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LCA : LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS
Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan SoemarnoPSL-PDKLP-PPSUB Januari 2013
LCA merupakan suatu metode analisis lingkungan dan dampak lingkungan yang berhubungan dengan suatu produk, proses, atau jasa; dengan jalan melakukan
inventori input enerji dan material, serta limbahnya yang dibuang ke lingkungan; analisis dampak lingkungan dari input dan limbah, serta interpretasi hasil-hasilnya
untuk digunakan dalam pengambilan keputusan.
Ketersediaan perangkat lunak (software) mempermudah pelaksanaan LCA yang membutuhkan basis data yang besar.
Life Cycle Asessment merupakan satu pendekatan “Cradle to Grave” dimulai dari pengambilan bahan mentah dari lingkungan untuk membuat produk dan berakhir pada pembuangan limbah
ke lingkungan.
Esensi dari Life Cycle Assessment adalah evaluasi dampak teknologi, ekonomi dan lingkungan, yang relevan dengan bahan mentah (material), proses dan/atau produk, sepanjang siklus hidup
mulai dari pembuatannya hingga menjadi limbah.
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE AANALYSISAnalisis Siklus Hidup.
ANALISIS DAUR HIDUP
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess
environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
1. Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
2. Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;3. Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
GOALS AND PURPOSEThe goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services in
order to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the assessment of raw-
material production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.
There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with
a specific service or process, at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a
system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and economic implications of a decision may have to be taken into account.
Social LCA is a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000 environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO
14043.)
1. Thomas,J.A.G., ed: Energy Analysis, ipc science and technology press & Westview Press, 1977, ISBN 0-902852-60-4 or ISBN 0-89158-813-2
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Empat tahapan UtamaAccording to the ISO 14040[4] and 14044[5] standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four distinct
phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
4.ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve
5.ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve
INTERPRETASIANALISISINVENTORY
PENDUGAAN DAMPAK
DEFINISI TUJUAN & LINGKUP
Goal and scope
An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is
a key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes
technical details that guide subsequent work:
1. The functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related. Further, the functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analyzed.[6]
2. The system boundaries;3. Any assumptions and limitations;4. The allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several
products or functions share the same process; and5. The impact categories chosen.
6. Rebitzer, G. et al. (2004). Life cycle assessment Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,and applications. Environment International. 30(2004), 701-720.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases
to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs.
The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system
boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as
inputs from the techno-sphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The
results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the
study.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative
industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires.
At an industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning
toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or other
factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if
they fall within the 1% level of inputs.7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an
Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno-sphere. The technosphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable;
however, in a practical sense the primary goal is salvage. [7]
For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about a process which uses man-made product as a means to an end will be able to specify
how much of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for
previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information.
Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact categories; and
impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact category
total.In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage according to
ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the
total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each
other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies
intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCIA = LIFE-CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Interpretation
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory
analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study.
According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is
not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly
to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear
understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Reference testMore specifically, the best alternative is the one that the LCA shows to have the least
cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.[8]
8. Curran, Mary Ann. "Life Cycle Analysis: Priciples and Practice". Scientific Applications International Corporation. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
Diunduh dari: http://www.toolkit.bc.ca/tool/life-cycle-analysis……. 7/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
LCA estimates the impacts or costs of resources
associated with a project from ‘cradle to grave’ –
including extraction, processing, use, and
disposal. The technique is often
used to compare options for a project, informing a
selection that is less environmentally
damaging.
LCA usesBased on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[9] LCA is mostly used to support business strategy
(18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously integrated into the built environment as tools such as
the European ENSLIC Building project guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide practitioners guidance on methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process. [10]
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the
growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding additional environmental information". [11][12] These third-party certified LCA-
based labels provide an increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products. Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent certification can show a company's dedication to safer and environmental friendlier products to customers and NGOs. [13]
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste management and pollution studies.
9. Cooper, J.S.; Fava, J. (2006). "Life Cycle Assessment Practitioner Survey: Summary of Results". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 10. Malmqvist, T; Glaumann, M; Scarpellini, S; Zabalza, I; Aranda, A (April 2011).
"Life cycle assessment in buildings: The ENSLIC simplified method and guidelines". Energy 36 (4): 1900-1907. Retrieved October 31, 2012. 11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on
Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6. 12. EPD_System – www.thegreenstandard.org 13. LCA by Independent Third Parties
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Data analysis
A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for the completion of a life cycle analysis are accurate and current. When comparing different life cycle analyses with one another, it is crucial that equivalent data are available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a
much higher availability of data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less detailed data.[14]
There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-output data (EIO), where the latter is based on national economic input-output data.[15] Unit process data are derived from direct
surveys of companies or plants producing the product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the system boundaries for the study.
Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the rapid pace of research and development, new materials and manufacturing methods are continually being introduced to the
market. This makes it both very important and very difficult to use up-to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCA’s conclusions are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process takes time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone significant revisions since the last LCA data was collected, data validity is not a problem. However, consumer electronics such as cell phones can be
redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,[16] creating a need for ongoing data collection.
14. Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88. 15."How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 16. Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Data analysis
The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the
most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that
particular phase.
For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car is during use due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel efficiency is to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can decrease
environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase should be
more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.
14.Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88. 15."How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 16.Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Economic input–output life cycle assessment
Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and
how much each sector purchases from other sectors.[24]
Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles
requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not
suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not validated.[25]
24.Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input–Output Approach, Resources for the Future Press ISBN 1-933115-24-6.
25.Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method and ModelsDiunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Ecologically based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed
to provide a guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.
Eco-LCA is developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and supporting services during the life
cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating provisioning and cultural services.[11]
11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
LCEA = Life cycle energy analysisLife cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product are accounted for, not
only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the manufacturing process.
An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of Building
ConstructionLife Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of
building construction covers a range of the issues relevant to sustainable building
development. LCEA includes the entire life cycle of the product, process or activity, encompassing extracting and processing materials; manufacturing, transportation
and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance; recycling and final disposal. Promoting LCEA
of buildings would arouse attention to environmentally friendly building designs, including energy efficient building design
and selection of materials and construction methods that would incur lower impacts on the global, local and indoor environments, which will also help minimise construction
and demolition waste.
Diunduh dari: http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/building/assessment/index.html ……. 7/1/2013
Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content is the energy
content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be
recovered in using the solar cell.
The result was refuted.[26] Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is Energy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a
need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapid growth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA)
impacts of a number of renewable technologies.[27][28]
26. David MacKay Sustainable Energy 24 February 2010 p. 41 27. McManus, M (2010). "Life cycle impacts of waste wood biomass heating systems: A case study of three UK based systems". Energy 35 (10):
4064–4070. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.06.014. 28. Allen, S.R., G.P. Hammond, H. Harajli, C.I. Jones, M.C. McManus and A.B. Winnett (2008). Integrated appraisal of micro-generators:
methods and applications. 161. pp. 73–86. doi:10.1680/ener.2008.1+61.2.73
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
ENERGY RECOVERY
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can be harnessed and used for electricity production. This provides a low-
impact energy source, especially when compared with coal and natural gas[29] While incineration produces more greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste
plants are well-fitted with filters to minimize this negative impact.
A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery) found
incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.[30]
29. Damgaard, A, et. al. Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution control and energy recovery in waste incineration. Waste Management 30 (2010) 1244–1250.
30 Liamsanguan, C., Gheewala, S.H., LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems. Jour. of Environ. Mgmt. 87 (2009) 132–138.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Critiques
Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable aspects of quantifiable systems. Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make
accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes referred to as the boundary critique to systems thinking.
The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be based on averages, unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results. [34]
Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life-cycle analysis is often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing
system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in another study
based on varying parameters and different available data.[35] There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for
the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010. 35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center 36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14. 37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-
12-14. 38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Critiques
An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products[36] found[37] a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the product life cycle. A wide variety of methods and
assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions – particularly with regard to carbon sequestration and methane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest growth
and product use.The Agroecology tool "agroecosystem analysis" offers a framework to incorporate incommensurable aspects
of the life cycle of a product (such as social impacts, and soil and water implications). [38]
This tool is specifically useful in the analysis of a product made from agricultural materials such as corn ethanol or soybean biodiesel because it can account for an ecology of contexts interacting and changing
through time. This analysis tool should not be used instead of life-cycle analysis, but rather, in conjunction with life-cycle analysis to produce a well-rounded assessment.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010. 35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center 36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14. 37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-
12-14. 38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS
Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts throughout the Life-cycle of
Products and Processes
• The Concept of Environmental LCA• Methodology of Environmental LCA;
• Goal and Scope• Inventory Analysis• Impact Assessment• Interpretation
• Extending the scope of Environmental LCA;• Economic LCA• Social LCA
LCA
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502011000500013&script=sci_arttext……. 7/1/2013
A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental management tool used to investigate the environmental impacts of products, services and activities by taking a 'cradleto-grave' approach. The assessment scope includes the extraction and processing
of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse/maintenance, recycling and final disposal
• Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do!• Product systems are composed of interrelated
processes
Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268
KONSEP LCA
Some products have a dominating environmental load in production, some in use, some in disposal:
Examples:
books, furniture, art etc.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Production Use Disposal0
102030405060708090
Production Use Disposal0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Production Use Disposal
Examples:
cars, television, airco etc.
Examples:
Ni-Cd batteries, household chemicals, fireworks etc.
KONSEP LCA
• Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products or processes over their life cycle. LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages,
product parts or processes to environmental burden. LCA is often used to compare between products or design
alternatives.
