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STOCKHOLMS UNIVERSITETS INSTITUTIONför

GEOLOGISKA VETENSKAPERNo. 345

Late Quaternary Biostratigraphy and Paleoceanography

of the central Arctic Ocean

Daniela Hanslik

Stockholm 2011

Department of Geological SciencesStockholm University

106 91 StockholmSweden

© Daniela Hanslik, Stockholm 2011

ISBN: 978-91-7447-311-7

Cover: Sunset over the Greenland Sea © Daniela Hanslik

A dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Natural Sciences

Department of Geological Sciences

Stockholm University

106 91 Stockholm

Abstract

The central Arctic Ocean is one of the least explored deep sea regions and long biostratigraphic sediment records are sparse. The main focus of this thesis is the Arctic Ocean foraminiferal record and its application to reconstruct paleoceanographic variations and summer sea ice cover changes between late Quaternary interglacial periods. One of the studied cores was retrieved from the central Lomonosov Ridge Intra Basin. This core contains a relatively high-resolution biostratigraphic record spanning Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1–3, although with a hiatus encompassing the Last Glacial Maximum. Radiocarbon age calibrations in this core show a decreasing trend of high marine reservoir ages of about 1400 years during the last deglaciation to 700 years in the late Holocene. The cores from the Lomonosov Ridge off Greenland and the Morris Jesup Rise contain preserved calcareous microfossils further back in time than most previously studied central Arctic Ocean cores. The calcium content estimated by X-ray fluorescence scanning of these cores shows a distinct pattern of calcium rich intervals coinciding with peaks in foraminiferal abundance in the sediment record of MIS 1–7. The calcium peaks originate from material accumulated during interglacials, primarily through detrital carbonate and dolomite input from the decaying North American ice sheet and secondarily from biogenic material. Intervals of calcareous benthic foraminifera are found in pre MIS 7 sediments on both the southern Lomonosov Ridge and Morris Jesup Rise. Their assemblage composition and stable carbon isotope data suggest increased primary production and decreased summer sea ice cover compared to the Holocene central Arctic Ocean. This is also suggested for an interval with high abundance of the subpolar planktic foraminifera species Turborotalita quinqueloba on the southern Lomonosov Ridge with a proposed MIS 11 age.

Late Quaternary Biostratigraphy and Paleoceanography

of the central Arctic Ocean

Daniela Hanslik

This thesis consists of a summary and three papers refered to as Paper I – III. The summary also includes preliminary results and discussion dedicated for a paper in preparation.

Paper I – Hanslik, D., Jakobsson, M., Backman, J., Björck, S., Sellén, E., O’Regan, M., Fornaciari, E., Skog, G., 2010. Quaternary Arctic Ocean sea ice variations and radiocarbon reservoir age corrections. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 3430-3441. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

Paper II – Hanslik, D., Löwemark, L., Jakobsson, M. Biogenic and detrital carbonate rich intervals in central Arctic Ocean cores identified using X-Ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Submitted to Polar Research.

Paper III – Hanslik, D., Hermelin, O. Late Quaternary benthic foraminiferal assemblages from the central Arctic Ocean. Submitted to Marine Micropaleontology.

The work of this thesis has principally been carried out by the author. All manuscripts were predominantly written by me with the support, suggestions and discussion of Martin Jakobsson and Jan Backman. I conducted all work associated with foraminifera analyses. For Paper I the calcareous nannofossil data were provided by Jan Backman and Eliana Fornaciari and the correlation of physical properties by Emma Séllen and Matt O’Regan. Radiocarbon dating was done by Göran Skog and Svante Björk supported the discussion of the radiocarbon results. The XRF scanning for Paper II was conducted by Ludvig Löwemark, data analyses by me and the manuscript written by me in close collaboration with the co-authors. Otto Hermelin provided support and suggestions to the assemblage interpretations for Paper III. The amino acid racemization analyses discussed in the unpublished data of this thesis was performed by Darrel Kaufman and the results regarding these were discussed in personal communication with him.

Stockholm, June 2011

Daniela Hanslik

The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonders forever.

Jacques Yves Cousteau

Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Aim of this study 2

2. Background 3

2.1 Foraminifera 3

2.2 Sea ice 5

2.3 Oceanography 6

2.4 Seafloor – physiography 7

2.5 Quaternary biostratigraphy 8

2.6 Chronology and dating 8

3. Material and methods 9

3.1 Material 9

3. 2 Core and sample preparation 10

3.3 Core chronologies 11

3.4 Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes 12

3.5 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) 12

4. Results and Discussion 13

4.1 Paper I 13

4.2 Paper II 14

4.3 Paper III 16

4.4 Unpublished Data 17

5. Conclusions 25

6. Acknowledgements 26

7. References 26

1

1. Introduction

Biostratigraphy – or the use of fossils for correlation and relative age assignments of sediment sequences – is a widely used tool in the field of paleoceanography. In marine biostratigraphic studies microfossils are commonly used to constrain or construct age models as well as to reconstruct paleoceanographic conditions. One of the major marine calcareous microfossil groups in paleoceanographic studies is foraminifera, single-celled protists that live in the upper water column (planktic) and on the sea floor (benthic). For example, the global stable oxygen isotope (δ18O) record is built on analysis of calcareous benthic foraminifera to reconstruct the global ice volume and deep sea temperatures. This stacked record is the product of more than forty drill sites of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) and is the single most comprehensive paleoceanographic record encompassing the entire Cenozoic Era (Zachos et al., 2001). A higher resolution Pliocene to Pleistocene δ18O stack exists back to 5.3 million years ago (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) defining Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) for a common timescale and correlation. However, no such continuous δ18O record exists from the central Arctic Ocean because the occurrence of calcareous microfossils is sporadic at best in most available sediment cores. This has large consequences for Arctic Ocean paleoceanographic studies, in particular it has proven to be difficult to establish reliable age models for the retrieved cores without a continuous biostratigraphy (Backman et al., 2004).

The Arctic Ocean is special in many respects: it is the smallest of the World's Oceans, almost landlocked, covered by sea ice, wich is considered to be of major importance for the global climate. The effects of recent climate change are most pronounced in the Arctic region and are expected to be amplified compared to lower latitude areas (Anderson et al., 2006; IPCC, 2007; Serreze and

Francis, 2006), which also holds true for the paleorecord as recently shown by Miller et al. (2010). The importance of the high latitudes was also expressed by the fourth International Polar Year 2007-2008, with active involvent of more than 60 countries, thousands of scientists and numerous field campaigns and projects in both the Arctic and Antarctic region. Melting glaciers and ice sheets (ACIA, 2004; Krabill et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2006; Velicogna and Wahr, 2006), decreasing sea ice cover (Comiso et al., 2008; Kwok and Rothrock, 2009; Serreze et al., 2007; Stroeve et al., 2007; Wang and Overland, 2009), rising air temperatures (Johannessen et al., 2004; Overland and Wang, 2005), declining snow cover (ACIA, 2004), increasing precipitation (ACIA, 2004), rising river flows to the Arctic Ocean (ACIA, 2004) and thawing permafrost (Kuhry et al., 2009) are some evidence for the strong warming. A negative ice/snow albedo feedback through replacement of high reflective surfaces of snow and ice by vegetation and open ocean absorbing more energy causes further warming (Chapin et al., 2005; Perovich et al., 2008). A key indicator for climate change in the Arctic Oceans is the sea ice cover. It has a strong influence on albedo, ocean currents and marine life and is in turn sensitive to air and ocean temperature changes. The last three decades of satellite measurements show a decline in both the sea ice extent (Comiso et al., 2008; Rothrock et al., 1999) and also a loss of multi-year ice (Kwok et al., 2009; Kwok and Rothrock, 2009) which is faster than most climate model predictions (Stroeve et al., 2007). The upper ocean waters in the Arctic are also expected to be influenced by inflow of warmer Pacific and North Atlantic water. This has been demonstrated by models and observations in the last decades (Gerdes et al., 2003; Polyakov et al., 2005; Shimada et al., 2006; Woodgate et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 1998). Episodes of intensified North Atlantic water inflow to the Eurasian Basin during past interglacials have been demonstrated through the record of dinoflagellate cysts (Matthiessen et

Late Quaternary Biostratigraphy and Paleoceanographyof the central Arctic Ocean

Daniela Hanslik

Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden

2

al., 2001).In the search for new high resolution

paleoceanographic records, icebreaker expeditions during the last two decades have reached many previously unexplored areas of the Arctic Ocean and retrieved longer sediment cores than those taken from ice islands (e.g. T-3 or CESAR). This thesis is based primarily on studies of sediment cores retrieved during two of these expeditions; the Healy-Oden Trans-Arctic Expedition (HOTRAX) 2005 (Darby et al., 2005) and the Lomonosov Ridge off Greenland Expedition (LOMROG)

2007 (Jakobsson et al., 2008). HOTRAX was the first expedition to take sediment cores along a transect across the entire Arctic Ocean from Alaska to Svalbard while LOMROG was the first scientific icebreaker expedition to reach the more or less uninvestigated southern portion of the Lomonosov Ridge of Greenland.

1.1Aimofthisstudy

The overall aim of this study is to provide another piece to the puzzle of the Arctic’s

Figure 1 Map of the central Arctic Ocean (IBCAO, Jakobsson et al., 2008) with the main ridges and basins. Insert A shows the position of the LOMROG 07 cores and PS2200-2/5, insert B the central Lomonosov Ridge with the position of core HLY0503-18TC/JPC in the Intra Basin, as well as the key cores 96/12-1pc, PS2185 and ACEX on the ridge crest. The red track line indicates the HOTRAX expedition transect and the yellow track the line covered by the LOMROG expedition.

