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The Existence of Keroncong as Musical Acculturation in Indonesia

The development of keroncong had through the long process of acculturation.

According to Indonesian anthropologist, Koentjaraningrat, acculturation happens

when “a group of people with its own culture faced to elements of foreign culture

which it gradually accepted and treated into local culture without causing the lost of

own indigenous tradition” (qtd. in Evie Destiana). In keroncong music, the

acculturation of Portuguese heritage needs long period to be accepted and adapted.

However, with the help of acculturation, keroncong which known comes from foreign

music can still be exists in Indonesian society. Still, the result of acculturation also

brings out the essence of how keroncong can be created from the mixing of culture

which produces its own style and make the fusion of two cultures uniqueness, so that

keroncong is no longer an extraneous music, but it is a part of Indonesian music since

it develops in Indonesia.

The arrival of Portuguese in Indonesia influences its culture to the development

of local music. Keroncong which is an Indonesian music genre is a special genre due

to its result as an adaptation of Portuguese music called fado. Pedro Girão Antunes, et

al explain that fado is performed by a solo singer and accompanied by European

guitar instruments. At first, only slaves of Portuguese play keroncong, but ultimately

accepted by Indonesian.

Etymology

Harmunah, who writes a book about keroncong music proposes that the closest

statement to the etymology of keroncong is the interpretation of cavaquinho that is

played with arpeggio style and produce ‘crong’ sound which form the word

keroncong (qtd. in Kuntoro Edhi 13). In the beginning, keroncong is a ukulele-guitar

name which similar to Portuguese guitar, cavaquinho. However, along with the

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development of time, keroncong no longer regarded as ukulele-guitar name after it

replaced by special kind of ukulele called machina (cak) and prounga (cuk) (“ATLAS

of Plucked Instruments”). Keroncong turns its meaning into musical ensemble which

consists of seven instruments: violin, flute, cak (banjo), cuk (ukulele), guitar, cello,

and bass. Nevertheless, in the present, keroncong is known a music genre which exists

due to Portuguese acculturation. Indonesian people acknowledge keroncong as a

genre which performed by keroncong ensemble.

The characteristics of keroncong music are identified by its limited harmony and

improvisation. Ernst Heinst mentions that keroncong has “harmonic and melodic

plucked chordophones” and it is played to “accompany a languidly ‘crooning’

vocalist” (25). Besides that, rhythm in keroncong has varied from melodious and

relaxed to cheerful and fast rhythm depends on the kind of keroncong types. The

evolution of keroncong is affected by many parties, such as Portuguese, Dutch,

Japanese, and Indonesia which makes keroncong more diatonic (world music) rather

than pentatonic (traditional music).

Keroncong Instruments

M. Sagi, a famous Indonesian violinist for keroncong set the arrangements of

keroncong ensemble (Lilik Jascee) and in general, it consists of five back player,

which are; cak, cuk, guitar, cello gedhog, contra bass and front player which are;

violin and flute. Below are the explanations of each instrument:

1. Ukulele (Cak)

Figure 1. Cak instrument

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(Photo: Kristian WA Nugroho)

Ukulele (Cak) or in Kampung Tugu known as machina consist of four steel

strings with its tuning from the left strings: D, D, F#, B. The resonance hole are small

and many compare with general ukulele which only has one big hole. Cak is used as

accompanist or the key of rhythm and played contradict rhythmic with cuk. The range

of intonation is higher than cuk.

2. Ukulele (Cuk)

Figure 2. Cuk instrument

(Photo: ATLAS of Plucked Instruments)

Ukulele (Cuk) or in Kampung Tugu known as prounga consist of three

nylon strings which makes it different with general ukulele. The tunings from left

strings are: G, B, E. Cuk is also used as accompanist or the key of rhythm and played

contradict rhythmic with cak. The range of intonation which produced is lower than

cak.

3. Guitar

Figure 3. Guitar instrument

(Photo: Diana Rahima Tjahjani)

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Guitar, or in Kampung Tugu called as jitera is played with the standard

tuning from the left strings: E, A, D, G, B, E. Guitar for keroncong music uses steel

strings rather than nylon. The role of guitar in ensemble is to accompany the other

instruments and also playing the melody which played in accordance with chords,

however, it also can be a main melody of the songs.

