Leadership and Management 2003

8/14/2019 Leadership and Management 2003

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GROUP 2


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American mechanical engineerwho sought to improveindustrial efficiency

In 1878 he joined the MidvaleSteel Works in Philadelphia asmachinist

rose to the position of chiefengineer after earning inEngineering

Frederick Winslow Taylor

(March 20, 1856 - March 21, 1915

Father of Scientific Management
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States


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1911-

how the application of the scientific method to the management

of workers greatly could improve productivity

In the field of nursing practice, simple job such as vitalsigns taking were assigned assistant nurses. Unskilledworkers can be trained for a task to develop their skills isone of the way to apply Scientific management.


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These studies were characterized by the use of a stopwatchto time a worker's sequence of motions, with the goal ofdetermining the one best way to perform a job. In thisprinciple Taylor applied observation, measurement andscientific comparison to determine the most efficient wayto accomplish a task.

In the field of Nursing practice each Nurses has their own shift andcoffee breaks, this shift provides them opportunity to rest and gatherstrength to perform certain task. Just like in time study of Taylor optimaltiming of working and resting work could increase productivity withouttiring per day.

Another observation was made by Taylor, that not all worker arephysically capable of doing heavy jobs. In the field of nursing practice,most of the workers working in the Emergency Department are Men,who can usually lift heavy patients during emergency procedures, andmost women are assigned in taking care of the patients chart


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Management should develop the best work method.Replace rule-of-thumb (rule that is not reliable for everysituation) work methods with methods based on a scientificstudy of the tasks.

Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather

than passively leaving them to train themselves. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically

developed methods are being followed. Management should ensure and equal decision of work and

responsibilities between manager and workers. So that the

managers apply scientific management principles toplanning the work and the workers actually perform thetasks.


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Frank Bunker Gilbreth

the engineer who conceived the "MotionStudy" Principles (techniques for manualproductivity improvement). Frank Gilbreth's well-known work in improving brick-laying in the

construction trade is a good example of hisapproach.

His system of speed work eliminated hasteand also increased work output by cutting outunnecessary motions. Workers could be then paid

higher wages because they accomplish more inshorter time.


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Lillian Evelyn Moller

First Lady of Management


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Henry Gantt

In his later career as a management consultant

following the invention of the Gantt chart he alsodesigned the 'task and bonus' system of wagepayment and additional measurement methodsworker efficiency and productivity. Henry Gantt islisted under Stevens Institute of Technology alumniand roommate to Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Innovator of Scheduling and RewardingEmployees

Gantt made significant contributions in the areasof scheduling and controlling of work as well as the

rewarding of workers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_productivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_productivity


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Mary Parker Follett

(1868-1933)

The Speaker of the House of Representatives(1909)

-a visionary and pioneering individual in the fieldof human relations, democratic organization, andmanagement

-her research and writings pointed to a collaborativeapproach to problem solving that advocatedcompromise. One of her favorite admonition wasdont over manage employees, and she referred tothis over management as bossism.

Pioneer in Conflict Resolution


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Scientific Management

Key Concepts

Analyzed work using scientific methods to determine the one best way to

complete production tasks.Emphasized study of task, selection and training of workers and cooperation

between workers and managers.

Contributions

Improve factory productivity and efficiency

Introduced scientific analysis to the workplace

Piece-rate system equated worker rewards and

performance

Instilled cooperation between managers and workers

Limitations

Simplistic motivational assumptions

Workers viewed as part of a machine

Potential for exploitation of labor

Excluded senior management tasks.


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Modern Operational Management Theory

Classic Administration

Organization thinking began to receive attention in 1930. Deductive

rather than inductive, it viewed the organization as a whole than focusing

solely on production, or a single segment of it.


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Henri Fayol (1841- 1925)Father of Modern Operational

Management Theory-identified five functions and fourteen principles ofmanagement

Planning

Organizing

Commanding

Coordinating

Controlling

ive functions of management:


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Division of Work.

Divide the work into specialized tasks and assign responsibilities to

individuals. Specialization allows the individual to build up experience, and

to continuously improve his skills. Thereby he can be more productive.

Authority.

The right to issue commands, along with which must go the balanced

responsibility for its function. Delegate authority along with responsibility.

One without the other leads to managerial failure.

