Therearecompe+ngtheoriesinspeechpercep+on:Bo#omUpProcessing:Stringingauditoryinforma+ontogethertomakewords,sentences.V.S.TopDownProcessing:Notpayinga=en+ontotheindividualsoundsbutratherthinkingofthewholesentencemeaningandfillinginthegapsbyusingseman+ccontext;Usefulinnoisysitua+onswhereinforma+onisdegradedduetocompe+ngnoiseUsingourtop–downprocessingwecanfillin“theblanks”forsitua+onswherewemaynothavealloftheinforma+on!Ex:TryingtolistentosomeoneinanoisyroomEx:Hangman-ChildrenandL2languageusersusemorebo=omupprocessingovertopdownprocessing.-Languageisaninterac+onofbo=omupandtopdowninforma+on

h=ps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray726_superior_temporal_gyrus.png

-TheSuperiorTemporalGyrusandtheThalamusareac+vatedinspeechprocessing.

Sounddiscrimina+onstudiessuchasWinkleretal.,1999foundthatnon-na+vespeakerswhoarefluentinbothlanguageshavespecificsounddiscrimina+ons,thisshowsthatsounddiscrimina+onishappeningatthehighestprocessinglevel

Speechoccursatvariouslevelsinthemotorsystem..•  InvoluntarySystem=lowerreflexives•  VoluntarySystem=highercontrolledInvoluntarySystem:•  Spinalreflexarc=automa+creflexivemovement;doesn’tneedtotravelallthewayto

thebrainbecausethereac+onshappensquicklywithnothinkinginvolved.•  EX:involvedintouchinghotpanandremovinghandquick.VoluntarySystem:•  Planning=Associa+onareasofmotorcortex(premotorareas,supplementarymotor

area(SMA),generalmotoracts.•  EX:raisingyourhandtoaskaques+on•  Execu@on&Control=Primarymotorarea(primarymotorcortex)andpyramidal/

extrapyramidaltractsTract=pathwayinbrain

h=p://www.aus+ncc.edu/rfofi/NursingRvw/PhysText/CNS.html

•  PremotorArea=Respondstocuesfromtheenvironmentinordertoini+ateamotorplan;respondstoEXTERNALs+mulus;regulatesandfinetunesgrossmotormovements.

EX:seeingafriendwalkby(s+mulus)andyousay“hi”(response)orseeing pizzaandgrabbingaslice

•  SupplementaryMotorArea=RespondstoINTERNALs+mulus/cues;controls

spontaneousmovements.

EX:goingtobathroomwhenyouwakeuporstretchingwhenyouwakeup

A.   PyramidalTracts=Putsthemotorac+onsinplace;controlmotorac+vity.Passesthroughpyramidsinthemedulla.

B.   ExtrapyramidalTracts=Malessurethemotoractisdoneright;controlsmotoractcontrol.Outsidethepyramidsinthemedulla.

C.   CerebellarPathway=Coordinatesmotoractstogether;cerebellummakessureyoucoordinateeverypartofthatact.EX:whenspeaking,youcoordinatear+culatorstospeak;coar+cula+on*

•  Allpyramidaltractsstartfromthecortexandgodownwards.Somebecomecranial

nervesandothersbecomespinalnerves.TheybecomeUMN’sorLMN’s.

h=p://www.lookfordiagnosis.com/mesh_info.php?term=Extrapyramidal+Tracts&lang=1

•  Allpyramidaltractsstartfromthecortexandgodownwards.Somebecomecranial

nervesandothersbecomespinalnerves.TheybecomeUMN’sorLMN’s.UMNs=Allneuronssendingaxonstothebrain,spinalcord,orbrainstemLMNs=Allneuronssendingaxonstothenerves(spinalorcranial)

Therearetwodifferentpyramidaltracts:1.   Cor@cospinaltract=Controlsskilledmovementsoflimbs,

hands,fingers.

2.   Cor@conucleartract=Controlsfinemotorskillssuchas

speech.

•  Cor@cospinalTract•  Agroupofaxonsthatextendfromthebraintothespinalcord,beginningat

thecortexofthebrain,andendingwiththeventralhornofthespinalcord•  LateralCor+cospinal

–  Beginsattheprimarymotorcortex(BA4),endsatthespinalcord–  Decussa+on:Medulla/spinalcordjuncture–  Func+on:Movementofthecontralaterallimbs

•  AnteriorCor+cospinal–  BeginsatthePrimary(BA4)andpremotor(BA6)cortex,endsattheCervicalandthoracic

spinalcord–  Decussa+on:none–  Func+on:Trunkmuscles

•  Coronaradiata•  Pons,cerebellarcollateralcircuits•  Pyramidsofthemedulla-decussa+ngatabout85-90%contralaterally:

–  Lateralcerebrospinaltract–  Anteriorcerebrospinaltract

•  Cor@conuclear(cor@cobublar)tract–  Beginsattheprimarymotorcortex(BA4),endsatthebrainstem–  Decussa+on:Medulla/spinalcordjuncture–  Func+on:Movementofthecontralateralheadregion–  Innervatescranialnervesformanyfinemotorcoordina+on,andall

finemotormovementsforspeechproduc+onexceptrespira+on–  Cor+coreferstothecerebralcortex,andbulbarreferstothe

brainstem–  Thistractcontrolsthemusclesofthefaceandneck,includingthose

significantforspeechandswallowing–  CranialnervesIII,IV,V,VI,VII,VIII,IX,X,XI,XII–  Bothcontralateralandipsilateralrepresenta+ons

Let’slookatdamagetothespine…CerebralPalsycharacteris+cs:Hemiplegia=OnesideofspineaffectedàaffectsthatlateralsideofbodyParaplegia=Bo=omofspineaffectedàaffectslowerbodyQuadraplegia=Allofspineaffectedàaffectsen+rebodyexcludinghead•  Ifdamageisinthespine,itwillonlyaffectthenervesrelatedtothatside.