4. Cello Gedhog

Figure 4. Cello Gedhog instrument

(Photo: Agus Untung Yulianta)

Cello Gedhog is the same as general cello, but the differences are on the

strings and the amount of it. Cello Gedhog uses nylon strings and consist of three

strings that have the tuning: C, G, D, and or D, G, D. It is played using pizzicato style.

Cello Gedhog is used as accompanist or rhythm and played contradict rhythmic with

contra bass. The range of intonation which produced is higher than contra bass.

Similar with cak and cuk, cello gedhog is played contradict rhythmic with contra bass.

5. Contra Bass

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Figure 5. Contra bass instrument

(Photo: Nasir Almaududi)

Contra bass in keroncong use nylon strings instead of steels. It also used

same tuning as general contra bass which consist of: E, A, D, G. Contra bass controls

the rhythm and intonation in the ensemble. It is played using pizzicato style.

6. Violin

Figure 6. Violin instrument

(Photo: Diana Rahima Tjahjani)

Violin plays the main melody in keroncong and also filler melody. The

tunings are: G, D, A, E as same as general violin. In keroncong, violinist uses

glissando technique so as to imitate the vocal singer of keroncong. Violinist also can

make improvisation when playing it.

7. Flute

Figure 7. Flute instrument

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(Photo: Diana Rahima Tjahjani)

Flute also plays the main melody and filler melody. The techniques which

use are staccato and glissando.

History of Keroncong

Keroncong is believed to have been introduced from Mollucas (Island in Eastern

part of Indonesia) where Portuguese do the commerce and spread its culture. Yet,

keroncong development is more well-known in Java island. Magdalia Alfian mentions

keroncong in Java starts when people known as ‘Black Portuguese’ place themselves

in an area called Kampung Tugu around seventeenth century (1). This statement is

emphasized by Merle C. Ricklefs who indicates that ‘Black Portuguese’ “are being

exiled in 1661 to the place named Kampung Tugu, Cilincing, North Jakarta. They

formed the Portuguese community and sing some Portuguese songs such as Moresco

and Cafrinho” (44). Black Portuguese are slaves of Portuguese who come from

various nationalities, especially India and Africa. A. De Water explains that ‘Black

Portuguese’ later on called as mardijkers since they are freed by Dutch in Jakarta

(400). Victor Ganap explains that they make the Portuguese small-guitar into three

types according to their size, prounga (cak), macina (cuk), and jitera (guitar) which

eventually called as keroncong music. He mentions the role of mardijkers is so

important as the community who established keroncong tugu genre as the pioneer of

keroncong music in Indonesia (Portugis 3).

Keroncong tugu use Portuguese lyrics and play the songs using prounga (cak),

macina (cuk), and jitera combine with violin, flute, and small percussion. Another

name of keroncong tugu is Keroncong Asli (The Original Keroncong) since it is a

beginning of keroncong music in Indonesia. Alfian also points out that the lyric in the

songs identical with melancholic love songs (2). For the instrumentation, harmony,

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and the rhythmic, Keroncong Tugu stands close to European concepts (23).

Nevertheless, Judith Becker explores there is another kind of keroncong that it

“has undergone the subtle process of naturalization” (14). Becker argues that

keroncong has been through long cultural process to be accepted by Indonesian. In

twentieth century, keroncong spread to the central part of Java island and transform

the original style of keroncong (15). The acculturation of keroncong music happens

again as it gets in touch with traditional music of Java, gamelan. Gamelan is a

Javanese music ensemble which all of the instruments produce pentatonic tone.

Further, this keroncong is known as langgam jawa (16). Langgam jawa is still a part

of keroncong music with different way of delivering it which substitutes the original

musical instrument to traditional one. Ganap shows the reason why keroncong can be

accepted by Javanese people is because the arrangement of keroncong and gamelan

ensemble is compatible (Hibrida 95). Heinst acknowledges that the western

instruments have been transferred into local instruments, for example “violin: rebab;

flute: suling; melodic guitar: celem-pungan; kroncong: ketuk; cello: kendang

ciblon/batangan; plucked bass (when used): gong.” He indicates langgam jawa uses

regional language and scales and rhythms from regional music (25). Alfian also

mentions the rhythm and tone movement are slower rather than keroncong tugu (3).