Discipline. Employees must obey, but this is two-sided: employees will

only obey orders and respect the rules and agreements if the management

plays their part by providing good leadership. Make expectations and

sanction violations.


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Unity of Command.

Each worker should have only one boss with no other conflicting lines of command. This

means that employees should receive orders from one superior only.

Unity of Direction.

People engaged in the same kind of activities must have the same objectives in a single

plan. This is essential to ensure unity and coordination in the enterprise. Unity of command

does not exist without unity of direction but does not necessarily flows from it. The

employees efforts are focused on achieving organizational objectives.

Subordination of individual interest (to the general interest).

Management must see that the goals of the firms are always paramount. The general

interest must predominate.

Remuneration. Compensation for work done should be fair to both employees and

employers. Payment is an important motivator although by analyzing a number of

possibilities, Fayol points out that there is no such thing as a perfect system.


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Centralization (or Decentralization). This is a matter of degree depending on the condition of the

business and the quality of its personnel. Determine the relative importance of superior and

subordinate roles

Scalar chain (Line of Authority). Keep communications within the chain of command. A hierarchy is

necessary for unity of direction. But lateral communication is also fundamental, as long as superiors

know that such communication is taking place. Scalar chain refers to the number of levels in the

hierarchy from the ultimate authority to the lowest level in the organization. It should not be over-

stretched and consist of too-many levels.

Order. Both material order and social order are necessary. The former minimizes lost time and

useless handling of materials. The latter is achieved through organization and selection. The

resources of the company- its raw materials and workers- must be in the right place and the right

time. This ordering of the organizational resources ensures maximal efficiency.

Equity. In running a business a combination of kindliness and justice is needed. Treating

employees well is important to achieve equity. Employees should feel they are being treated

equally ang fairly.Fair discipline and order enhance employee commitment


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Stability of Tenure of Personnel. Employees work better if job security and career

progress are assured to them. An insecure tenure and a high rate of employee turnover will

affect the organization adversely. Finding unnecessary turnover to be both the cause and

effect of bad management, Fayol points out its dangers and cost.

Initiative. Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of strength

for the organization. Even though it may well involve a sacrifice of personal vanity on the

part of many managers. Encourage employees to act on their own in support of the

organizations direction.

Esprit de Corps. Management must foster the morale of its employees. He further suggests

that: real talent is needed to coordinate effort, encourage keenness, use each persons

abilities, and reward each ones merit without arousing possible jealousies and disturbingharmonious relations. The management should ty to encourage harmony and common

interests, promoting unity of interest between employees and management.


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James Mooney(1884-1957)

management as the technique of directing people and

organizing the technique of relating functions. Organization is

the managements responsibility

Mooney enumerated the four universalprinciples of organization as follows:

a. coordination and synchronization of activities for the accomplishment of a goal can be

accomplished in part through.

b. Functional effects, the performance of ones job description.c. scalar process organizes.

d. Authority into a hierarchy.


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Lyndall Urwick(1891-1939)

-integrated the ideas of Henri Fayol and James Mooney. His

conceptual framework blended scientific management and

classic organization theory into the beginnings of classic

management theory.

Administrative Management

Key Concepts:

Fayols five functions and fourteen principles of management.

Executive formulate the organizations purpose, secure employees, and

maintain communications.Managers must respond to changing developments

Limitation

universal prescriptions need qualifications for

environmental technological, and personnel factors


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Bureaucracy

Karl Emil Maximilian Weber

-showed how management itself could be more efficientand consistent in his book, The Theory of Social andEconomic Organization

-earned the title of Father of Organization Theory byhis conceptualization of bureaucracy with emphasis onrules instead of individuals and on competence overfavoritism as the most efficient basis for organization


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The 6 principles of these organizations are:

Organization Theory

Tasks are specialized.

People are appointed by merit or promotion because of

their ability and not because of favoritism and whim.

Career opportunities for the members are provided.

Authority and responsibility are clearly specified.

Activities are routinized.

A rational and impersonal climate exists.


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APPLICABILITY OF THEORY IN NURSING

Weber believed bureaucratic structures can eliminate the

variability that results when managers in same organization have differentskills, experiences, and goals. Weber advocated that the jobs themselvesbe standardized so that personnel changes would not disrupt theorganization. He emphasized:

Key Concepts of Bureaucracy:

II. Structured, formal network of relationships among specializedpositions in an organization

III.IV. Rules and regulations standardize behavior and authority

resides in positions rather than in individuals.