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Quaternary chronostratigraphy as well as paleoclimate and paleoceanography. Some of the studies included in this thesis use traditional chronostratigraphic tools, such as radiocarbon dating and biostratigraphy, which are applied, tested and improved using new core material (Papers I and III). Radiocarbon calibrations are addressed in Paper I. Only with good age models can realistic interpretations of the paleoceanographic record be made. Furthermore, methods such as the relative dating by amino acid racemization, will be employed (unpublished data, this thesis) as well as X-ray fluorescence scanning used for identification of calcium/microfossil rich intervals for core-to-core correlation and strategic

sub-sampling (Paper II). Foraminifera are used as the main proxy for paleoenvironmental interpretations of, for example the variability of the central Arctic Oceans sea ice cover and related ocean circulation changes through the warm stages of the late Quaternary.

2. Background

2.1Foraminifera

Foraminifera are single celled protists that inhabit all marine environments from the tropics to the polar regions. They live either as planktics

Figure 2 a) Mean sea ice extent at the end of the summer season (September) 1979-2000 (yellow) and the minimum September ice extent in 2007 (red); b) surface water circulation of the Beaufort Gyre (BG) and the Transpolar Drift (TPD) (white), the main inflow path of the North Atlantic water (red), the Pacific water inflow (yellow) and the intermediate water circulation (orange); c) Map with a sea level -120 m as experienced during peak glacial times; d) profile of water stratification and the most important water masses (adopted from Aargard et al., 1985 and Macdonald & Brewers, 1996).

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in the upper few hundred meters of the water column or as benthics on the seafl oor or within the upper few centimeters of the sediments. They build tests of calcium carbonate (benthics and all planktics) or by agglutination of, for example sand particles (only benthics). Calcareous foraminifera comprise a major component of deep sea sediments above the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), while agglutinated species can be preserved also in sedimentary environments that are undersaturated in carbonate. Benthic species range from the early Cambrian to the present, whereas planktic species appear in the Middle Jurassic. Since the pioneer works of d’Orbigny in 1826 and Brady’s illustrations in 1884 from the Challenger voyage, foraminifera have been widely used in paleoceanographic and paleoecological studies because specifi c species are sensitive to the oceanographic conditions they live in. For example, variations of fauna composition are interpreted to refl ect water properties such as salinity, temperature and in high latitudes sea ice conditions. In addition, benthic species are dependent on bottom substrate, oxygen

availability and surface water productivity.

Some of the fi rst (non Russian) work describing Arctic Ocean foraminiferal taxonomy and ecology are by Loeblich & Tappan (1953), Green (1960), Ericson (1964) and Herman (1964). The majority of benthic foraminiferal studies conducted in the Arctic Ocean have been focused on the more easily accessible shallow shelf areas and on analyses of living species, e.g. from the Kara Sea (Polyak et al., 2002), the Laptev Sea (Wollenburg and Kuhnt, 2000), the Beaufort Sea and Shelf (Scott et al., 2008b) and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (Vilks, 1969) (for more records see Paper III Table 1). Wollenburg and Mackensen (1998b) showed that the vertical distribution of living benthic foraminifera under the permanent ice cover is usually restricted to the uppermost centimeter of the sediment column as a consequence of the low supply of organic matter. The distribution of planktic foraminifera in the Arctic is largely infl uenced by surface water salinity and temperature, sea ice cover and food availability (Carstens and Wefer, 1992; Volkmann,

Plate 11 - Neogloboquadrina pachyderma sinistral; 2 - 3 Turborotalita quinqueloba, scale bars 50 μm; 4 - Buliminia aculeata; 5 - 6 Cassidulina neoteretis; 7 - 8 Epistominella exigua; 9 - 10 Pullenia bulloides; 11- 12 Oridorsalis tener. Scale bars = 100 μm, * = 50 μm.

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2000). The only planktic foraminifera considered to be a true polar species is Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (Ehrenberg), which not only is able to survive but also to reproduce in the high latitudes (Darling et al., 2004). This species' abundance distribution has been shown to vary depending on sea ice cover and water mass properties like temperature and salinity (Carstens et al., 1997; Carstens and Wefer, 1992). During some interglacials, the subpolar species Turborotalita quinqueloba (Natland) is present in sediment cores (Adler et al., 2009; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007), but it is thought to be transported into the Arctic Ocean by advection of warmer water from the Nordic Seas rather than actually living in the central Arctic (Bauch, 1994; Carstens and Wefer, 1992; Hebbeln et al., 1994). Turborotalita quinqueloba bears photosynthesizing symbionts and is therefore restricted to live in the photic zone (Bé, 1977; Hemleben et al., 1989) where light is not obstructed by a permanent ice cover.

The geographic distribution of planktic and benthic foraminifera is by and large influenced by the sea ice distribution, oceanography and seafloor physiography (Figure 1 and 2). These environmental parameters have varied greatly over the geological history. For example, the large sea level variations throughout the Quaternary glacial and interglacial cycles (Rabineau et al.,

2007) most likely exerted a critical influence on both paleoceanography and physiography because the Arctic’s huge shallow shelf areas more or less disappear during the glacial sea-level stands (Figure 2b). As the majority of acquired sediment cores from the central Arctic Ocean do not reach further back in time than the Quaternary, only this time frame will be considered in this thesis.

2.2Seaice

The Arctic Ocean is one of the least productive parts of the World's Oceans, one of the reasons being its most prominent feature: the sea ice cover (Sakshaug, 2004). The distribution and abundance of marine life in the Arctic Ocean is to a large extent dictated by the sea ice distribution and also acts as an agent for sediment transport from the shallow shelf areas to the deep ocean (Bischof, 2000). Most sea ice forms during the winter months over the Eurasian shelves and the ice drift generally follows the motion of the surface water circulation (Figure 2b). The surface circulation and, thus, sea ice drift, are characterized by the Beaufort Gyre and the Transpolar Drift (Kwok, 2008). The Transpolar Drift was first revealed by the drift of the ship Fram which was frozen into the pack ice during Fridtjof Nansen’s expedition between 1893 and 1896 (Nansen, 1900-1905).

Figure 3 Living planktic foraminiferal abundance in the Fram Strait in a profile from Greenland (left) to Svalbard at 78° and 80°N, adopted from Castens et al., 1997

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The thickest (>4 m) multi-year pack ice is located off northern Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (Rothrock et al., 2003). Modern satellite observations with monthly time series of sea ice extent, defined as the area with at least 15% ice coverage, are available since 1979 (Serreze et al., 2007). These data show that the ice extent declined for every month 1979-2006 with the most rapid decrease occurring during the end of the summer season in September (Serreze et al., 2007), reaching the so far lowest extension in 2007 (Figure 2a). Also the thickness of Arctic sea ice has decreased during the past few decades (Rothrock et al., 2008). These changes have a potentially large influence on the primary production during the summer season, resulting in a prolonged phytoplankton growing season, as was shown by Arrigo et al. (2008). The highest phytoplankton production is observed in the Chukchi Seas in regions with the least ice cover (55-80 %) and decreases considerably under the increasing ice cover of the central Arctic (Gosselin et al., 1997). The distribution of planktic foraminifera also depends on the ice cover. In a study from the Fram Strait at 80°N, it has been demonstrated that the abundance of living planktic foraminifera was greatest at the ice margin and thirty times less abundant under the ice (Carstens et al., 1997) (Figure 3). A transect in the Arctic Ocean from the Barents shelf through the Nansen Basin conducted in 1987 showed the highest concentration of N. pachyderma and T. quinqueloba between 81° and 83°N (Carstens & Wefer, 1992). Here the planktic foraminifera prefered the habitat depth below the pycnocline at ~100 m, whereas in the northern province between A similar correlation between 83° and 86°N most individuals were present in the colder and fresher upper 50 m of the water column. Also seen was a pronounced decrease in the percentage of subpolar specied towards the north. Correlation between the standing stock of living benthic foraminifera and food availability, which is higher in seasonally ice free areas, was demonstrated by Wollenburg and Mackensen (1998a).

Historic perspectives on the Arctic ice cover are given by several recently published papers. Cronin et al. (2010) reconstructed the sea ice history on a sea-ice dwelling ostracode (Acetabulastoma arcticum), suggesting minimal ice cover during the last deglacial (16-11 ka) and the early Holocene thermal maximum (11-5 ka) followed by an increasing ice cover during the middle to late parts of the Holocene. Similar sea ice changes

are also suggested by foraminiferal abundances presented in Paper I of this thesis. A long term sea ice perspective through the Cenozoic until the present day warming is given by Polyak et al. (2010), showing not only the sea ice variations but also including driftwood and terrestrial data from around the Arctic perimeter. Multibeam swath bathymetry and subbottom profiles of glaciogenic features with age constraints from sediment cores demonstrate that a large marine ice sheet complex existed in the Amerasian Arctic Ocean during MIS 6 (Jakobsson et al., 2010). The variability of Arctic Ocean sea ice over longer time periods must therefore be echoed in the abundance and composition of foraminifera as the primary production is affected. A complete sea ice lid over the central Arctic Ocean should not be a particularly foraminifera friendly environment.

2.3Oceanography

Planktic foraminifera in the Arctic Ocean live in the upper water masses between 50 and 200 m, but might change their depth habitats depending on sea ice cover, food supply (primary production) and water temperature (Carstens et al., 1997; Carstens and Wefer, 1992; Kohfeld et al., 1996; Volkmann, 2000). Inflowing North Atlantic water is also an agent for transport of sub-polar foraminifera species and coccolithophorids (Carstens and Wefer, 1992; Gard and Backman, 1990). Abundance changes of foraminifera or coccoliths in sediments can therefore be an indicator of variations in past Atlantic water inflow as well as changes in water mass characteristics. Though inflowing Pacific surface water through the shallow Bering Strait (53 m sill depth) enriches the Amerasian surface water with nutrients (Anderson et al., 2010), it does not seem to be a pathway for planktic foraminiferal migration (Darling et al., 2007). In order to properly interpret paleoceanographic conditions from either planktic or benthic foraminiferal studies, a good knowledge of the Arctic Ocean's present oceanography is required.

