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Outline:Outline:
•DefinitionsDefinitions
•ControversialControversial
•ClassificationsClassifications
Why bother about Why bother about learning strategy?learning strategy?
What is learning What is learning Strategy?Strategy?
Changes in paradigm:Changes in paradigm:
Teacher/teaching-Teacher/teaching-centeredcentered
toto
Learner/learning- Learner/learning-centeredcentered
Stern (1983):Stern (1983):
Strategy is general Strategy is general tendencies or overall tendencies or overall characteristics of the characteristics of the approach employed by the approach employed by the language learner, leaving language learner, leaving techniques to refer to techniques to refer to particular forms of particular forms of observable learning behavior.observable learning behavior.
Winstein (1986):Winstein (1986):
Learning strategies are Learning strategies are the behaviors and the behaviors and thoughts that a learner thoughts that a learner engages in during learning engages in during learning that are intended to that are intended to influence the learner’s influence the learner’s encoding process.encoding process.
Chamot (1987):Chamot (1987):
Learning strategies are Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that deliberate actions that students take in order to students take in order to facilitate the learning, facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic recall of both linguistic and content area and content area information.information.
Rubin (1987):Rubin (1987):
Learning strategies are Learning strategies are strategies which strategies which contribute to the contribute to the development of the development of the language system which language system which the learner constructs and the learner constructs and affect learning directly.affect learning directly.
Oxford (1990):Oxford (1990):
Language learning Language learning strategies are behaviors or strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use actions which learners use to make language learning to make language learning more successful, self-more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.directed and enjoyable.
Cohen (2006):Cohen (2006):Learners’ conscious and Learners’ conscious and semi-conscious thoughts semi-conscious thoughts and behaviors,and behaviors, to improve to improve the knowledge and the knowledge and understanding of L2, as understanding of L2, as well as strategies for using well as strategies for using the language that has the language that has been learned or for getting been learned or for getting around gaps in language around gaps in language proficiency. proficiency.
Controversial:Controversial:
• observable behavior or observable behavior or mental activities, or both?mental activities, or both?
• general tendency or general tendency or specific techniques?specific techniques?
Controversial:Controversial:
• conscious or unconscious?conscious or unconscious?
• direct or indirect?direct or indirect?
No Unified Answer yetNo Unified Answer yet
•StrategyStrategy
•MethodMethod
•techniquetechnique
Strategy:Strategy:
•CognitiveCognitive
•Learner Learner perspectiveperspective
•CommunicativeCommunicative
Classifications (Cohen 2006): Classifications (Cohen 2006):
By goalBy goal::
By functionBy function::
By skillBy skill::
OthersOthers
By goalBy goal: Language learning : Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language memorizing) or language use strategies (e.g., use strategies (e.g., retrieval, communicative, retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies). and cover strategies).
By functionBy function: Metacognitive, : Metacognitive, cognitive, socio-affective.cognitive, socio-affective.
By skillBy skill: listening, speaking, : listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.or translation strategies.
OtherOtherss:: Strategies by Strategies by proficiency levels,proficiency levels, by by specific specific culturescultures (i.e., learning the (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or language of a specific culture), or by by specific languages.specific languages.
Two-way classificationTwo-way classification
Language Learning StrategiesLanguage Learning Strategies
(a) identifying material to be learned, (a) identifying material to be learned,
(b) distinguishing it from other material, (b) distinguishing it from other material,
(c) grouping it for easier learning, (c) grouping it for easier learning,
(d) engaging in repeated contact with it, (d) engaging in repeated contact with it,
(e) formally committing it to memory (e) formally committing it to memory (e.g., using rote memory or (e.g., using rote memory or mnemonics).mnemonics).
Language use strategiesLanguage use strategies
a) rehearsal strategies – strategies for practicing target language structures (e.g., rehearsing “would you mind…” in a request to a teacher to be excused for the day).
b) retrieval strategies – strategies to call up language material from storage (e.g., calling up the correct verb in its appropriate tense).
c)c) communication strategiescommunication strategies – – are the verbal (or nonverbal) are the verbal (or nonverbal) first aid devices used to deal first aid devices used to deal with problems or break- with problems or break- downs in communication. downs in communication.
Communication strategies serve to:
steer conversation away from problematic areas,
express meaning in creative ways (e.g., by paraphrasing a word/concept),
create more time to think (e.g., by using fillers or other hesitation devices),
negotiate the difficult parts of the communication until everything is clear.
O’Malley & Chamot O’Malley & Chamot (1990)(1990)
MetacognitiveMetacognitive
CognitiveCognitive Social Social
Three-way classificationThree-way classification
Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies – –
the learning strategies of the learning strategies of identification, grouping, retention, identification, grouping, retention, and storage of language material, and storage of language material, as well as the language use as well as the language use strategies of retrieval, rehearsal, strategies of retrieval, rehearsal, and comprehension or production and comprehension or production of words, phrases, etc.of words, phrases, etc.
认知策略认知策略 ((cognitive)cognitive)
重复（重复（ repetitionrepetition ））
翻译（翻译（ translationtranslation ））
归类（归类（ groupinggrouping ））
记笔记（记笔记（ note-takingnote-taking ））
利用关键词（利用关键词（ key wordkey word ））
利 用 上 下 文 情 景利 用 上 下 文 情 景（（ contextualizationcontextualization ））
拓展（拓展（ elaborationelaboration ））
迁移（迁移（ transfertransfer ））
推测（推测（ inferencinginferencing ））
Metacognitive strategiesMetacognitive strategies – – processes learners consciously use to processes learners consciously use to
supervise or manage their language supervise or manage their language learning. learning.
allow learners to control their own allow learners to control their own cognition by planning what they will cognition by planning what they will do, checking how it is going, and do, checking how it is going, and then evaluating how it went.then evaluating how it went.
元认知策略元认知策略 ((Meta-cognitive)Meta-cognitive) ：：
提 前 准 备 （提 前 准 备 （ advance advance organizersorganizers ））
集 中 注 意 （集 中 注 意 （ directed directed attentionattention ））
选择注意（选择注意（ selective selective attentionattention ））
自 我 管 理 （自 我 管 理 （ self-self-managementmanagement ））
事 先 练 习 （事 先 练 习 （ advance advance preparationpreparation ））
自 我 监 控 （自 我 监 控 （ self-self-monitoringmonitoring ））
延 迟 表 达 （延 迟 表 达 （ delayed delayed productionproduction ））
自 我 评 价 （自 我 评 价 （ self-self-evaluationevaluation ））
Affective strategiesAffective strategies – –
strategies for regulating emotions, strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement. self-encouragement.
Social strategiesSocial strategies – –
strategies for interacting with strategies for interacting with other learners and with other learners and with native speakers for practice. native speakers for practice.
社交社交 // 情感策略情感策略 ((social/affective)social/affective)
协作（协作（ cooperationcooperation ））
提问澄清（提问澄清（ question forquestion for
clarificationclarification ））
求助（求助（ question for help)question for help)
Multi-way classification
Receptive skills -- listening and reading. Productive skills -- speaking and writing.vocabulary learning.Grammar.translation.
Assessing Assessing Your Your
StrategyStrategy
Thank YouThank You
