination, with specific

focus on grammar and reading skills.

5

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study will provide some insights to language teaching. Firstly,

English language teachers will be more aware of the L2 skills in which their students

feel anxious. When they are more aware of language anxiety, they will be more

prepared in conducting L2 activities in the classroom and more sensitive when dealing

with their students. Besides, they can identify ways to reduce anxiety and create an

environment which is conducive for L2 learning.

Besides helping language teachers, this study will help students improve their

learning styles. They will be aware of such socio-psychological constraints like

thoughts of failure, self-deprecating thoughts, or low self-esteem. Through this

awareness, they can develop their social and personal well-beings in their future

university life and working environment where English language is a vital skill to

survive.

This study will also assist the Centre for Languages in the planning of English

language teaching in the college. It can develop more comprehensive language

programmes and more practical teaching materials that are less anxiety-inducing.

Besides, classroom procedures can be improved that promote language learning. All

in all, understanding the nature of language anxiety can help teachers, students, and

hopefully the college.

1.6 THESIS ORGANISATION

The thesis will be divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the thesis topic

through problem statement, research questions, research objectives and the

significance of this study. Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature concerning

language anxiety and its related issues. The research methodology, such as the

6

subjects, procedures, and materials, will be presented in Chapter 3. This is followed

by the analysis and discussion of the findings in Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5

summarizes and concludes the research findings, presents some implications of the

study for ESL teaching and also recommendations for further studies.

7

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reviews the relevant literature on language anxiety to provide a

framework for this study. It is organised into six sections. The first section introduces

this chapter. The second section looks at the concept of affect in L2 learning. The

third section explores the conceptualisation of language anxiety. The fourth section is

focused on the relevant literature concerning the measurement of anxiety-provoking

L2 skills. The fifth section describes the potential sources of language anxiety. The

final section presents some studies on the relationship between language anxiety and

L2 performance.

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF AFFECT

To study language anxiety, it is fundamental to gain some understanding on the

concept of affect at the beginning of this literature review. This is due to the fact that

anxiety is only one of the many affective variables among other intrinsic learner

variables (Scovel, 1978). Affect was extensively discussed in the 1960s when

humanistic psychologists were concerned about the tendency for educational

institutions to focus on the cognitive aspects of learning only. For these psychologists,

both cognitive and affective variables are essential for more effective learning

(Arnold, 1999).

These two variables have been viewed as complementary towards one another,

not contradictory domains. According to Arnold (1999), “the affective side of

8

learning is not in opposition to the cognitive side” (p. 20). In fact, consideration for

both affective and cognitive variables would result in a better understanding of

learning process. Furthermore, Arnold adds that, “a broad understanding of affect in

language learning can lead to more effective language learning” (p. 21).

Krashen (1982) describes the relationship between affective variables and L2

learning in his Affective Filter Hypothesis. He claims that learners with high affective

filters will poorly receive any language input. This is because high affective filter

resists input from reaching the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This happens

when the learner, for example, lacks motivation or confidence. In this regard,

Krashen purports that the main foundation of individual differences in L2 learning is

the level of their affective filter. Language teaching, as entailed by Affective Filter

Hypothesis, should take into account the situation that promotes a lower filter.

Generally, affective variables are said to have an effect on L2 learning (Bailey,

1983). However, researchers find it troublesome to identify, control and measure

affective variables because those variables are, most of the time, intangible. As a

result, data are usually collected through subjective evaluations and assumptions.

Most of the studies categorize affective variables into three areas (Krashen, 1982):

1. Motivation: highly motivated learners tend to perform better in L2

learning

2. Self-confidence: self-confident learners generally do better in L2 learning

3. Anxiety: low-anxious learners are usually receptive to L2 learning

Despite being hard to characterize and assess, these variables are vital to the

affective domain and can either promote or hamper L2 learning. Anxiety, one of the

above-mentioned affective variables, is the focus in this study.

9

2.3 CONCEPTUALISATION OF LANGUAGE ANXIETY

Talking about anxiety per se, Arnold and Brown (1999) asserts that “anxiety is

possibly the affective factor that most pervasively obstructs the learning process”.

Spielberger (1983) defines anxiety as the subjective feelings of tension, state of

apprehension, nervousness and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic

nervous system caused by a vague fear that is indirectly associated with an object.

Anxiety is also described as an unavoidable and unpleasant experience which

manifests itself psychologically in the behaviour of the person experiencing it (Sieber,

O’Neil & Tobias, 1977).

According to Brown (1993), anxiety is related with other affects such as self-

esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, and plays an important role in L2 learning. Brown

claims that anxiety can be debilitating or facilitative. Debilitating anxiety hinders

performance, while on the other hand, facilitative anxiety assists performance.

In L2 learning, attention has been given to anxiety because of its considerable

effects on L2 learners (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986; Price, 1991). The initial

research, however, produced mixed and perplexing results regarding the relationship

between anxiety and L2 learning. Inconsistent conclusions were drawn as to the

effects of anxiety on L2 learning (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991; Young, 1991). This

complexity in determining a comprehensible relationship between anxiety and L2

learning is due to the fact that anxiety is “neither a simple nor well-understood

psychological construct” (Scovel, 1978). This variation in conceptualisation of

language anxiety further creates various types of instruments of anxiety measurement

(Price, 1991; Young, 1991).

Generally, anxiety has been divided into three different types, which are trait,

state and situation-specific anxieties (Spielberger, 1983; Young, 1986):