VI. Jobs staffed by trained specialists who follow rules.

VIII.IX. Hierarchy defines the relationship among jobs.


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Contributions:

Promotes efficient performance of routine organizational activities.

Eliminates subjective judgment by employees and management.

Emphasizes position rather than the person.

Limitations:

Limited organizational flexibility and slow decision making.

Ignores the importance of people and interpersonal relationships.

Accumulation of power can lead to authoritarian management.

Rules may become ends in themselves.

Difficult to dismantle once established.


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Human Relation Theory

This movement began in the 1940s with the attention focused on theeffect individuals have on the success or failure of an organization. The chiefconcerns of the human relations movement are individuals, group, process,interpersonal relations, leadership and communication.

Theory ofleadership behavior that focuses on the employee or, in a coach-athlete relationship, the athlete. It is consistent with the consideration approach

to leadership.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leadershiphttp://www.answers.com/topic/considerationhttp://www.answers.com/topic/considerationhttp://www.answers.com/topic/leadership


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Mary Parker Follet

(1868-1933)

she stressed the importance of coordinating the psychological andsociological aspects of management.

Follet distinguished between power with others and power overothers and indicated the legitimate power is produced by a

circular behavior whereby superior and subordinates mutuallyinfluences one another. The law of the situation dictates that aperson does not take orders from another person but from thesituation

Today, Mary Parker Follett is better known for her pioneering workon management - although her contribution was soon forgotten

after her death in 1933 (especially in the USA). She looked toapproach organizations as group networks rather than ashierarchical structures, and attended to the influence of humanrelations within the group.


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Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

and the Hawthorne Effect

Elton Mayo's detailed and continuing work in the

Hawthorne experiments, widely publicized as it

was, seemed to suggest that a new approach to

motivation and employee care was both possible

and sensible.

The studies investigated the effects of changes in illuminationon productivity. Finding that, when the illumination was either increasedor decreased for a test group, productivity improved.
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_01_mayo.html


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the test room was enjoyable to work in

the relationship between worker and supervisor was more relaxed for

the worker group during the experimental period

the workers responded to the realization that they ere taking part in a

meaningful experiment

the experience of participating in the experiment created a feeling of

identity and belonging

This phenomenon arising from peoplebeing noticed has been known as theHawthorne Effect

Committed to discovering the reasons for increases inproductivity, the scientist began intensive interviewing of all

the workers and discovered that workers increasedproductivity because:


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Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

His work had a profound impact on social

psychology and, more particularly for ourpurposes here, on our appreciation ofexperiential learning, group dynamics andaction research.

He advocated democraticsupervision. His researchindicated that democraticgroups in which participantssolve their own problems andhave the opportunity to consultwith the leader are mosteffective.


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Jacob L. Moreno (1892-1974)

-developed sociometry to analyze group behavior. Claiming

that people are either attracted, repulsed, or feel

indifferent towards others, he developed the sociogram to

chart pairings and rankings of preference for others, this

process of classification can be used to calculate which

workers are capable of harmonious interpersonal

relationships.

Contributions

Psychological and social processes influence performance.

Limitations

Ignored workers rational side and the formal organization contribution to

productivity.

Research findings overturn the prescription that happy workers are more

productive.


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Behavioral Science Theory

This theory emphasized the use of scientific proceduresto study the physiological, sociological, and anthropologicalaspects of human behavior in organizations.

Behavioral scientists stressed the importance ofmaintaining a positive attitude toward people, training managers,meeting employees needs, promoting employees sense ofachievement, and obtaining commitment thru participation inplanning and decision making.


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Abraham Maslow

(1908-1970)

.

He initiated the human behavioral school in 1943 with his

development of hierarchy of needs theory. He outlined a

hierarchical structure for human needs classified into five

categories:

Physiological needs these are the most important and the most

necessary for survival. They include the need for oxygen, water,

sleep, sex and activity.

3.Safety includes freedom from danger, threat and deprivation.

4.Love composed of affectionate relations with others,

acceptance, recognition and companionship.

5.Esteem comprises self respect, positive self evaluation, and

regard by others.

6.Self actualization composed of self fulfillment and achievement.