ExtrapyramidalSystem=Indirectpathwaysofcontrol,descendingmotortractsthroughspinalcord•  Re@culospinaltracts=Originatesinthere+cularforma+on;excitesextetensors/

flexors,inhibitsreflexes,maintainsposture,gaitandtone•  Tectospinaltracts=Originatesinthesuperiorcolliculus;orientshead/eye

movementstosuddens+muli•  Rubrospinaltracts=Originatesintherednucleus=facilliatesflexorandinhibits

extensorneurons,verysimilartocor+cospinaltracts(involvedwithfinemovementsofhands,fingersàwri+ng)

•  Ves@bulospinaltracts=Originatesintheves+bularnuclei;facilliatesreflecac+vity,maintainsver+calandsea+ngpostures

•  Cor@copon@netract=Projectstocerebellum

•  TheBasalGangliaisanimportantbrainstructureforlanguage.ItcontrolsvoluntarymovementsandisotenassociatedwithParkinson’sdisease.

h=p://basalganglia2.umassd.wikispaces.net/ThinkingFeelingBehavingh=p://www.upright-health.com/basal-ganglia.html

BasalGanglia-thalamocor@calcircuits:•  Aloop,feedback;modula+onofmotorac+vitycontrolledbythepyramidal

pathways;inhibi+onandexcita+onofthecor+calareascontrollingpyramidalpathways

Inhibi+on=Producingless/reducedExcita+on=Producingmore/increased

Cor@co-striato-pallido-thalamo-cor@calloop

Cortex:motorcortex,premotorcortex,SMAStriato:striatum(caudatenucleus&putamen)Pallido:globuspallidus(internal&external)

Thalamo:thalamusCortex:motorcortex,premotorcortex,SMA

h=p://journals.cambridge.org/fulltext_content/ERM/ERM5_10/S1462399403006008sup006.htm

Excitatory=directInhibitory=indirect

ThispictureshowsyoutheBasalGangliaCircuit.Youcanseethatthecircuitismadeupofbothexcita+onsandinhibi+ons.

•  Thereare differentloopsinvolvingthebasalgangliathalamocor+calcircuity,dependingontheareainthecortexitreceivesinputfrom.

•  Thepurposeoftheseloopsandneurotransmi=ersisspecificallytoregulatemuscletoneandpostureandtosmoothenoutmusclecontrac+ons

1.   Motora.  Motor,premotorcor+ces,SMAb.  Facial,limbandtrunkmuscles

2.   Oculomotora.  Prefrontal,V1andparietalcor+cesb.  Controlseyemovements

3.   Dorsolateralprefrontala.  Prefrontalandassocia+onparietalcor+cesb.  Controlsgoaldirec+on,cogni+vefunc+on,personality

4.   Lateralorbitoprefrontala.  Orbitofrontalcortexb.  Socialfunc+oning

5.   Anteriorcingulate/medialorbitolaterala.  Anteriorcingulate,medialorbitofrontalandtemporalcor+cesb.  Controlstheregula+onandcontrolofemo+ons

h=p://what-when-how.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/tmp15F118.jpg

•  AnteriorLobe=Propriocep+veinforma+onfromspinalcord;regulatesposture.

•  PosteriorLobe=Largestlobe;receivesinputfromcerbralcortex;regulatescoordina+onofmusclemovements.Thislobeplaysthemostimportantroleinspeechproduc+on,byautoma+callyincorpora+ngfeedbackforsequen+alvoluntarymuscleac+vity.

•  FlocculomodularLobe=Oldestlobe;dividedbythelowerpartofvermis;projectsto4ves+blarnucleiinthemedulla;regulatesequilibriuminthebody.

•  Alltheneuraltractsthatthecerebellummediates,passthroughthesepeduncles(inferior,middle,andsuperiorpeduncles.

•  Theinferiorcerebellarpeduncle(alsocalledtheres+formbody)containsafferentfibersfromthemedulla,aswellasefferentstotheves+bularandre+cularnuclei.

•  Themiddlecerebellarpeduncle(alsocalledthebrachiumpon+s)containsafferentsfromtemporalandfrontallobestocontralateralposteriorcerebellarlobes.

•  Thesuperiorcerebellarpeduncle(alsocalledthebrachiumconjunc+vum)containsefferentfibersfromtherednucleus,andthethalamus,aswellassomeafferentsfromthespinocerebellartract.

Itusesfeedforwardandfeedbackprocessing.Feedforward=Thecerebellumgetssensoryinputtotellthemotorsystemtoadjusttheoutput/motoract.Forexample:adjus+nghowyouwalkinthesandandpredic+nghowyoushouldbehave/walkFeedback=Adjus+ngagain;Climbingfibersfromoutputofthecerebellarcircuitry;knownasan‘errordetector’ForEx:adjus@ngagainwalkingonshellsinsand

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