• Applications of LCA: Product improvement Support for strategic choicesBenchmarking External communication
KONSEP LCA
• LCA is a model of a complex reality!
• …of an average lifecycle of a mass product
• …of the effect of all impacts that occur
• …of their interaction.
• Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make a model, you must specify the goal and scope describing why you want to make the model.
KONSEP LCA
1. Goal and Scope definition2. Inventory Analysis3. Impact Assessment4. Interpretation
- Product developmentand improvement
- Strategic planning
- Public policy making
- Marketing
- Other
Goaland scopedefinition
Inventoryanalysis
Impactassessment
Interpretation
Direct applications:
Life cycle assessment framework
The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006
METODOLOGI LCA
Questions:• What is the intended application of the LCA?• How much effort do you want to invest? • Who are interested parties?• What methodology will you use?
Why is a goal and scope definition important?– guidance in data collection phase– communication base for data providers– reference for data quality management. – afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during
the various LCA phases.
METODOLOGI LCA
• Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent
function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000 litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.
Functional unit is basis for comparison
=?
“Compare environmental impacts of packaging of
1000 litres milk in carton packages or glass bottles”
METODOLOGI LCA
Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects
1. System boundaries: definition of processes that are included in the investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production of capital goods (equipment used for production and transportation) are often excluded from the system. System boundaries are further defined during the inventory process.
2. Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity, transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)
METODOLOGI LCA
1. Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase 2. Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs3. Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and
resource use4. Detailed defining of product system and economy-
environment boundary. Only data collection for processes that are controlled by human beings (economic processes). Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled dumping of solid waste etc.
5. Visualizing connected processes in product system6. Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from data libraries)
to functional unit 7. Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table
METODOLOGI LCA: INVENTORY
Example of Product system and Inventory Table
electricity
steel
plastic
production distribution use dump
incineration
reuse
recycling
LCI table with environmental interventions
Crude oil from earth
40000 kg
CO2 to air 3500
SO2 to air 20 kg
NOx to air 100 kg
Cd to water 5 g
PAH to water 8 kg
Etc. …….
METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory
Difficulties:• Data availability and quality
Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies needed
Measurement procedures rarely standardized• Geographic variations
quality of raw materials/energy sources production methods relevant environmental impacts
• Technology Which type of electricity production? Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process? Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?
METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory
Difficulties:• Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output processes;
Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined waste treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs:
• Recycling and reuse• Allocation determined by number of reuse times and fraction of materials that
can be recycled at a certain quality
Electricity production
Salt electrolysisPlastic
productionPaint
production
Chlorine
Caustic Soda
Plastic bag use
Recycling
Old plastic
METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory
• Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)• Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like climate change,
acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc.
Land useLand use
LCI result
Raw materialsLand use
CO2VOS
P SO2NOxCFC
CdPAHDDT
Climate changeClimate change
AcidificationAcidification
EcotoxicityEcotoxicity
DepletionDepletion
EutrophicationEutrophication
HumantoxicityHumantoxicity
METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak
• Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization: Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to
climate change Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a
characterisation factor to get indicator results Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get
dimensionless score (useful for comparison)
Impact category
Char. Factor (Global Warming Potential)
Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)
METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak
EffectIntervention Damage CO2
PSO2NOx
DDTDust
VOC
Cd
PAHCFC
Heavy metals
Greenhouse effect
Acidification
Pesticides
EutrophicationDamage to Eco-systems
Damage to human health
IndicatorWinter smog
Summer smog
Carconogenics
Ozone layer depl.
Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact
2002+ etc.)
METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak
• A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score) does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution weighing of results is needed
• Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important?
• Procedure of LCIA according to ISO:- Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step.- Normalisation is an optional step.- Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not for
comparison of products to the public.
METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak
Procedure of LCIA according to ISO 14042. The ISO 14042 standards have recently been replaced by the ISO 14044:2006 standards, but requirements
and technical content have remained the same (see also http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019)
• “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations” (ISO)
• To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope: Are the the general assumptions reasonable? Is the functional unit well chosen? Are ISO standards applied? Has a peer review been conducted?
METODOLOGI LCA:Interpretasi
• Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important choices or assumptions What if other allocations are applied.What if other boundaries are applied.What if other impact assessment method is
used.
• By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how the conclusions connect with the assumptions.
METODOLOGI LCA:Interpretasi
1. LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can be extended to include economic and social impacts.
2. Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC);Analysis of life cycle costs
3. Social LCASocial impacts throughout life cycle of
products and processes
LCA diperluas:
• What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a product or process?• R&D• Production• Marketing• Sales• Etc.
• Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment): • Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA
results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental services?
LCA diperluas:
• Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and health: Job quality Quality physical health Quality social health Earthly possessions
• Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social conditions do change more rapidly impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate emotions resulting from changes disappear with time diseases get cured people who are laid off may find new jobs)
LCA diperluas: