Source:

http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngprgrm/FourBasicLanguageSkills.htm

Language learning principles:

Summary

This book is a collection of language learning principles and guidelines for language learners. The general principles describe what the editors of the bookshelf hold to be important truths about second language acquisition. The guidelines give advice on what to do, based on the general principles. Many of the principles are linked to illustrative stories from the Language Learning Story database. These principles and guidelines can help language learners understand what to do to learn a language more effectively, and why they are doing what they are doing.

General language learning principles

Principles about language in generalLanguage is systematicLanguages have a sound systemIn some languages the tone system carries as much meaning as consonants and vowelsLanguages have a grammatical systemLanguages have a lexical systemThere is seldom a one-to-one correspondence between words in two languagesLanguage is used in discoursesPeople sometimes speak or write in monologuesLanguage is used interactively in conversationLanguage is meaningfulLanguage has referential meaningLanguage has functional meaningLanguage has social meaningLanguage has cultural meaningThere are variations in language due to regional, status, and stylistic differences Knowing a language involves control of integrated skillsLanguage skills may be productive or receptiveSome chunks of language are stored and used as wholesPeople use language creatively by recombining elementsLanguage knowledge may be intuitivePrinciples about learner characteristicsPeople are wired to learn languagesAptitude can speed up learningSome learners take on a different persona when speaking another languageSome learners resist sounding and acting differently

Some learners have a higher tolerance for ambiguity than othersLearners who use learning strategies effectively are more successfulLearning in your preferred learning style increases motivation and effectivenessPrinciples about learner attitudes and motivationMotivation affects the time spent learning a languageLearner attitudes affect motivationIf you expect to succeed, you will be more likely to succeedIf you have unreasonable expectations you may get discouragedCertain kinds of anxiety can interfere with your language learningFear of making mistakes can inhibit your learningToo much correction or criticism can inhibit your learningThe more positive you feel about the speakers of a language, the more motivation you will have to learn itIf you want to communicate with speakers of a language, you will be more motivated to learn itIf you need to use a language, you will be more motivated to learn itPrinciples about language learning situationsPeople learn better if their learning is encouraged by speakers of the languagePeople need to experience language used in context If speakers of two languages really want to communicate, they can do a lot with a little People have expectations about who speaks which languageCommunication tends to take the easiest pathPeople may resist speaking their language because they want to learn your language People often modify their speech when speaking to foreignersIn traditional cultures there may be only one right way to do somethingIt may be culturally inappropriate to be too direct in what you sayEvery culture has taboo topicsPrinciples about the language you are learningThe more the language you are learning is like one you already know, the more quickly you will learn itDifferences between two languages interfere when you try to learn themSome features of language are harder to learn than othersPrinciples about language acquisitionLanguage acquisition is a developmental processPeople learning a language build up their own systemsYou need lots of comprehensible inputYou can improve your sound discrimination, memory, and grammatical sensitivity skillsYou can compensate for deficiencies in some skillsThe sooner you can acquire the grammatical system of a language, the sooner you can use the language creativelyYou need chances to negotiate meaning with native speakersNative speakers often highly value good pronunciationRepetition helps things stickProducing language that sounds too good can be misleading The more meaningful exposure, the more you learnYou cannot rely on memorization alone

Memorized material can give a false impression of your proficiencyYour brain analyzes language whether you know it or notKnowing a language is different from knowing about a languageKnowing about a language may help you learn itBody language, gestures, and your face communicate as much as wordsLearners build up an auditory image of what the language sounds likeLanguage learners need to learn to understand and produce well-formed discoursesPredictable scripts aid comprehensionLanguage learners seem to hit plateausYou need exposure to language in a variety of social settingsOne language may interfere with anotherThe mind tends to filter out redundant materialProductive skills are harder than receptive skillsComprehensible output can become comprehensible inputKnowing the topic helps you interpret what you hear or readLinguistic context helps you understand the meaning of wordsKnowledge of a language may lie dormant, but be reactivated Multilingual people may associate languages with a particular setting or audience

Language Learning Strategies

by Carol J. Orwig

Complete Table of Contents

Summary

This book lists strategies language learners can use to make the language learning process successful for them. The strategies are listed by the main function they help to achieve and are linked to specific techniques that implement them. This information can help you become a more effective language learner by helping you plan your activities effectively.

Language learning strategies

What is a language learning strategy?

Comprehension strategies

Selective Attention strategy

Inference strategy

Top-down Processing strategy

Deduction strategy

Analysis strategy

Transfer strategy

Memory strategies

The Word Association strategy

The Visual Association strategy

Action Association strategy

The Grouping strategy

The Imagery strategy

The Contextualization strategy

Repetition strategy

Recombination strategy

The Structured Review strategy

Production strategies

Mimicry strategy

The Rehearsal strategy

Communication strategies

Circumlocution strategy

Message Adjustment strategy

The Code-switching strategy

Complete Table of Contents

Summary

This book contains descriptions of different levels of language proficiency identified by the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages, based on the five levels originally defined by the US Foreign Service Institute. ACTFL provides a detailed description of the kinds of communication functions, range of vocabulary, degree of accuracy and flexibility that learners of a language are able to control at different levels in each of the four major language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). These descriptions can be helpful in setting language learning goals, in planning learning activities and in evaluating proficiency.

The ACTFL guidelines

ACTFL guidelines: Listening

ACTFL guidelines: Listening--Novice

ACTFL guidelines: Listening--Intermediate

ACTFL guidelines: Listening--Advanced

ACTFL guidelines: Listening--Superior

ACTFL guidelines: Listening--Distinguished

ACTFL guidelines: Speaking

ACTFL guidelines: Speaking--Novice

ACTFL guidelines: Speaking--Intermediate

ACTFL guidelines: Speaking--Advanced

ACTFL guidelines: Speaking--Superior

ACTFL guidelines: Reading

ACTFL guidelines: Reading--Novice

ACTFL guidelines: Reading--Intermediate

ACTFL guidelines: Reading--Advanced

ACTFL guidelines: Reading--Superior

ACTFL guidelines: Reading--Distinguished

ACTFL guidelines: Writing

ACTFL guidelines: Writing--Novice

ACTFL guidelines: Writing--Intermediate

ACTFL guidelines: Writing--Advanced

ACTFL guidelines: Writing--Superior

Ways to Approach Language Learning

by Carol J. Orwig

Complete Table of Contents

Introduction to ways to approach language learning

Comprehension-driven language learning

Production-driven language learning

A brief survey of language learning methods

Situational Language Teaching

The Audio-lingual method

Communicative language teaching

Total Physical Response

The LAMP method

The Natural Approach

Approaches to language learning based on learning style

Eclectic approach to language learning

Four approaches to language learning based on learning style

The Relational approach to language learning

Guidelines for Stage 1 of the Relational approach

Guidelines for Stage 2 of the Relational approach

Guidelines for Stage 3 of the Relational approach

The Analytical approach to language learning

Guidelines for Stage 1 of the Analytical approach

Guidelines for Stage 2 of the Analytical approach

Guidelines for Stage 3 of the Analytical approach

The Structured approach to language learning

Guidelines for Stage 1 of the Structured approach

Guidelines for Stage 2 of the Structured approach

Guidelines for Stage 3 of the Structured approach

The Energetic approach to language learning

Guidelines for Stage 1 of the Energetic approach

Guidelines for Stage 2 of the Energetic approach

Guidelines for Stage 3 of the Energetic approach

Guidelines for language learners

Be proactiveTake advantage of everything that happens for language acquisitionUse selective attention to help your accuracyCombine formal and informal learningPut yourself in situations where you have to use the language you are learningEstablish that you want to speak the language you are learningBe creative in finding ways to practice the languageExpand the areas of language you can operate in Use a variety of strategies to help yourself learnTake opportunities to use the languageSet yourself achievable goalsFind ways to generate comprehensible inputHelp yourself understandUse analysis to help you understand how the language works

Get exposure to different kinds of discoursesUse media resourcesLook for reading material of the appropriate difficultyUse cognates, but use them carefullyDon't always try to understand every word you hearHelp yourself rememberApply what you have learned as soon as possibleMake up games that work like drillsMemorize things when you have toAssociate words with images to help you understand and remember themReinforce learning with actionsEncourage yourselfFind ways to relax and get away from the language for short breaksBelieve that you can learn a second languageFind ways to express your personalityAccept the fact that you sound like a child, even though you are an adultRemind yourself of your motivationFind nonthreatening people to talk withLook for situations you can participate in without pressure to speak a lotDo not let your desire to be correct keep you from talkingSet yourself up for small successesLearn to take risks wiselyExpect to make mistakes, and learn from themBe patient with yourself and persevereLearn to laugh at your mistakesWatch people's reactions to what you sayFind ways to explore your interests using the languageConsciously remind yourself of what you like about the culture, the people, the languageRemind yourself of what you are good atInteract with peopleEstablish reciprocal relationshipsAdapt to the culture to make relationships and learn the languageParticipate as fully as possible in the cultureListen to other learners talk with native speakersListen to people talking to each other in their languageTalk with children and listen to parents talking to their childrenMake a culture-friend who will tell you when you act or speak inappropriatelyTry to find a pen palLook for people who have time to talk with youFind good language role modelsListen to people of different regions and social statusMake friends with some monolingual speakersFind people who speak clearlyShow your interest in the language and cultureLearn appropriate varieties of the languageAsk for help and you will learn as well as make friends

Find ways to communicateUse all your resources to communicateCoin words to help you communicate, but be carefulRehearse what you want to say ahead of timeIf you do not know a word, circumlocuteLearn responses to keep the conversation goingUse memorized phrases at the beginning to get people to talk to youCheck out the meaning of words, before you add them to your active vocabularyGive and get feedback to check comprehension

Stages of language learning

Introduction

The Guidelines for a language and culture learning program refer to three stages of learning. The definitions of the three stages are taken from an unpublished paper by Greg Thomson, entitled Different Stages, Different Stuff and from personal communication with the author. Thomson actually identifies five stages of learning, but we have provided guidelines only for the first three stages, because it is assumed that people at the fourth and fifth stages will continue to learn as long as they are living and participating actively in another language and culture.

Correlation with ACTFL guidelines

According to Thomson, at each stage the learner's speaking ability is one stage behind comprehension, as described in the ACTFL Guidelines. Thus at the end of stage one, learners would be at ACTFL Intermediate in listening comprehension, but still at Novice level in Speaking ability. Similarly, at the end of stage two learners would be Advanced listeners, but Intermediate speakers; at the end of stage three Superior listeners, but Advanced speakers, and so on.

Thomson says that reading and writing skills become more relevant in stages two and three, and that the four language skills become more and more intermingled as proficiency increases. Thus speaking ability can be aided quite a lot by reading at stage four, and somewhat less at stages two and three.

In the Guidelines for a language and culture learning program we have separated the four language skills to allow for learners who only wish to work on certain skills; for example, reading. We also wanted to allow for approaches to language learning that emphasize speaking more from the beginning , as well as Thomson's comprehension-driven approach. For this reason, the levels of proficiency described for each skill at the different stages correspond more closely to the ACTFL descriptions than in Thomson's

description. Thus achieving stage one speaking objectives would probably produce a High Novice speaker; stage two objectives, a high intermediate speaker; and stage three objectives, an advanced plus speaker.

In this module group

Stage one of language learning Stage two of language learning Stage three of language learning Stage four of language learning

Stage one of language learning 

Discussion

 

In stage one, the learner can hardly understand anything at all, unless the speaker is talking about things the learner is observing, or unless the language being learned is closely related to some other language the learner knows. Through comprehension activities the learner can internalize some vocabulary and some grammatical structures, which will help the learner to understand more in stage two, when she or she knows enough to actually converse in a simple way.

 The result of getting through stage one is that the learner has acquired enough of the basic building blocks of the language to begin to function in real communication situations in a halting way.

 

In stage one there is very little real speaking ability, apart from some words and sentences that can be built on the comprehension exercises. In real communication situations the learner has to depend on memorized survival phrases to meet the most immediate needs.

Stage 2:Discussion  

In stage two input is comprehensible if the learner already knows the nonlinguistic content what he or she is hearing or if the communication situation is very predictable. There is more genuine two-way conversations with speakers of the language, although it takes a very patient native speaker to persevere in trying to communicate with a learner at this stage.

 

The result of getting through stage two well is quite a bit of “fluency” in comprehending language which uses a variety of structures in connected discourse, with an ever growing vocabulary.

 

In stage two, the learner is able to speak well in tasks that are fairly structured and predictable (as in the ACTFL Intermediate stage).

Stage 3:Discussion  

In stage three the learner can understand new information , but it still helps if that information is still specially geared to a new speaker's needs. This means that meanings must often be negotiated. In order to keep increasing in comprehension fluency during this stage, the key ingredient is coming to understand the background information that everyone in the culture knows about , and in particular, learning this information in connection with the language that is associated with them.

 

Because the learner can by now understand a lot of the linguistic content, it is possible to develop more ability for top-down processing of “new” information of the non-linguistic content. IF there is adequate input, the learner should be developing a sense of the different discourse genres and registers of speech.

 

The result of getting through stage three is that the learner is able to comprehend language related to a vast range of topics, situations and contexts, as well as easily process many social nuances.

 

In stage three, the learner has increasing facility to produce connected narrative discourse (as in the ACTFL Advanced stage).

Stage 4:Discussion  

In Stage Four the learner learns most from normal native-to-native speech as it occurs in the whole range of life experiences. The learner will understand most input, provided she attends to it. For example, native speakers may talk about the learner right in her presence, intending to tease her and get a reaction. She will certainly hear that they are talking, but may not in the deeper sense “hear” a thing they say, unless she is attending to it. Had she been attending to it, she would have understood it well. But as she was not attending to it, it was just unprocessed sound.

 

In Stage Four, the learner has increasing facility in abstract and hypothetical discussions (as in the ACTFL Superior stage).

our Learning Style and Language Learning

Complete table of contents

Summary This book contains modules about different learning style elements and the implications of different preferences for language learning. The book describes the implications of your sensory preference, brain dominance, learning type and personality type for the choice of language learning activities and approaches. This information helps you apply the results of the learning style inventories provided in the bookshelf to your language acquisition program.

Sections Here are the main sections of this book:

What is a learning style? The Sensory Preferences Inventory The Brain Dominance Inventory The Learning Type Test Your personality type Your overall learning style The Relational Learner The Analytical Learner The Structured Learner The Energetic Learner Implications of your learning style for language learning

Introduction

Language workers must plan many aspects of their program and most will involve learning and teaching activities. Both are affected by your learning style.

Knowing your learning style preferences can help you plan for activities that take advantage of your natural skills and inclinations.

You can use several learning style inventories to discover aspects of your learning style and create a learning style profile, summarizing and correlating your results.

Definition

A learning style is the unique collection of individual skills and preferences that affect how a person perceives, gathers, and processes information.

Learning style affects how a person

acts in a group learns participates in activities relates to others solves problems teaches, and works.

Benefits

Knowing your learning style will help you plan for learning tasks such as language learning.

When learning activities in your plan match your learning style preferences, you will find them satisfying and motivational. If possible, try to choose these kinds of activities.

When learning activities do not match your preferences, you are less likely to persevere. If you cannot avoid certain activities that do not match up well with your preferences, look for ways to modify the activities to take advantage of your preferences.

See also

How to discover your learning style and create a learning style profile

Introduction

The Language Learning bookshelf provides you with a set of learning style instruments to help you discover your style. The computer will keep track of the results of these instruments and will record them in a personalized learning style profile you can refer to later. The bookshelf also contains language learning tips based on the results of the instruments, and suggestions as to approaches to language learning that may fit your style.

Things to do

Here are the things to do to determine your learning style, using the tools in the Language Learning Bookshelf:

The Brain Dominance Inventory

Read the description of the Brain Dominance Inventory . Take the Brain Dominance Inventory .

The Learning Type Test

Read the description of the Learning Type Test . Take the Learning Type Test .

The Sensory Preference Inventory

Read the description of the Sensory Preference Inventory . Take the Sensory Preference Inventory .

Personality Type

Read about Your personality type . Decide on your Myers-Briggs Type and record it using Understanding Your Personality

Type

Learning Style Profile

Click on the Learning style profile to review the results of the instruments.

See also

Implications of your learning style for language learning Four approaches to language learning based on learning style

The Sensory Preferences Inventory

Introduction

The Sensory Preferences Inventory examines and reports your learning style in terms of the three primary senses you use for processing information:

Visual (uses eyes to see objects, pictures, or written forms) Auditory (uses ears to hear and mouth to speak) Tactile (uses hands to touch, to handle, or to do things)

Description

The Sensory Preferences Inventory consists of 24 preference statements. You indicate how well each statement describes you by responding with one of the following:

Almost always Usually Sometimes Seldom Almost never

Result: Your responses are scored and reported for each sense category. Degrees of Sense preference are as follows:

Very strong Strong Moderate Slight No

The program records the sensory preference results associated with your name for your future reference.

Taking the Inventory

Click on Sensory Preferences Inventory to take the inventory now. When you have finished the inventory, the computer will ask you to type in your name so that it can record your results along with the results of other inventories in your personal learning style profile. To review the results of the inventory at any time, click on Learning Style Profile .

To see how your personality type correlates with other learning style factors to make up your overall learning style:

See: Your overall learning style

See also

Your sensory preference and language learning How to discover your learning style and create a learning style profile

The Brain Dominance Inventory

Introduction

The Brain Dominance Inventory examines and reports your learning style in terms of which side of the brain you prefer to use for processing information.

Brain dominance theory is based on research showing that persons use different sides of their brains to process different kinds of information.

All persons use both sides of their brains holistically, but most individuals tend to prefer learning strategies associated with one side or the other. Such individuals are considered to be left-brain dominant or right-brain dominant. Some have about even preferences and are considered to have bilateral dominance.

The left side of the brain:

processes verbal, abstract, analytical information in a linear, sequential manner, looks at differences and contrasts, seeing small signs that represent the whole, and concerns itself with reasoning abilities such as math and language.

The right side of the brain:

processes non-verbal, concrete, and spatial information, looks at similarities in patterns, forming a whole picture, and processing parts in

relationship to the whole, and concerns itself with artistic abilities such as music and graphics.

Description

The brain dominance inventory consists of a series of 37 preference statements in two sections.

The statements appear in pairs, offering alternative ways of learning or doing things. You indicate your preference by clicking on the box next to the statement of your choice or by clicking on the box marked “Both”.

Result: Your responses are scored and reported as:

Right brain dominance Left brain dominance

Bilateral brain dominance

The program records the brain dominance results associated with your name. These results will be combined with the results of other inventories to report your overall learning style.

Taking the Inventory

Click on Brain Dominance Inventory to take the inventory now. When you have finished the inventory, the computer will ask you to type in your name so that it can record your results along with the results of other inventories in your personal learning style profile. To review the results of the inventory at any time, click on Learning Style Profile .

To see how your personality type correlates with other learning style factors to make up your overall learning style:

See: Your overall learning style

See also

Your brain dominance and language learning How to discover your learning style and create a learning style profile

The Learning Type Test

Introduction

The Learning Type Test examines and reports your learning style in terms of the following categories of how individuals gather and process information:

Meaning-oriented learners gather data concretely and process it reflectivelyo Use senses well to observe life and tend to sit back and consider what they

observe o Focus on people o Favorite question is “Why?”

Theory-oriented learners gather data abstractly and process it reflectivelyo Begin with a concept or idea and then think around it o Use minds well and think sequentially with logical precision o Favorite question is “What?”

Solution-oriented learners gather data abstractly and process it activelyo Start with a concept or idea, try it out and see if it works, and integrate theory

and practice o Focus on results and enjoy finding practical solutions to problems o Their favorite question is: “How does this work?”

Activity-oriented learners gather information concretely and process it activelyo Use their senses well to experience life and to apply this information to the

world around them o Strength is flexibility and ability to achieve results o Like freedom to act and can be fun-loving and adventurous

Description

The learning type test consists of 80 statements that describe beliefs and attitudes about ways to work, think, and interact with people.

You indicate your preferences by evaluating how well each statement describes you and by clicking on one of these responses:

Mostly true Mostly untrue Not sure

Result: The program reports your score on the 80 statements in terms of comparative numbers and descriptive words for each of the four learning types.

As a further evaluation, you read descriptions of the four types and indicate on a scale of 1 to 10 how you think you match each description.

Result: The program will display both scores together and ask you to make subjective adjustments in the results.

Finally, the program

gives you a graphic display of your learning type preferences records your results, and combines with the results of the other inventories to report your overall learning style.

Taking the Inventory

Click on Learning Type Test to take the inventory now. When you have finished the inventory, the computer will ask you to type in your name so that it can record your results along with the results of other inventories in your personal learning style profile. To review the results of the inventory at any time, click on Learning Style Profile.

To see how your personality type correlates with other learning style factors to make up your overall learning style:

See: Your overall learning style

See also

Your learning type and language learning How to discover your learning style and create a learning style profile

Your personality type

Introduction

The Myers-Briggs Type Inventory examines and reports your learning style in terms of personality types. The inventory is based on how individuals take in information, make decisions, and relate to people.

It is a copyrighted instrument that must be administered by someone with special training, so it is not included in LinguaLinks.

You may have already used the instrument in such a setting. If so, you will be able to enter your Myers-Briggs Type. This information will be combined with the results of other inventories to report your overall learning style.

Description

The Myers-Briggs Type Inventory identifies individual preferences in terms of the following pairs of opposing preferences:

Introvert--Extroverto Introverts think best by themselves by processing ideas in their own minds.

They can be tired out by too much contact with other people. o Extroverts, on the other hand, are usually energized by being with other people

and often think best if they can discuss their ideas.

Sensing--Intuitive o Sensing thinkers take in information sequentially through their senses and are

most interested in the concrete and the here-and-now.o Intuitive thinkers are interested in theories and possibilities and often make

good guesses without going through sequential steps.

Thinking--Feelingo People with a Thinking preference tend to make decisions objectively in a

logical and impartial way.o People with a Feeling preference tend to make decisions subjectively on the

basis of their feelings and perceived effects on other people.

Judging--Perceivingo People with a Judging preference like things to be clear and settled and strive

for closure.o People with a Perceiving preference like things to be open-ended as long as

possible.

Recording your Type

Click on Understanding Personality Type to record your type now. When you have recorded your personality type, the computer will ask you to type in your name so that it can record your results along with the results of other inventories in your personal learning style profile. To review the results of the inventory at any time, click on Learning Style Profile

To see how your personality type correlates with other learning style factors to make up your overall learning style:

See: Your overall learning style

See also

Your personality type and language learning How to discover your learning style and create a learning style profile

Your overall learning style

Introduction

Your overall learning style is a composite of the various learning style factors you have identified by taking the learning style instruments. Each person is unique, so it is impossible to predict exactly how your learning style preferences interact and which factors will be more important than others to you. There are also important facets of you as a person and as a learner not identified by these learning style instruments.

Nevertheless, certain learning style factors tend to co-occur more frequently than others. People who exhibit the classic correlations will exhibit markedly different overall learning styles.

On the other hand, you may very well not exhibit all the expected correlations. This is not a bad thing at all. It may mean that you are able to learn happily in a variety of ways and settings. Still it may be helpful to understand people with the more markedly different learning styles and how they learn best.

Common correlations

Here are some of the correlations that may occur to produce four very different overall learning styles. More detailed information about each type of learner follows.

Relational

Learner

Analytical

Learner

Structured

Learner

Energetic

Learner

LTT Meaning Oriented

Theory

Oriented

Solution Oriented

Activity

Oriented

Myers-Briggs NF NT SJ SP

Sensory Preference

Auditory/Visual Visual Visual/Tactile Tactile/Auditory

Brain Dominance Right Left Left Right

The Relational Learner

Introduction

A language learning program will be most effective if it takes into account the motivations, strengths and potential pitfalls of the learners. Whether you are organizing a program for other people or for yourself, this module can help you better understand how a Relational Learner learns best.

Motivations

Here are some things usually important to a Relational Learner:

A chance to develop relationships and understand people and ideas A chance to have variety A chance to help other people develop

A chance for personal development and growth A chance to understand underlying meanings

Strengths

Here are some strengths typical of the Relational Learner:

Is intuitive, thus good at grasping systems Is adaptable to different situations and cultures Is empathetic with others Is good at judging other people's reactions

Potential pitfalls

Here are some potential pitfalls of the Relational Learner:

May be overly sensitive to rejection May be so adaptable that personal identity is lost May be easily distressed by lack of harmony May have a short attention span if the subject or person does not engage interest

Preferred learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Relational Learner will probably enjoy:

Learning while living in a community of people who are accepting and open to relationships and to letting the learner be involved in their activities and lives

Learning activities that allow the learner to observe and understand people and their culture

Classroom setting that allows the learner to have lots of variety, creativity, group-work and communicative activities

Difficult learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Relational Learner will probably find difficult:

Possible cultural or psychological barriers to spending time with people; as when

people are naturally reserved or xenophobic Repetitive, unvarying tasks or activities

Language learning approach

To receive a description of an approach to language learning recommended for this type of learner, see: The Relational approach to language learning .

The Analytical Learner

Introduction

The motivations, strengths and potential pitfalls of an Analytical Learner are quite different from those of a Relational Learner, and a language learning program needs to take those differences into account. Whether you are organizing a program for other people or for yourself, this module can help you better understand how an Analytical Learner learns best.

Motivations

Here are some things usually important to an Analytical Learner:

Opportunities to work independently Opportunities to integrate data into theoretical models Opportunities to solve problems Opportunities for intellectual freedom

Strengths

Here are some strengths typical of the Analytical Learner:

Good analytical ability Intuition, allowing the grasp of overall systems Critical thinking which can help to solve problems Good self-evaluation

Potential pitfalls

Here are some potential pitfalls of the Analytical Learner:

May be unable to meet high personal standards and become discouraged May spend too much time at the desk or computer and not relate to people May be unwilling to speak because of fear of making mistakes or dislike of making

mistakes

May be less interested in the culture than in the structure of the language

Preferred learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Analytical Learner will probably enjoy:

Independent and self-paced work Intellectual stimulation involving problem-solving, reading and research A classroom where the teacher's intellectual ability and command of the subject matter

is perceived as superior and worthy of respect

Difficult learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Analytical Learner will probably find difficult:

Traditional classroom situations that call for doing things in a rote or mechanical way Classes that call for a lot of unrehearsed activities Unstructured and disorganized environments

Language learning approach

To receive a description of an approach to language learning recommended for this type of learner, see: The Analytical approach to language learning.

The Structured Learner

Introduction

The Structured Learner needs an organized and systematic approach to learning a language or anything else. Whether you are organizing a program for other people or for yourself, this module can help you better understand how a Structured Learner learns best.

Motivations

Here are some things usually important to a Structured Learner:

A systematic and organized approach to learning A chance to apply concepts in a practical way

Accuracy Hands-on activities Practical solutions to problems

Strengths

Here are some strengths typical of the Structured Learner:

Perseverance Good planning Thorough and painstaking Systematic and careful

Potential pitfalls

Here are some potential pitfalls of the Structured Learner:

May be more concerned with problems or tasks than with people May be so concerned with accuracy they are inhibited from talking May find learning a language in its natural context too chaotic for personal taste May block out input unable to control, thus making it difficult to catch the gist of a

conversation May have more difficulty achieving an authentic pronunciation than some other types

Preferred learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Structured Learner will probably enjoy:

A typical classroom setting, with a well-ordered syllabus, clearly presented materials, and clear instructions.

Hands-on activities Problem-solving activities Exercises and drills

Difficult Learning Environments

Here are some learning environments the Structured Learner will probably find difficult:

Unstructured, disorganized, or chaotic environments Situations with diverse activities and lots of interpersonal interaction Language learning in natural communication settings

Language learning approach

To receive a description of an approach to language learning recommended for this type of learner, see: The Structured approach to language learning.

The Energetic Learner

Introduction

While the Structured Learner thrives on order and predictability, the Energetic Learner needs freedom. Whether you are organizing a program for other people or for yourself, this module can help you better understand how an Energetic Learner learns best.

Motivations

Here are some things usually important to an Energetic Learner:

Lots of activity A chance to do things with people Variety Adventure and risk Personal involvement in activities Hands-on activities

Strengths

Here are some strengths typical of the Energetic Learner:

Adaptability Willingness to get out into the community and get involved Desire to interact with people Willingness to take risks

Potential pitfalls

Here are some potential pitfalls of the Energetic Learner:

May ignore accuracy May act too quickly

May be unwilling to take time to plan a program May be satisfied with speaking incorrectly, as long as the message gets across May have gaps in knowledge because of unsystematic language learning

Preferred Learning Environments

Here are some learning environments the Energetic Learner will probably enjoy:

Community language setting with opportunity for involvement in their activities Learning activities that can be linked to other enjoyable activities Classroom settings that allow for lots of variety, flexibility, action, groupwork, and field

trips

Difficult learning environments

Here are some learning environments the Energetic Learner will probably find difficult:

Traditional classroom situations that require spending time alone, doing repetitive exercises, and working with pencil and paper

Any program that is rigidly structured and does not allow for variety and spontaneity Possible cultural or psychological barriers to joining in activities with people; as when

people are naturally reserved or xenophobic

Language learning approach

To see a description of an approach to language learning recommended for this type of learner, see: The Energetic approach to language learning.

Implications of your learning style for language learning

Introduction

Your learning style is an important factor in how well you learn a second language. This is especially true when you are working in an unstructured situation and must plan and manage your own language learning activities.

Choosing activities that match your learning style preferences will help you

feel good about the language learning process

make faster progress, and stay motivated.

Prerequisites

Here is a prerequisite for taking advantage of your learning style for language learning:

You need to determine your learning style profile.

In this module group

Here are the modules on taking advantage of your learning style for language learning:

Your learning type and language learning Your brain dominance and language learning Your sensory preference and language learning Your personality type and language learning

See also

Four approaches to language learning based on learning style

Aspects of communicative competence

Introduction

Communicative competence is a concept introduced by Dell Hymes and discussed and redefined by many authors. Hymes' original idea was that speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes.

The modules in this section identify eight aspects of communicative competence. They are grouped together in two groups of four:

Linguistic aspects

Phonology and orthography Grammar Vocabulary Discourse (textual)

Pragmatic aspects

Functions Variations Interactional skills Cultural framework

In this module group

Linguistic aspects of communicative competence Pragmatic aspects of communicative competence

See also

Index to guidelines by aspect of competence in focus

Introduction  

Language educators have long used the concepts of four basic language skills:

Listening Speaking Reading Writing

The four basic skills are related to each other by two parameters:

the mode of communication: oral or written the direction of communication: receiving or producing the message

We may represent the relationships among the skills in the following chart:

Oral Written

Receptive Listening Reading

Productive Speaking Writing 

The following modules will briefly describe some characteristics of each basic skill.

In this module group

Listening comprehension skill Speaking skill Reading skill Writing skill

Listening comprehension skill

Introduction

Listening comprehension is the receptive skill in the oral mode. When we speak of listening what we really mean is listening and understanding what we hear.

In our first language, we have all the skills and background knowledge we need to understand what we hear, so we probably aren't even aware of how complex a process it is. Here we will briefly describe some of what is involved in learning to understand what we hear in a second language.

Listening Situations

There are two kinds of listening situations in which we find ourselves:

interactive, and non-interactive.

Interactive listening situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some non-interactive listening situations are listening to the radio, TV, films, lectures, or sermons. In such situations we usually don't have the opportunity to ask for clarification, slower speech or repetition.

Micro-skills

Richards (1983, cited in Omaggio, 1986, p. 126) proposes that the following are the micro-skills involved in understanding what someone says to us. The listener has to:

retain chunks of language in short-term memory discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language

recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone patterns, intonational contours. recognize reduced forms of words distinguish word boundaries recognize typical word-order patterns recognize vocabulary detect key words, such as those identifying topics and ideas guess meaning from context recognize grammatical word classes recognize basic syntactic patterns recognize cohesive devices detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, prepositions, and the like

Speaking skill 

Introduction

 Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.

Listening Situations

  There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:

 

interactive, partially interactive, and non-interactive.

 

Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being understood.

 Some few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast .

Micro-skills

  Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:

  pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.

use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation patterns of the language clearly enough so that people can understand what is said.

use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the

tense, case, or gender. put words together in correct word order. use vocabulary appropriately. use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the

relationship to the conversation partner. make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb,

object, by whatever means the language uses. make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information. make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what you are saying.

Reading skill 

Introduction

 

Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It can develop independently of listening and speaking skills, but often develops along with them, especially in societies with a highly-developed literary tradition. Reading can help build vocabulary that helps listening comprehension at the later stages, particularly.

Micro-skills

  Here are some of the micro-skills involved in reading. The reader has to:

 

decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or a syllabary, this means establishing a relationship between sounds and symbols. In a pictograph system, it means associating the meaning of the words with written symbols.

recognize vocabulary. pick out key words, such as those identifying topics and main ideas. figure out the meaning of the words, including unfamiliar vocabulary, from the

(written) context. recognize grammatical word classes: noun, adjective, etc. detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, prepositions, etc. recognize basic syntactic patterns. reconstruct and infer situations, goals and participants. use both knowledge of the world and lexical and grammatical cohesive devices to

make the foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer links and connections among the parts of the text.

get the main point or the most important information. distinguish the main idea from supporting details. adjust reading strategies to different reading purposes, such as skimming for main

ideas or studying in-depth.

Writing skill

 

Introduction

 

Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It, too, is more complicated than it seems at first, and often seems to be the hardest of the skills, even for native speakers of a language, since it involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way.

Micro-skills

  Here are some of the micro-skills involved in writing. The writer needs to:

 

use the orthography correctly, including the script, and spelling and punctuation conventions.

use the correct forms of words. This may mean using forms that express the right tense, or case or gender.

put words together in correct word order. use vocabulary correctly. use the style appropriate to the genre and audience. make the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, and object, clear to

the reader. make the main ideas distinct from supporting ideas or information. make the text coherent, so that other people can follow the development of the

ideas. judge how much background knowledge the audience has on the subject and

make clear what it is assumed they don't know.

Index to guidelines by stage and basic language skill

Introduction

This index allows you to navigate through the program guidelines according to which of the four basic language skills you are interested in looking at in each stage of the learning process.

Overview of guidelines

Click on the part you want to see of each stage of the following program guidelines:

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Listening Listening Listening

Speaking Speaking Speaking

Reading Reading Reading

Writing Writing Writing

In this module group

Here are the modules on guidelines indexed by stage and basic language skills:

Stage 1: Listening Stage 1: Speaking Stage 1: Reading Stage 1: Writing Stage 2: Listening Stage 2: Speaking Stage 2: Reading Stage 2: Writing Stage 3: Listening Stage 3: Speaking Stage 3: Reading Stage 3: Writing