The central Arctic Ocean can be divided into three major water masses: upper waters extending from the surface to a depth of about 200 m, intermediate waters between ~200 and 800 m and deep waters below 800 m. These water masses can be further divided based on their more detailed temperature and salinity characteristics (Figure 2d).

The upper waters are composed of the

7

Polar Mixed Layer between 0 and 30-50 m and halocline water between 30-50 and 200 m, with temperatures close to freezing (-2 to 0°C) and low salinity (<34.4) (Ekwurzel et al., 2001). The surface water circulation is, as previously mentioned, characterized by two major current systems: the Transpolar Drift largely extending over the Eurasian Basin and flowing from the Siberian shelves to Fram Strait, and the mostly anticyclonic Beaufort Gyre over the Amerasian Basin (Figure 2b). The halocline waters act as a buffer, protecting the sea ice cover from the underlying warmer intermediate water.

The Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) or Atlantic layer at depth between about 200 m and 800 m is characterized by temperatures above 0°C (Schlosser et al., 1995). This water mass has its origin from inflowing relatively warm North Atlantic water that enters the Arctic Ocean as an extension of the North Atlantic-Norwegian Current through two branches (Figure 2b). The first branch flows west of Svalbard through the Fram Strait and continues further along the slope of the Barents-Kara Seas continental margin. The other flows across Barents Sea to St. Anna Trough where it joins the Fram Strait branch. The Barents Sea branch is colder and less saline than the Fram Strait branch (Rudels et al., 1994). The merged flow of the two branches continues eastwards from St. Anna Trough following the continental slope. It then separates into two major flow paths north of the New Siberian Island where the Lomonosov Ridge adjoins the continental margin. One path continues across the Lomonosov Ridge into the Amerasian Basin while the other re-circulates Atlantic water towards to the Fram Strait along the Eurasian side of the Lomonosov Ridge. Atlantic water circulates in a cyclonal pattern around the Amerasian Basin to eventually flow across the southern Lomonosov Ridge north of Greenland in passing the Morris Jesup Rise to exit in the western Fram Strait (Björk et al., 2010).

The Arctic Ocean deep water below 800 m is separated by the Lomonosov Ridge into the Eurasian Basin Deep Water (EBDW) and Canada Basin Deep Water (CBDW). The CBDW is slightly warmer and more saline (-0.3 to -0.5°C, >34.95) than the EBDW (-0.6 to -1.0°C, 34.93) (Cronin et al., 1995). Brine formation on the shelves adds cold and saline water to the deep water masses through sinking over the continental margin into the deep basins (Aagaard et al., 1985).

Deep water formation rate is a significant factor when considering isolation and ventilation

changes through the past. This rate is, in particular, influenced by changing sea level through glacial or interglacial times as this in turn changes the physiography of the Arctic Ocean, a topic further discussed below. Variation in isolation times are possible to capture in radiocarbon age differences between planktic and benthic foraminifera samples (Adkins and Boyle, 1997; Broecker et al., 2008).

2.4Seafloor–physiography

Benthic foraminifera live at all depths of the World's Oceans and the broad scale seafloor physiography is an important component of their habitat. The Arctic Ocean physiography is, however, from several points of view rather unique compared to the rest of the World's Ocean. First, it is surrounded by continents and relatively shallow shelves occupy ∼53 % of the total area, which is the proportionally largest shelf component for any of the World Oceans (Jakobsson, 2002). The shelves are narrow along the North American and Greenland side while broad on the Eurasian side with mean water depths between 50 and 250 m. Second, ridges make up ∼16 % of the Arctic Ocean area compared to 3 % of the entire World Ocean area (Jakobsson et al., 2003b). The most prominent Arctic Ocean ridge is the Lomonosov Ridge that stretches from the slope of the East Siberian Sea shelf via the North Pole to north of Ellesmere Island/Northern Greenland. This prominent ridge divides the Arctic Ocean into the Eurasian and Amerasian Basin. In the Eurasian Basin the slow spreading Gakkel Ridge further subdivides this basin into the Amundsen and Nansen Basin. The Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge separates the Canada and Makarov Basins on the Amerasian side. Two prominent features in the Eurasian Basin are located opposite to each other on both sides of the Fram Strait: the Morris Jesup Rise north of Greenland and the Yermak Plateau extending from Svalbard's north-eastern margin. The majority of key cores described from the central Arctic Ocean are from the elevated ridges and plateaus which have higher sedimentation rates, less pronounced carbonate dissolution and no influence of turbidites (Backman et al., 2004). Depths shallower than 1000 m, however, may have been affected by iceberg grounding during previous glacials, which is why specific caution must be taken in order to avoid disturbed stratigraphies (Jakobsson et al., 2010). In this thesis sediment cores from the central Lomonosov

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Ridge, the southern Lomonosov Ridge of Greenland and the Morris Jesup Rise located below the ice scoure depth have been analyzed.

Modern benthic foraminiferal communities living in the different physiographic regions are highly diverse (Osterman et al., 1999; Scott et al., 2008a; Wollenburg and Mackensen, 1998a). Some of the major differences are the often higher amount of agglutinated specimens in shelf areas and higher number of smaller sized calcareous species like Stetsonia horvathi and Bolivina arctica in the deep basins (Osterman et al., 1999; Scott and Vilks, 1991; Wollenburg and Mackensen, 1998a). The distribution of other benthic species seems to be influenced by a variety of factors. Some suggest that the benthic assemblage distribution is largely controlled by depth and water masses, for example Oridorsalis tener more abundant at water depths >1300 m whereas Cassidulina neoteretis is dominant in water depths under the influence of the AIW (Bergsten, 1994; Osterman et al., 1999). Others postulate that the distribution is mainly due to food availability ( Wollenburg and Mackensen, 1998a). Besides for paleoecological interpretations, some benthic foraminifera’s occurrence is also used for stratigraphy.

2.5Quaternarybiostratigraphy

Central Arctic Ocean biostratigraphic record of the Quaternary is characterized by low taxonomic diversity and discontinuous occurrences of microfossils (Spielhagen et al., 2004). Biosiliceous groups are absent in Quaternary sediments and calcareous micro- and nannofossils occur sporadically and often show signs of dissolution. The largest abundance of both planktic and benthic foraminifera is confined to interglacial and interstadial units while the sediment units representing glacial or deglacial periods are barren, leaving a discontinuous record (Figure 4). In most sediment cores from the Northwind Ridge (Poore et al., 1993), Mendeleev Ridge ( Adler et al., 2009; Polyak et al., 2004) and Lomonosov Ridge (Jakobsson et al., 2001; Spielhagen et al., 2004), the foraminifera records extend back to MIS 7 (Sellén et al., 2010). However, in some cores calcareous microfossils only occur back to MIS 3. This is shown in Paper I of this thesis where the cores retrieved from the small local basin in the Lomonosov Ridge near the North Pole, referred to as the “Intra Basin” by Björk et al. (2007), only have calcareous microfossils back

to MIS 3 (Figure 4). If foraminifera are present in sediments older than MIS 7 they are usually few in numbers and calcareous specimens show signs of dissolution. The benthic assemblage experiences a switch to agglutinated species at around MIS 7 to 9 (Cronin et al., 2008; Jakobsson et al., 2001). Some cores retrieved in the 1960-70s from the ice island T-3 on the Mendeleev Ridge (T3-67-3/-11/-12, Herman, 1974) were suggested to contain foraminifera in sediments older than MIS 7. However, these results are difficult to verify because the first established aged models are based on sedimentation rates that have lately been shown to need correction (Backman et al., 2004) and these first paleoceanographic interpretations must be re-evaluated (Sellén et al., 2010). This will be further discussed.

2.6Chronologyanddating

It is difficult to establish age models in central Arctic Ocean cores. The use of biostratigraphy is hampered by the short and discontinuous records of calcareous microfossils (foraminifera, ostracods, pteropods) and calcareous nannofossils. There is presently a high biological productivity in the wide shelf areas, which in combination with brine production during sea ice formation brings decay products to the deep central basin (Anderson et al., 2010). This causes low pH and an undersaturation of calcium carbonate already at intermediate depths. Furthermore, silica undersaturation prevents siliceous plankton species like diatoms and radiolarians for being preserved in the sediment record.

The use of stable oxygen as well as carbon isotopes in the central Arctic Ocean are limited by the discontinuous occurrences of calcareous microfossils, and the interpretation of the isotopic data are complicated by large amounts of riverine discharge and melt water events throughout the Quaternary (Spielhagen et al., 2004).

Another widely used relative dating method is paleomagnetics, the measurement of the orientation changes of magnetic grains in sediments. It has, however, recently been shown that paleomagnetic polarity changes measured in Arctic Oceans sediment cores not only follow past known changes in the Earth’s magnetic field, but also changes induced by oxidation processes (Channell and Xuan, 2009). During oxidation of the seafloor sediments, in the low sedimentation rate environment of the Arctic Ocean, Channell and Xuan (2009) propose that titanomagnetite is

9

transformed to titanomaghematite, causing self reversals that are not resolved using standard demagnetization techniques. Even if these self-reversals are not caused by polarity changes of the Earth’s magnetic field, they appear to have occurred in synchrony on a basin wide scale (Sellén et al., 2010). The consistent paleomagnetic pattern in Arctic Ocean sediment cores is probably the main reason that the first occurring magnetic polarity change down-core was interpreted to be the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal at 781 ka (Lourens et al., 2004), which introduced the interpretation of an extremely low sedimentation environment with rates of ~1mm per thousand years (ka) or even less (Clark et al., 1980).

The low sedimentation model was challenged by a study in the 1980s (Sejrup et al., 1984) using

amino acid epimerization to date foraminiferal tests, and from nannofossil studies in the northern North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean in the 1990s (Baumann, 1990; Gard, 1993; Gard and Backman, 1990), which indicated that the model had to be revised. Optically stimulated luminescence dating measured on core 96/24-1sel (Jakobsson et al., 2003a) and manganese cycles enriched during well ventilated bottom waters presented from core 96/12-1pc (Jakobsson et al., 2000) added material to the new cm/ka-scale. The new consensus with sedimentation rates on elevated ridges in the Eurasian Basin in the centimeter scale has resulted in re-interpretation of old cores (Spielhagen et al., 2004), and was summarized by Backman et al. (2004). This new chronology outside the range of the absolute dating from radiocarbon was also

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Figure 4 Key cores of the central Arctic Ocean (NP 26 from the Mendeleeve Ridge, Polyak et al., 2004, and 96/12-1pc from the Lomonosov Ridge, Jakobsson et al. 2001) with foraminiferal abundances correlated to the cores of this study HLY0503-18TC from the Lomonosov Ridge Intra Basin, LOMROG07-PC-04 from the southern Lomonosov Ridge and PC-08 from Morris Jesup Rise.

10

applied for the papers presented in this thesis.

3. Material and methods

3.1Material

The results presented in this thesis are based on analyses of sediment cores retrieved during two icebreaker expeditions to the central Arctic Ocean. The first was conducted in 2005 as a joint crossing of the Arctic Ocean basin between the US icebreaker USCGC Healy and the Swedish icebreaker Oden: the Healy-Oden Trans-Arctic Expedition (HOTRAX) 2005 (Darby et al., 2005; Darby et al., 2009). These icebreakers completed together a transect from the Bering Strait to Svalbard. The second expedition, referred to as the Lomonosov Ridge off Greenland (LOMROG) expedition, was carried out in 2007 with the Swedish icebreaker Oden assisted by the Russian nuclear icebreaker 50 Years of Victory (Jakobsson et al., 2008). Its primary focus was to reach the southernmost part of the Lomonosov Ridge north of Greenland in order to collect sediments cores and geophysical mapping data where no previous data existed due to the severe sea ice conditions.

The presented data in this thesis are primarily from three regions of the central Arctic Ocean: the central Lomonosov Ridge, the southern Lomonosov Ridge of Greenland and Morris Jesup Rise (Figure 1). The HOTRAX cores were retrieved with the Healy’s Jumbo Piston Core (JPC) system (Table 1). This system is capable of

taking up to 21 m long cores from the Healy and 3 m long associated trigger weight cores (TC). With the JPC-system, cores HLY0503-18TC/JPC were retrieved during the HOTRAX expedition from the central Lomonosov Ridge, in a local basin formed in the ridge’s morphology, hereafter referred to as the “Intra Basin” (Figure 1). The core has a total length of 12.55 m and the associated trigger weight core (TC) is 1.87 m. Microfossils and calcareous nannofossils are solely present in the upper 70 cm of the TC. Therefore, analyses of foraminifera, coccoliths and stable isotopes as well as radiocarbon dating are concentrated to the TC (Paper I).

During the LOMROG 2007 expedition all cores were retrieved using a 12 m long Stockholm University piston coring system which has an associated 1.5 m long trigger weight core. Cores LOMROG07-PC-04 and PC-08 were chosen to be studied in this thesis because they are the longest apparently undisturbed records from the southern Lomonosov Ridge and Morris Jesup Rise (Figure 1). Both cores were analyzed for their planktic and benthic foraminiferal assemblages (Paper III), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanning (Paper II), stable isotopes on N. pachyderma sinistral and C. neoteretis (unpublished data presented in this thesis) (Table 1). In addition, 14C dating was carried out on four planktic foraminiferal samples of core LOMROG07-PC-04 and five of core LOMROG07-PC-08 and amino acid racemization was analyzed on N. pachyderma sinistral in cores HLY0503-18TC and LOMROG07-PC-08 (this thesis).

Table 1 Summary of core details and analyses performed (X) on the main cores discussed in this thesis. P = planktic foraminifer, B = benthic foraminifera.

HLY0503-18TC/JPC LOMROG-PC-04 LOMROG-PC-08 Position 88°27’ N 146°34’E 86°42’N 53°46’W 85°19’ 14°52’W Water depth 2598 m 811 m 1038 m Core length 12 m 5.25 m 5.9 m Physical properties X X X Coarse size fraction X X X Planktic forams 63-125 µm

X

Planktic forams >125 µm

X X X

Benthic forams >125 µm

number identification identification

Stable isotopes P P + B P + B Radiocarbon dating P + B P P Amino acid racemization

X X

XRF X X

11

3.2Coreandsamplepreparation

The cores were logged directly after coring onboard the ships using a Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger. The core logger measured bulk density, p-wave velocity and magnetic susceptibility. In Paper I, the bulk density data of core HLY0503-18TC/JPC was used for core-to-core correlation. The split cores of the LOMROG expedition were scanned with the Itrax XRF core scanner prior to sub-sampling. Core HLY0503-18TC was sub-sampled in 2 cm thick slices, and LOMROG-PC-04 and PC-08 in 1 cm thick slices. The freeze dried samples were sieved with 63 µm sieves. The samples were dry sieved with 125 µm sieves for foraminiferal analyses and if necessary split to count 300 specimens of planktic and benthic foraminifera per sample. The benthic species were identified using the literature cited in Paper III. Digital light microscope and scanning electron microscope pictures of the most important species mentioned in this thesis are displayed on Plate 1. For an extended benthic foraminiferal list, see Paper III.

3.3Corechronologies

The chronology of cores HLY0503-18TC/JPC, LOMROG-PC-04 and PC-08 was established through radiocarbon dating, amino acid racemization and unique benthic foraminiferal marker events. Additional cores from the LOMROG expedition and their XRF results were used for correlation and are presented in Paper II.

3.3.1 Core-to-core correlation

Gamma density data from HLY0503-18TC/JPC were used to correlate this Intra Basin core with 96/12-1pc retrieved during the Arctic Ocean 96 expedition (Jakobsson et al., 2001), as well as with the cores from the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX) (Backman et al., 2006; O’Regan et al., 2008). Both the 96/12-1pc and ACEX sites are located on the crest of the Lomonosov Ridge further towards the Siberian margin from the Intra Basin between approximately 87°N and 88°N (Figure 1).

The planktic foraminiferal abundance curve of core LOMROG-PC-08 from Morris Jesup Rise was correlated to that of PS2200-2/5 (Spielhagen et al., 2004) from the Arctic 91 expedition (Fütterer, 1992). Some modifications were made to the chronology due to the benthic foraminiferal

markers (see chapter 3.3.2). LOMROG-PC-04 was correlated to PC-08 by the planktic foraminiferal abundances, benthic marker events and calcium intensity peaks measured with the Itrax X-ray fluorescence scanner (see chapter 3.5). These calcium intensity peaks were also used for correlation of the remaining LOMROG cores.

3.3.2 Biostratigraphic events

Benthic foraminiferal species that occur only in short stratigraphic intervals throughout the central Arctic Ocean are useful in biostratigraphy and core-to-core correlations. Among these species are Bulimina aculeata (Plate 1, no. 4) which occurs in MIS 5.1 (Backman et al., 2004; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007; Polyak et al., 2004), Epistominella exigua (Plate 1, no. 7, 8) described as contrained to MIS 5.5 (Jakobsson et al., 2001; Polyak et al., 2004), and Pullenia bulloides (Plate 1, no. 9, 10) as an indicator for MIS 7 (Backman et al., 2004; Jakobsson et al., 2001; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007). In Paper III we revise the occurrence of E. exigua with the new core material from the LOMROG expedition. The new data show that E. exigua is abundant also in older sediments (Figure 8), and that it has its last occurence in MIS 5.5.

Another biostratigraphic marker event is the cross-over in calcareous nannofossil abundance between Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa spp. This cross-over was originally suggested by Thierstein et al. (1977) to have occured in MIS 5.2 to 5.1 in lower latitudes with time-transgression towards younger ages in higher latitudes (MIS 4). New Arctic Ocean core material made a more precise placement in the upper part of MIS 3 possible (Backman et al., 2009) (Figure 5).

3.3.3 Radiocarbon dating and calibration

Radiocarbon dating is a frequently used method to date late Quaternary sediments, but large uncertainties concerning marine reservoir ages make calibration and therefore comparison to terrestrial records a challenge (Bondevik et al., 2006; Mangerud et al., 2006; Stuiver and Braziunas, 1993). This appears to be a particularly difficult case for the central Arctic Ocean where modeling experiments suggest reservoir ages of 1400 years in present day simulation runs and around 2500 years in glacial simulations for a surface water mass with inhibited gas exchange

12

with the atmosphere and water mixing under the sea ice cover (Butzin et al., 2005, pers. com. 2008). This approach to receive and use reservoir age obtained by modeling for areas with no other constraints is addressed in Paper I. Radiocarbon dating was performed at the Lund University Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory with the single stage accelerator mass spectrometer (SSAMS), using sample volumes of 50-1000 μg C. In core HLY0503-18TC sixteen planktic foraminifera samples (using N. pachyderma) and six benthic foraminifera samples (using Cassidulina wuellerstorfi and mixed species samples were analyzed. Four samples were dated in core LOMROG-PC-04 and five in PC-08, using N. pachyderma. The results for the two LOMROG cores are shown in Table 2 and Figure 9 of this thesis. The radiocarbon dates of the HOTRAX core are one of the main topics discussed in Paper I. Differences in uncalibrated planktic to benthic ages derived from the same samples are used to suggest significant changes in ocean ventilation since the last deglaciation.