Below are the pictures of traditional music of Java, gamelan:

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Figure 9. Gamelan instruments

(Photo: Asal Usul Sejarah)

The combination of keroncong and gamelan shows that Indonesian people

support the existence of new culture in a society. The result of langgam jawa as music

acculturation is a reflection of local people who expect that they can obtain something

better with the collaboration. Therefore, the naturalization of keroncong can be

interpreted as the desire of local people to have an improvisation of music quality so

in order to enjoy traditional music in a different way they accept keroncong without

substitute or even eliminate the traditional culture.

From the history of keroncong, the presence of keroncong tugu is appreciated by

Dutch at that time because its similarity with western music, but since the coming of

Japan, keroncong tugu is hated because of the using of western instruments and the

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melancholic lyric. Since then, keroncong is prohibited, but later on, Japan tries to

change it into more eastern with respectful lyrics about love homeland and heroism so

that Japan can build the spirit of Great Asian Nation with Indonesia (Alfian 3-4)

Heinst investigates that keroncong has no sense of earlier ethnomusicology as a

‘pure native music’ since its inauthenticity has been taken for granted (20). Heinst

emphasizes keroncong is a hybrid music because it is a Portuguese heritage which

develops in Indonesia. However, Andjar Any, a musical figure, songwriter, and also

an author affirms:

Keroncong music is not an imported music, yet it is a musical adaptation

of our ancestors toward western music that carried from outside

Indonesia. The westernization in keroncong is the use of foreign musical

instruments only. The form of keroncong itself is a creation of our

ancestors. In fact, the musical instruments that is used is not just we

recognize now, but it actually through the long process of evolution. (36)

Any argues that since keroncong is created in Indonesia, it belongs to Indonesia even

though there is a westernization taste seen from musical instruments.

In addition, Kusbini, a famous keroncong artist in Indonesia, has a different

understanding towards the history of keroncong. In his lecture on TOSI event in

Jogjakarta, he claims that “Keroncong is originally comes from Indonesia, therefore

keroncong is a property of Indonesia” (qtd. in Alfian). Kusbini also states that

keroncong belongs to Indonesia because the place where keroncong develops and it is

a cultural heritage from colonial era in Indonesia.

Keroncong as musical acculturation in Indonesia raises pros and cons opinions

toward its presence. Its status as a musical adaptation indicates that the willingness of

Indonesian accepts new culture with the combination to local culture can create new

thing which is better than before. Furthermore, the existence of keroncong proves that

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diversity which is created by acculturation does not threaten the originality of

Indonesia’s culture, instead of affirms the real identity of Indonesia as country which

is rich in tradition and culture.

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Keroncong di Indonesia.” Seminar Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Balai Kajian Sejarah

dan Nilai Tradisional Yogyakarta, May. 2006.

Almaududi, Nasir. “Namy Music.” Photograph. Google. Web. 26 Jan. 2015.

Antunes, Pedro Girão, et al. “Automatic Fado Music Classification.” Spoken

Language System Lab (L2F). 2014. Web. 2 Jan. 2015.

Any, A. “Keroncong Musik Nusantara, dalam Perjalanan Musik Di Indonesia.”

Jakarta: Pensi. 1983.

“Asal Usul Sejarah Gamelan” Asal Usul Sejarah. N.p., Jan. 2011. Web. 16 Feb. 2015.

“ATLAS of Plucked Instruments” Encyclopedia of all the world’s plucked

instruments. Webmaster-Atlas, 2015. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.

Becker, Judith. “Kroncong, Indonesian Popular Music.” Asian Music 7. 1 (1975): 14-

19. Print.

Destiana, Evie. “Keroncong Stamboel Sebagai Bentuk Akulturasi Budaya Urban.”

Pedagogia 1, 2 (2012): 153-159. Print.

De Water, A. “De Portugeesche Gemeente van Toegoe.” Batavia –Centrum: Algemeen

Protestantsch Kerkblad 27 (1937): n. pag. Web. 1 Jan. 2015.

Edhi, Kuntoro. “Teknik Nyanyian Keroncong Asli.” Diss. Fakulti Seni dan Muzik

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2009. Print.

Ganap, Victor. “Musik Keroncong Tugu, Sebuah Sintesis Budaya Hibrida.” Jurnal

Masyarakat Etnomusikologi Indonesia 1.1 (2001): 80-102. Print.

Ganap, Victor. “Pengaruh Portugis Pada Musik Keroncong.” Harmonia Jurnal

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Heinst, Ernst. “Kroncong and Tanjidor – Two Cases of Urban Folk Music in Jakarta.”

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Nov. 2008.

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