3.3.4 Amino Acid Racemization (AAR)

Amino acids undergo an interconversion (racemization) from the left (L – levo) chiral usual form in living organisms to a mixture of left and right (D – dextro) after death until a mixture of 50:50 is reached. This conversion is a function of time and temperature experienced by the fossil since burial. AAR is interpreted in terms of relative age and absolute dates can be inferred through calibration for a study area using samples of known age. AAR was first used in the Arctic Ocean in the 1980s, but the interpretation of the data was ambiguous. Sejrup et al. (1984) AAR measurements implied high sedimentation rates, against the low sedimentation rate theory (Clark et al., 1980), whereas Macko and Aksu (1986) suggested that their data supported the slow sedimentation. The two studies are based on the rate of isoleucine epimerization and were calibrated against dated samples from the North Atlantic. The shortcomings of this approach are, according to Kaufman et al. (2008), the temperature difference between the Arctic and the North Atlantic, analyses of single samples instead of replica and that isoleucine is not the ideal amino acid since it reacts more slowly and has a lower temporal resolution. In a new study by Kaufman et al. (2008), aspartic acid and glutamic acid were used which provide an enhanced age

resolution in low temperature regimens and are most abundant in foraminiferal protein. The results were calibrated against the new Arctic Ocean chronostratigraphic framework with radiocarbon ages and biostratigraphic marker events from the central Arctic.

The AAR samples of this study were analyzed at the Northern Arizona University by Darrell Kaufman on 50 individual tests of N. pachyderma sinistral per sample for 13 samples of core HLY0503-18TC and 21 samples of LOMROG-PC-08. To convert the measured D/L-rations of aspartic and glutamic acid results into ages, we used the age equation developed by Kaufman et al (2008) calibrated for the last 150 ka (Table 3).

3.4Stableoxygenandcarbonisotopes

Stable oxygen and carbon isotope analyses of planktic and benthic foraminifera were carried out on samples weighing ~100 μg and containing ca 20 specimens each of N. pachyderma and C. neoteretis. Isotopic results have been shown to be influenced by different foraminifera morphotypes (Healy-Williams, 1992), secondary calcite crusts (Volkmann and Mensch, 2001) and size fractions of N. pachyderma (Hillaire-Marcel et al., 2004). Therefore, mainly four-chambered, sinistral, encrusted quadrate specimens of the 125-250 μm size fraction were used for the analyses of 38 samples in core LOMROG07-PC-04 and 57 samples in PC-08, and 23 samples picked from the >150 μm fraction of core 18TC. The benthic isotope analyses were performed on the infaunal species C. neoteretis >125 μm, as this was the only benthic species represented throughout the LOMROG cores. Altogether, 87 samples in core LOMROG07-PC-04 and 49 samples in PC-08 were analyzed (Figures 9 and 10).

Oxygen and carbon isotopes were measured using a Finnigan MAT 252 mass spectrometer connected to a Kiel carbonate device at the Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University for core 18TC and at MARUM, University of Bremen, Germany, for the LOMROG cores. Oxygen and carbon isotopes were calibrated to the Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite standard (VPDB) at the Stockholm laboratory and the Solnhofen Limestone calibrated against NBS 19 as internal standard at MARUM and converted to conventional delta notation (δ13C and δ18O) (Coplen, 1996). Analytical precision is better than 0.1 ‰ for both δ13C and δ18O at Stockholm and the long-term standard deviation of the MARUM

13

internal standard is <0.05‰ for δ13C and <0.07‰ for δ18O.

3.5X-RayFluorescence(XRF)

The working halves of the LOMROG cores were measured with the Itrax XRF core scanner at Stockholm University core processing laboratory. A detailed description of the Itrax core scanner is provided by Croudace et al. (2006). Measurements were done with a molybdenum tube operated at 30 kV and 25 mA with a sampling resolution of 0.1 cm and a 4 second exposure time or 0.5 cm resolution and 20 second exposure time with data output in counts rather than element concentration. In this thesis the calcium counts (Ca) are the main focus. Ca counts were normalized aby incoherent and coherent scatterin and plotted with a running mean over 3 cm.

4. Results and Discussion

The following chapter presents a summary

of the main results and discussion of the printed Paper I on radiocarbon age corrections and sea ice variations, the submitted Paper II on the connection between XRF scanning results and microfossil rich intervals and the submitted Paper III on benthic biostratigraphic marker events and paleoceanographic interpretations on an extended benthic foraminiferal record. Also presented are unpublished results intended for an additional manuscript on morphological differences in Turborotalita quinqueloba, as a possible new chronostratigraphic marker, stable oxygen and carbon isotope data, and amino acid racemization as a potential dating method beyond the range of radiocarbon ages.

4.1PaperI

Quaternary Arctic Ocean sea ice variations and radiocarbon reservoir age corrections, 2010, QSR

This paper is focused on the 1.87 m long sediment core HLY0503 - 18TC retrieved from 2598 m water depth in the Intra Basin formed in

Figure 5 A – Planktic and benthic foraminiferal abundance (>125 µm) with radiocarbon ages (uncalibrated), B – relative abundance of calcareous nannofossils and C – number of coccolith per 1.24mm2 .

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the central Lomonosov Ridge. Paleoceanographic variations in the central Arctic Ocean are interpreted from planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils with specifi c emphasis on the Holocene evolution of the Arctic sea ice cover. In addition, Arctic Ocean marine radiocarbon reservoir ages are addressed and discussed. Over an interval of ca 58 cm, 22 radiocarbon dates were acquired from planktic and benthic foraminifera. These radiocarbon dates divide the core into two distinct parts with fi nite 14C ages in the upper part and infi nite ages in the lower (Figure 5). These 14C dates, together with correlations between core HLY0503 - 18TC and other Lomonosov Ridge cores using measured sediment bulk density, show that the upper 65 cm of the sediments in the core were accumulated during MIS 1-3, but that a hiatus exists encompassing the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The ca 30 cm thick late glacial to Holocene sequence of core HLY0503 - 18TC suggests sedimentation rates ranging between 7.0 and 9.4 cm/ka for the late glacial and 1.3-3.3 cm/ka for the Holocene time interval. This indicates that the Intra Basin is an environment with higher sedimentation rates than most other previously cored areas near the North Pole. In order to compare this relatively high resolution central Arctic Ocean paleoceanographic record with results from ice cores and other terrestrial paleo-archives, a calibration of the radiocarbon ages must be carried out. We used four reservoir corrections (ΔR=0/300/650/1000) of which the fi rst is based on the global model ocean reservoir age as implemented in Marine04 (Hughen et al., 2004)

and the other three on numerical ocean circulation simulations by Butzin (2005). A reservoir age of 1400 years (ΔR=1000) for the Lateglacial (14.7 – 11.7 ka BP) is inferred assuming that the Younger Dryas cold event 11.7-12.8 ka (Muscheler et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2009) was a colder and less productive period refl ected in the abundance of foraminifera, while a reservoir of 700 years (ΔR=300) was adopted for the Holocene (11.7 ka BP – present) (Figure 6).

Interestingly, the MIS 3 interval is characterized by an exceptionally high abundance of foraminifera and about one order of magnitude higher nannofossil abundance compared to other Lomonosov Ridge cores (Backman et al., 2009)(Figure 5). This is proposed to be caused by different paleoceanographic conditions during MIS 3 compared to MIS 1. The varying micro- and nannofossil abundances are generally interpreted to refl ect changes in summer sea ice coverage and variations in infl ow of subpolar North Atlantic water. The radiocarbon calibration exercise suggests marine reservoir ages of 1400 years in the central Arctic Ocean, or even more, at least during the last deglaciation. Paired benthic-planktic radiocarbon dated foraminifera samples show a slow decrease in age difference between surface and bottom water from the late glacial (~1200 years) to the Holocene (~250 years) indicating progressive circulation and related ocean ventilation changes.

Figure 6 Radiocarbon calibration with different marine reservoir ages (ΔR=0, ΔR=300, ΔR=650, ΔR=1000) and placement of the Younger Dryas cold event in relation the foraminiferal abundance. Black boxes around the calibrated ages indicate the favored value for each time interval.

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1.2 ±0.161.6 ±0.192.0 ±0.212.4 ±0.232.7 ±0.07

6.6 ±0.217.0 ±0.207.4 ±0.157.7 ±0.177.2 ±0.08

8.2 ±0.208.7 ±0.269.1 ±0.259.4 ±0.228.8 ±0.09

10.0 ±0.3010.4 ±0.2210.9 ±0.2711.3 ±0.3310.2 ±0.10

11.6 ±0.4012.3 ±0.4012.7 ±0.2813.0 ±0.1711.4 ±0.11

12.4 ±0.3912.7 ±0.3313.1 ±0.1913.3 ±0.2511.9 ±0.12

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4.2PaperII

Biogenic and detrital rich intervals in central Arctic Ocean cores identified using X-Ray fluorescence scanning, submitted, Polar Research

A thorough analysis of calcareous microfossil content in a sediment core is time consuming and requires sometimes large amount of sediments that

may be difficult to reuse for other analyses. These are some of the reasons that microfossil studies are commonly concentrated to selected key cores. However, selecting cores is not always straight forward, particularly not in the central Arctic Ocean where calcium carbonate preservation varies both temporally and spatially (Backman et al., 2004). In this Paper II, we show that intervals with high calcium intensity measured by XRF scanning of cores from the central Arctic Ocean

Figure 7 Planktic (red) and benthic (blue) foraminiferal abundance (>125 µm) for cores LOMROG07-PC-04 and PC-08 and their correlation to core PS2200-2/5 (Spielhagen et al., 2004). The gray shaded areas show the calcium intensity measured with the Itrax XRF. For the biostratigraphy used benthic foraminiferal markers Bulimina aculeata (MIS 5.1), the last occurrence of Epistominella exigua (MIS 5.5) and Pullenia bulloides (MIS 7) are indicated by green bares. Also shown is the abundance peak of Turborotalita quinqueloba (>125 µm) in core PC-04.

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generally correlates well with intervals rich in calcareous microfossils. The XRF scanning thus provides a useful firsthand indication of the potential stratigraphic positions of calcareous microfossil-rich layers allowing strategic sub-sampling for microfossil analyses.

All cores retrieved during the LOMROG 2007 expedition were scanned with the Itrax XRF installed at Stockholm University core processing laboratory. The XRF results from six of the LOMROG 2007 cores are presented in Paper II. In addition, planktic and benthic foraminiferal abundance estimations were made in cores LOMROG07-PC-04 from the southern Lomonosov Ridge and LOMROG07-PC-08 from Morris Jesup Rise (Figure 1).

The element showing the most prominent pattern in the XRF results is calcium, which displays a distinct and almost cyclic pattern of high intensity peaks in the upper 2.5 to 3 m of all the cores in order to become more irregular and less pronounced further downcore (Figure 7). Even if some of the intensity peaks are linked to detrital carbonate deposited through the input of ice rafted debris, nearly all of the peaks coincide with relatively high abundance of calcareous microfossils .The Itrax-measurements of Ca are thus able to provide a relatively reliable first proxy for calcareous foraminiferal abundance variations and aid when correlating Arctic Ocean sediment cores from MIS 7 to the present. However, the Ca signal is significantly less clear below MIS 7 with more frequent lower intensity peaks occurring in the studied cores. The planktic foraminifera are few or absent in samples investigated below MIS 7. The mass of calcium by the continued presence of calcareous benthic foraminifera alone is apparently not large enough to be picked up by the XRF. The extremely low, or complete disappearance of, calcium carbonate below MIS 7 is characteristic for central Arctic Ocean cores (Backman et al., 2004).

In conclusion, the XRF detected calcium content in the studied LOMROG 2007 cores is a combination of biogenic and detrital calcium carbonate/dolomite input. However, the Itrax XRF scanning alone cannot be used to distinguish whether the carbonate is of biogenic origin or deposited as detrital carbonate from terrigenous sources. On the other hand, there seems to be a common paleoceanographic or geochemical mechanism behind the preservation of especially planktic foraminifera and the input of detrital carbonate.

4.3PaperIII

Late Quaternary benthic foraminiferal assemblages from the central Arctic Ocean, manuscript

This study continues from Paper II by presenting the benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of cores LOMROG-PC-04 and PC-08 from the southern Lomonosov Ridge and Morris Jesup Rise, respectively (Figure 1). Extending beyond MIS 7, the benthic foraminiferal records of these cores comprise some of the oldest calcareous microfossil records from the central Arctic Ocean. The benthic assemblages provide new insights into the late Quaternary Arctic Ocean paleoceanography and summer sea ice extent.

Five different benthic foraminiferal assemblages were identified in both cores. In addition, a sixth assemblage was identified downcore of assemblage five in core LOMROG-PC-04 (Figure 8). The most abundant species in all samples containing calcareous foraminifera is Cassidulina neoteretis, whereas the accessory species vary and determine the division into the different assemblages. The benthic species Bulimina aculeata, Epistominella exigua and Pullenia bulloides were observed in discrete intervals and used as chronological markers following previous studies (Backman et al., 2004; Jakobsson et al., 2001; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007; Polyak et al., 2004). However, our record shows that E. exigua, which previously has been used as an indicator for MIS 5.5 (Jakobsson et al., 2001; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007; Polyak et al., 2004), occurs in older sediment units and may therefore have its last occurrence in MIS 5.5. The biostratigraphic age indications together with radiocarbon dating suggest that sediments of MIS 2 age are absent or highly condensed in both studied cores. A hiatus encompassing MIS 2 was observed in core HLY0503-18TC studied in Paper I and has previously also been observed in other central Arctic Ocean cores (Polyak et al., 2004; Poore et al., 1999). Furthermore, our chronology suggests that MIS 6 sediments are nearly absent from core LOMROG-PC-04. This core was retrieved from the crest of the Lomonosov Ridge at about 800 m water depth. Large marine ice sheet complexes, including deep drafting ice shelves, appear to have existed during MIS 6 (Jakobsson et al., 2010). Geophysical mapping and coring show that deep drafting icebergs from these ice complexes have grounded and eroded physiographic features shallower than

17

Figure 8 Relative benthic foraminiferal abundance of the main species of core LOMROG07-PC-04. The for paleoceanographic interpretations important species (C. neoteretis (green) as the most abundant and O. tener (blue)) and biostratigraphic marker species (red) B. aculeata, E. exigua and P. bulloides are indicated.

approximately 1000 m present water depth all over the central Arctic Ocean, including the southern Lomonosov Ridge (Jakobsson et al., 2010). This may explain why no distinct sediment unit of MIS 6 age is found in core LOMROG-PC-04.

The benthic foraminiferal assemblages, in particular the occurrence of Oridorsalis tener, suggest paleoceanographic environments dominated by perennial sea ice cover from MIS 5.1 to the Holocene. O. tener is adapted to live in oligotroph conditions and commonly occurs in sea ice covered areas of the present central Arctic Ocean (Osterman et al., 1999; Wollenburg and Mackensen, 1998a). It should be noted that none of these two studied cores have millennial-scale age resolutions. This implies that it is not possible to resolve variations within the Holocene, which prevents a direct comparison with the results in Paper I. However, the appearance of E. exigua from MIS 5.5 and further downcore may indicate a general change in sea ice conditions. This species is described from North Atlantic studies as opportunistic and phytodetrital exploiting (Gooday, 1988, 1993). If E. exigua exhibits the same food preferences in the Arctic Ocean as in the North Atlantic, a higher primary production than at present is required. This suggests considerably less summer ice cover in the central Arctic Ocean during MIS 5.5 and may indicate the importance of

not only substrate and deep water mass properties but also surface water conditions for the benthic environment and species composition.

4.4Unpublisheddata

4.4.1 Turborotalita quinqueloba (Natland) - Morphological comparison between MIS 5 and 11

The presence of the subpolar species Turborotalita quinqueloba in the Arctic Ocean is considered to be due to the influx of warmer Atlantic water entering through the Fram Strait and across the Barents Sea (Carstens and Wefer, 1992; Volkmann, 2000). The species is present in areas with seasonally sea ice free conditions (Carstens and Wefer, 1992). In the Holocene to MIS 3 central Arctic Ocean sediments, T. quinqueloba is only present either in low numbers or not at all (Adler et al., 2009; Hanslik et al., 2010; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007). However, T. quinqueloba has commonly been observed in sediment of MIS 5 age, in the size fraction between 63 and 150 μm (Adler et al., 2009; Nørgaard-Pedersen et al., 2007).

Core LOMROG07-PC-04 from the southern Lomonosov Ridge was originally analyzed for the foraminiferal content in the >125 μm fraction.

Sed

imen

t dep

th (c

m)

C. neo

tereti

s

E. exig

ua

Cibicid

es sp

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Cibicid

oides

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lloide

s

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orme

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tica

Quinqu

elocu

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ulina

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leata

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aria

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18

In three of the four intervals with high planktic foraminiferal abundances, N. pachyderma is the major species. These intervals belong to MIS 1-3, 5.1 and 5.5 (Figure 7). The fourth interval of high planktic foraminiferal abundances occurs between 280 and 310 cm core depth. This interval is primarily characterized of T. quinqueloba. High relative abundance of T. quinqueloba is also present in the two peaks of MIS 5.1 and 5.5, but only in the 63-125 μm size fraction.

In addition to a difference in the test size of T. quinqueloba between these high abundance

intervals there are also some morphological differences. The appearance of T. quinqueloba in the upper, younger interval corresponds well to most pictures displayed in the literature (e.g. Kennett and Srinivasan, 1983), with remnants of spines, 4-5 chambers in the last whorl and about 50 % showing an elongated last chamber (Plate 2, fig. 1-2). The T. quinqueloba specimens in the lower older interval have remnants of spines, 4-5 chambers in the last whorl, but seem to have a less recrystallized surface and about 20-30 % of the specimens are kummerforms, specimens with

Plate 21 – 8 Turborotalita quinqueloba, scale bars 50 μm, 1 – elongated last chamber, PC-04, 120-121 cm, 63-125 μm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 10 μm); 2 – ’normal’, PC-04, 120-121 cm, 63-125 μm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 5 μm); 3 – smooth last chamber, PC-04, 288-289 cm, >125 μm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 20 μm); 4 – ’normal’, PC-04, 288-289 cm, >125 μm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 10 μm); 5 – ’normal’, PC-04, 288-289 cm; 6 – kummerform last chamber, PC-04, 288-289 cm; 7 – smooth last chamber, PC-08, 415-416 cm; 8 – smooth last chamber, PC-08, 415-416 cm; 9 – 10 Neogloboquadrina pachyderma sinistral, scale bars 50 μm, 9 – non-encrusted test, PC-04, 0-1 cm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 20 μm); 10 – slightly encrusted test, PC-04, 120-121 cm, 63-125 μm, close-up of surface structure (scale bare 5 μm).

2 41 3

6 7 8

109

5

19

a smaller and smooth last chamber without any spine remnants (Plate 2, fig. 3-8). T. quinqueloba in the smaller size fraction in this interval show the same pattern as the larger individuals. Specimens with an elongated last chamber and those displaying a kummerform are not observed in the same samples.

Similar morphological differences and an abundance peak of T. quinqueloba have previously been described from a core from the Mendeleev Ridge (Herman, 1974). There, the morphotype of T. quinqueloba is referred to as Globigerina exumbilicata n. sp. (Herman, 1974), later changed by Herman (1980) to Globigerina quinqueloba egelida following Cifelli and Smith (1970). Even though the chronostratigraphy published for this core is not in accordance with the one used today, the ”kummerform interval” may well be synchronous with the one observed at the southern Lomonosov Ridge. If we are able to find the kummerform of T. quinqueloba in more cores with constrained age models, this interval could be used as a chronostratigraphic marker.

The predominance of T. quinqueloba points towards a different paleoceanographic setting during this time period compared to present day conditions. The proposed time period for this dominance is MIS 11 (374 - 424 ka, (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005), a ~50 ka interglacial which showed a warmer climate on Greenland with a reduced ice sheet volume and development of a pine forest (de Vernal and Hillaire-Marcel, 2008).

The species T. quinqueloba is subpolar and prefers higher water temperatures than the central Arctic Ocean presently provides and is through the utilization of symbionts also dependent on sufficient light availability (Bé, 1977; Hemleben et al., 1989). The high abundance of T. quinqueloba in this material could indicate a period when T. quinqueloba lived and even reproduced in the area. This suggests reduced summer sea ice cover compared to present conditions, but most specimens show at the same time signs of stress, expressed through phenotypical differences relative to specimens present in MIS 5 or in the North Atlantic (Bauch, 1994). The high number of T. quinqueloba can also be a result of lower input of clastic sediments due to less sea ice that could transport sediment to this area during that time interval.

4.4.2 Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes

As described in previous chapters,

interpretations of the isotopic signal recorded by foraminifera are challenging and do not conform to other deep sea ocean basins. Therefore, mainly relative differences within the investigated cores are described here. In core LOMROG-PC-04 from the southern Lomonosov Ridge the δ18O values of the benthic record display less variability than the planktic record, and the benthic values in MIS 1 to 5 are slightly heavier (mean 4.6 ‰) compared to those further downcore (mean 4.2 ‰) (Figure 9). The δ13C values are lighter in the benthic record downcore from MIS 5 with an average of -0.5 ‰ compared to 0.6 in MIS 1 to 5.1. A larger difference in planktic to benthic δ13C values can be observed from MIS 5 downcore (>0.7 ‰) compared to relatively stable difference during MIS 1-3 (<0.5 ‰). A peak of high δ13C values and high δ18O can be seen in both the planktic and benthic record at around 12.5 cm (Figure 9). This peak has a 14C age of approximately 37 ka (Table 2).

The stable isotope record of core LOMROG-PC-08 from Morris Jesup Rise shows less pronounced changes which may, at least partly, result from a lower sample resolution (Figure 10). No clear trends are visible in the planktic and benthic δ18O records. Three peaks with lighter values of δ18O, one each in MIS 1, 5.1 and 5.5, can possiblybe seen as the result of warmer climate conditions or increased freshwater influx. The benthic δ13C record shows higher values from MIS 1 to MIS 5 with an average of 0.2 ‰ and lighter values averaging -0.5 ‰ below MIS 5 similar to the trend observed in core LOMROG-PC-04. In contrast to the latter core the δ13C difference between the planktic and benthic record is not visible. The heavy δ13C and heavy δ18O excursions observed in LOMROG-PC-04 can also be seen in PC-08 at 8.5 cm sediment depth (Figure 10). In this core the 14C age is 32.9 ka (Table 2).

The oxygen isotope record of deep sea benthic foraminifera has been used to build a composite record over the past 5 million years (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). Changes reflect the variation in continental ice volume and temperature through time, and Shackelton (1967) first identified the storage of light oxygen isotopes in continental ice sheets as the main factor for the global glacial to interglacial isotope variations. Studies of living planktic foraminifera, core top and late Quaternary sediments have shown that the oxygen isotope record in the Arctic Ocean is in addition to the continental ice volume to a large degree influenced by 18O depleted freshwater from meltwater and river runoff inflow (Bauch et

20

Figure 9 Stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopes measured on N. pachyderma sinistral (planktic) and C. neoteretis (benthic) for core LOMROG07-PC-04, and the isotopic difference between planktic and benthic values (last two plots to the right).

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ic /

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MIS 1 3 5.1

5.5 7 114

Sediment depth (cm)

21

Figure 10 Stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopes measured on N. pachyderma sinistral (planktic) and C. neoteretis (benthic) for core LOMROG07-PC-08, and the isotopic difference between planktic and benthic values (last two plots to the right).

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22

al., 1997; Spielhagen et al., 2004; Spielhagen and Erlenkeuser, 1994; Stein et al., 1994). The living depth of N. pachyderma is around 150 m in the southern Nansen Basin and around 80 m in the northern part (Carstens and Wefer, 1992). The average calcification depth is 100-200 m deeper than the average habitat depth (Bauch et al., 1997). This implies that N. pachyderma cannot be used for surface condition reconstructions, but records an integrated δ18O signal of the upper water column. It is therefore a good indicator for water mass change since it is not solely influenced by regional or seasonal near surface signals (Bauch et al., 1997). The δ18O values are variable in the Eurasian Basin, displaying a north-south gradient with lightest values towards the North Pole and highest in the southern Nansen Basin, associated with saline Atlantic water entering through Fram Strait (Spielhagen and Erlenkeuser, 1994). The δ18O changes are large and in contrast to low salinity changes which suggests an increasing influence by freshwater discharge towards the Lomonosov Ridge and Amerasian Basin as the main reason for the regional variations.

The modern Arctic Ocean shows low δ18O and high δ13C values (Spielhagen and Erlenkeuser, 1994). The high δ13C values are interpreted as evidence for well ventilated surface waters with a balanced input of CO2 by the atmosphere to CO2 fixation through primary production and export to the deep sea (Spielhagen and Erlenkeuser, 1994). The increased gradient between planktic and benthic samples in core LOMROG-PC-04 in the sediments from MIS 5.5 downcore may indicate relative δ13C enrichment in the upper water column and at the same time δ13C depletion in the bottom water as a product of increased export productivity. It is possible that the same gradient prevailed in the sediments older than

MIS 5, as suggested by the low benthic δ13C values, but a comparison is impossible due to the lack of planktic foraminifera in this interval. An often observed distinct δ13C minimum occurs together with δ18O depletion near 15.7 ka, and is considered to be the product of large amounts of meltwater released to the Arctic Ocean (Stein et al., 1994). This minimum has not been observed in Morris Jesup Rise core PS2200 (Stein et al., 1994), or in the cores of this study. Stein et al. (1994) concluded that the meltwater cover did not reach into this part of the central Arctic Ocean so early in the deglaciation phase.

4.4.3 Amino acid racemization

The long term thermal and geochemical stability of deep sea depositional environments are ideal for amino acid chronology. A calibrated numerical age equation has been developed that relates the extent of racemization of aspartic and glutamic acids on the basis of a least square linear regression (Kaufman et al., 2008). The equation is based on radiocarbon dating and correlation of cores from the Northwind, Mendeleev and Lomonosov ridges using lithological characteristics, foraminiferal abundances and benthic foraminiferal events and should apply to samples younger than 150 ka (Kaufman et al., 2008).The calculated AAR ages are in relatively good agreement with 14C ages throughout the range of 14C dating for both the cores from the central Lomonosov Ridge and Morris Jesup Rise (Figure 11, 12 and Table 3). The core from Morris Jesup Rise comprises sediment beyond the range of 14C dating where ages were inferred from benthic foraminifera marker events for MIS 5.1, 5.5 and 7 as described in chapter 3.3.2 of this thesis and correlation to core PS2200 with

Table 2 Radiocarbon ages from cores LOMROG07-PC-04 and PC-08 Core depth (cm) Lab no 14C age LOMROG-PC-04 0 – 1 LuS 9047 6625 ± 55 8 – 9 LuS 9046 31450 ± 300 16 – 17 LuS 9045 42050 ± 700 24 – 25 LuS 9044 *32600 ± 600 LOMROG-PC-08 0 – 0.5 LuS 9043 6720 ± 50 3 – 4 LuS 9042 14715 ± 90 7 – 8 LuS 9041 32950 ± 400 10 – 11 LuS 9040 37100 ± 5000 14 – 15 LuS 9039 > 47000 * The radiocarbon age is suspected to be too young due to low cathode current (too small sample volume).

23

Figure 11 Amino acid racemization results for core LOMROG07-PC-08 in relation to radiocarbon and estimated ages based on biostratigraphic markers and the different chronological interpretations depending on the dating method. D/L ratio is of glutamic acid (Glu) is plotted in red circles and aspartic acid (Asp) in blue squares.

Figure 12 Amino acid racemization results for core HLY0503-18TC in relation to calibrated radiocarbon ages and the different chronological interpretations depending on the dating method.D/L ratio is of glutamic acid (Glu) is plotted in red circles and aspartic acid (Asp) in blue squares.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.40 20 40 60

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B. aculeata

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P. bulloides

24

a previously published age model (Spielhagen et al., 2004). The AAR ages are in reasonable agreement with estimations based on other proxies until about 85 ka. Beyond about 85 ka, there is a progressively increasing age discrepancy between

calculated AAR ages and estimated ages based on the benthic foraminiferal events. For the interval estimated to belong to MIS 7 in core LOMROG-PC-08 the AAR age suggests this sequence to be 100 ka younger. Difficulties already experienced

14C age n D/L stdev D/L stdev Asp Glu average calib. (ka)

0.9 4 0.060 0.002 0.018 0.001 1.4 2.5 2.0 2.07.7 5 0.100 0.008 0.031 0.003 4.7 5.7 5.2 7.4

15.7 5 0.111 0.005 0.031 0.002 6.0 5.8 5.9 10.921.7 4 0.122 0.006 0.037 0.002 7.5 7.7 7.6 12.425.7 5 0.122 0.002 0.036 0.002 7.5 7.4 7.427.7 5 0.115 0.015 0.035 0.005 6.6 6.9 6.7 13.029.7 4 0.168 0.019 0.052 0.010 15.7 13.2 14.4 27.431.7 3 0.185 0.012 0.060 0.002 19.5 16.9 18.2 30.933.7 3 0.201 0.006 0.071 0.004 23.6 21.9 22.7 >3835.7 5 0.203 0.011 0.067 0.007 24.1 19.8 22.043.7 3 0.235 0.008 0.089 0.004 33.9 31.2 32.5 >4251.7 4 0.255 0.004 0.093 0.003 40.7 33.7 37.261.7 3 0.285 0.031 0.110 0.012 52.8 44.1 48.4

est. agen D/L stdev D/L stdev Asp Glu average (ka)

2.5 4 0.123 0.006 0.045 0.006 7.6 10.6 9.1 12.0**4.5 6 0.169 0.013 0.063 0.007 15.7 18.2 17.0 17.4**7.5 6 0.188 0.005 0.073 0.004 20.1 23.0 21.6 32.9*9.5 4 0.208 0.009 0.087 0.005 25.4 30.0 27.7 35.7**

11.5 6 0.243 0.027 0.095 0.017 36.5 34.6 35.6 38.6**14.5 3 0.237 0.003 0.101 0.006 34.3 38.6 36.5 >47*20.5 6 0.206 0.013 0.075 0.011 24.8 24.0 24.4 50.085.5 5 0.279 0.006 0.117 0.005 50.3 48.6 49.4 75.095.5 3 0.329 0.008 0.141 0.005 73.2 65.5 69.4 79.0

105.5 6 0.354 0.021 0.164 0.018 86.5 83.5 85.0 82.0115.5 5 0.343 0.026 0.167 0.013 80.4 85.9 83.1 85.0125.5 3 0.321 0.009 0.141 0.009 69.3 65.8 67.6 96.0140.5 3 0.377 0.029 0.165 0.022 100.1 84.6 92.3 119.0150.5 6 0.386 0.008 0.186 0.007 105.6 102.4 104.0 123.0160.5 5 0.350 0.017 0.151 0.012 84.6 73.3 79.0 127.0200.5 4 0.434 0.052 0.223 0.031 138.4 136.2 137.3245.5 4 0.406 0.018 0.201 0.007 118.6 115.1 116.8 200.0255.5 4 0.402 0.010 0.180 0.009 116.2 96.4 106.3 213.0265.5 3 0.439 0.010 0.224 0.020 142.1 137.8 140.0 226.0275.5 4 0.435 0.007 0.231 0.004 139.2 144.4 141.8 240.0

* 14C age ** age based on linear extrapolation of 14C ages

Table 3. Amino acid racemization results of aspartic and glumatic acid and their conversion to ages. For comparison the ages based on radiocarbon dating and estimated relative ages based on benthic foraminifera markers and correlation. n = number of replica.

Depth (cm)

Aspartic Acid Glutamic Acid AAR age (ka)

Depth (cm)

Aspartic Acid Glutamic Acid AAR age (ka)

HLY0503-18TC

LOMROG-PC-08

25

by Kaufman et al. (2008) is that the aspartic acid D/L-ratio seems to reach a plateau above 0.4 and the uncertainties in the chronologies of the used sediment cores. Assuming that the last occurrence of E. exigua is a chronostratigraphic marker for MIS 5.5, then the AAR results suggest that deepwater temperature at this site during MIS 5 was lower than at the other central Arctic Ocean sites studied previously. Alternatively, the D/L values indicate that the E. exigua occurrence is younger than elsewhere, closer to 105 ka. The D/L values from the P. bulloides marker event during MIS 7 are beyond the range of applicability of the existing age model of 150 ka (Kaufman et al., 2008). More work is needed to determine the temperature dependency of the rate of AAR in N. pachyderma and to assess the bottom-water history of core sites in the central Arctic Ocean.

5. Conclusions

Sediment cores from previously unsampled areas of the central Arctic Ocean have been analyzed in this thesis for the main purpose of reconstructing late Quaternary paleoceanographic conditions. The studied cores include one retrieved from the central Lomonosov Ridge Intra Basin. Radiocarbon dating of foraminifera in this core yield late glacial sedimentation rates as high as 7.0-9.4 cm/ka. These sedimentation rates are higher than previously known to exist anywhere in the central Arctic Ocean away from the continental shelves. The relatively high resolution of this Lomonosov Ridge core provides new insights into the central Arctic Ocean late glacial to Holocene paleoceanographic evolution, specifically concerning variations in sea ice cover. The other studied cores in this thesis are from a previously neither cored nor mapped part of the southern Lomonosov Ridge north of Greenland and from the little explored Morris Jesup Rise. These cores reveal calcareous foraminiferal assemblages in sediments older than MIS 7. The main conclusion from the core studies in this thesis are summarized in following points:

(1) Variations in calcareous foraminiferal and nannofossil abundance during MIS 1 and MIS 3, as recorded in the Lomonosov Ridge Intra Basin core, are proposed to be related to changes in central Arctic Ocean summer sea ice cover and inflow of subpolar North Atlantic water. Less summer sea ice likely caused more favorable conditions for planktic

and benthic foraminifera and thus higher productivity.

(2) Radiocarbon calibration, using modeled reservoir ages by Butzin (2005) and the microfossil abundance records from this study, suggests central Arctic Ocean reservoir ages of > 1400 years during the deglaciation after LGM. This high reservoir age positions the Younger Dryas cold event (11.7 – 12.8 ka) in the Lomonosov Ridge Intra Basin core to an interval of low foraminiferal abundance. Ventilation changes are recorded by a progressive decrease in planktic to benthic age difference from 1200 years during the deglaciation to 700 years in the mid Holocene and 250 in the late Holocene.

(3) Comparison between the calibrated radiocarbon ages and those derived from amino acid racemization in the Intra Basin core shows gradually larger discrepancies with older ages beginning from early Holocene.

(4) Calcium data generated by XRF-scanning of cores from the southern Lomonosov Ridge and Morris Jesup Rise show patterns of distinct high calcium intensity peaks separated by intervals where the calcium content in the sediment is close to zero, or below the XRF detection limit. This signal appears to be caused by the presence of both detrital carbonate/dolomite, deposited by ice rafting, and high planktic foraminiferal abundances. This suggests that while ice rafting of carbonate/dolomite debris occurred the paleoceanographic conditions were generally favorable for planktic foraminifera and also permitted calcium carbonate preservation in the sediments.

(5) The XRF calcium intensity peaks can be used as a proxy for core to core correlation as well as an aid to strategic sub-sampling for microfossil analyses.

(6) Benthic foraminiferal assemblages north of Greenland provide information about food supply and sea ice cover. The presence of the phytodetrital species Epistominella exigua in sediments from MIS 5.5 and older suggests increased primary production and less summer ice cover.

(7) The occurrence of the subpolar planktic foraminifera Turborotalita quinqueloba in an interval older than MIS 7 suggests

26

changed ocean circulation patterns compared to the modern setting and considerably less sea ice. Morphologic and size differences are visible among the specimens of this interval, which probably represents MIS 11, and the specimens observed in the smaller size fraction during MIS 5. The altered morphotype of T. quinqueloba could provide a new biostratigraphic and biochronologic marker.

(8) Stable carbon isotopes measured on the benthic foraminifer Cassidulina neoteretis show lighter values in the sediments from MIS 5.5 and older. A larger gradient of planktic to benthic δ13C values with 12C depletion in the surface and enrichment in the bottom waters suggest a more efficient export of primary productivity from the surface to the deep sea.

The combined results from the core studies in this thesis suggest that the paleoceanographic conditions in the central Arctic Ocean were generally characterized by a different regime prior to MIS 5. A transition towards more modern oceanographic conditions began during MIS 5.5. The older paleoceanographic regime is manifested by: 1) low detrital carbonate input, 2) absent to rare preserved planktic foraminifera, 3) occurrence of calcareous benthic foraminifera, 4) presence of the phytodetrital benthic species Epistominella exigua, 5) a peak of Turborotalita quinqueloba tentatively assigned an age of MIS 11, and 6) generally lower δ13C measured on benthic foraminifera.

Taken together, the biostratigraphy and studied proxies seems to suggest less summer sea ice cover and more bottom ventilation during the interglacial periods prior to, and to some extent during, MIS 5.

6. Acknowledgements

I can’t believe that this day has finally come. First, I have to thank the persons who have supported and encouraged my all my life, my parents. Therefore, I will continue in german for a while before I come back to the rest of you guys. Mama und Papa, ihr habt keine Ahnung wieviel ihr mir bedeutet. Ich bin euch so unendlich dankbar für alle Unterstützung auch wenn ich mich mit meinem Dickkopf mehr als einmal dagegen gewehrt habe. Danke, dass ihr wie niemand

anderes immer an mich geglaubt habt und immer da wahrt mit einem offenem Ohr für alle meine Problemchen und alle meine Glücksmomente.

I would like to thank my supervisor Martin Jakobsson and co-supervisor Jan Backman for giving me the great opportunity of this project and their support the writing this thesis and papers.

I am grateful to everyone assisting me with the lab work, especially Åsa Wallin for sieving all those samples and Klara Hajnal for the isotope analyses. Marianne Ahlbom and Katerina Karlsson for their patient help with the SEM and telephone support on Saturday mornings. Matteo Mellquist and Ludvig Löwemark for generating the XRF data, and Matteo for one day coming into your office and giving the inspiration for Paper II with one of his plots. And not to forget Heike Siegmund for watering my plants while I was away on expedition.

To my office mates and friends Emma, Benjamin and Moo, thanks for all the scientific and, almost more important, all other talks. Emma, do you remember how often we stood in front of the Arctic map in our office, pointing and wondering about ocean circulation? Thanks Beni for not getting frustrated when I asked for the tenth time how to save my figures and posters. And Moo always happy and concerned about how I felt. My proof readers and dear friends Verity and Johanna, thanks for bearing with me during these last month. I owe you big time.

Thanks to Otto Hermelin, Helen Coxall, Michal Kucera and Karen-Luise Knudsen for sharing their foraminiferal knowledge with me. And all the open doors of colleagues and friends at the department and all the people I forgot to mention.

Thanks to Team Awesome and everybody who was part of it for all the heated discussion and all the fun we had.

My PhD position was financed by the Department of Geological Sciences. Financial support for some analytical work was granted by the Ymer 80 foundation and the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (SSAG). I also gratefully received travel funding by Bert Bolin Climate Research School (BBCC), Stockholms Marine Research Centre (SMF), C.F. Liljevalch’s foundation, L&E Kinanders foundation and K & A Wallenberg foundation.

27

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