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Frederick Herzberg

(1923 2000)

An authority on motivation and the nature ofwork, he advocated using job enrichment as amotivator. His books include The Motivation toWork(1959) and Work and the Nature of Man(1966).


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Douglas McGregor

He developed the managerial implications ofMaslows Theory. He noted that ones style ofmanagement is dependent on ones philosophyof human and categorized those assumptions as

Theory X and Theory Y.


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Chris Argyris

(1932)

The founding theory of organizational learning developed by

Chris Argyris emphasises the practice of learning from an

action perspective. The main ideas of his work are first of all

that individuals are a critical element when they are acting

to lean, secondly it is impossible to learn without using our

brain and lastly all the knowledge has to be generalized in

ways that the brain can distil it and apply it in order to make

such new knowledge actionable


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Rensis Likert(1903-1981)

-summarised the study, dividing supervisors into twocategories: Employee-centred, and production-centred.

Both the Ohio State Studies and The University of

Michigan studies conclude that better performance andemployee satisfaction were gained through a more personableparticipative approach

He has examined different types of organizationsand leadership styles, and he asserts that to achieve

maximum profitability, good labor relations and highproductivity, every organization must make optimum use oftheir human assets.

The form of the organization which will makegreatest use of the human capacity, Likert contends, is;highly effective work groups linked together in an overlapping

pattern by other similarly effective groups.


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Organizations at present have widely varying types of

management style and Likert has identified four mainsystems:

exploitive - authoritative system

benevolent - authoritative system

consultative system

participative - group system


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This fourth system is the one which is the ideal for the profit oriented and human-concerned organization.

Likert says that all organizations should adopt this system. Clearly, thechanges involved may be painful and long-winded, but it is necessary if one is toachieve the maximum rewards for the organization.

Three broad groups of organizational variables:

a. Causal variables are those that can be changed or

altered. In this sense they may be considered as the

independent variables in the model.

b. Intervening variables are those that lead to the results of

the causal manipulations. They reflect the general internal

state and health of the organization.

c. End-result variables are dependent variables or outputs

and reflect organizational achievement.


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SYSTEMS THEORY

This theory provides a way to interpret organizations. It takes a holistic view ofthe entire organizational system and stresses process.

The development of the Systems Theory has provided a basis ofunderstanding and integration of scientific knowledge from a variety ofspecialized skills.

- an organized, unitary whole composed of 2 or more interdependent

parts, components, or subsystems and delineated by identifiable

boundaries for its environment suprasystem. In laymans term,

Systems Theory can be defined as the study of systems used to track

the flow of information, in order to solve a problem.


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The key concept of the Systems Theory

3.A system is more than the sum of its part; it must be viewed as a whole

5.Systems can be considered open or closed.

Open System allows exchange of information, energy or material withits environment. Open systems are seen as highly complex,interdependent, and characterized by an expectation of change anduncertainty and change, internally and externally. This system alsoassumes that organizational components will seek "equilibrium" amongthe forces pressing on them and their own response to their focus.Closed System does not interact with its environment.

1. A system has boundaries that separate it from the environment.

3. Close system are subject to entropy (a tendency to run down), which increase until

entire system fails. Open systems that receive inputs from their environment do notexperience entropy if these inputs are as great as the energy the systems use plus

their outputs. In open system entropy can be arrested or transformed into negative

entropy (a process of more complete organization and ability to transform resources)

by importing more from the environment than the systems use and export


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1. If open system is to survive, it must receive enough inputs from its

environment to offset its output plus the energy and material used

in the operation of the system. When a system achieves such a

balance, it is in a steady state, or a state of dynamic equilibrium.

The system remains in dynamic equilibrium through the inflow of

materials, energy and information.

3. If a system is to achieve a steady state, it must have a feed back;

information concerning the process of the system is fed back as

input into the system.

5. Systems have subsystems and are also part of the supra system;

they are hierarchical.


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Closed system tends toward entropy and disorganization, whereas open system

tend toward increase elaboration, differentiation, and a higher level of organization.

Open system can achieve desired results (such as steady state) in various ways by

means of a process called equilfinality. Some results may be achieved with different

initial conditions and in different ways


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OPEN SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE of an ORGANIZATION

Organizations are open systems, dependent on inputs from theoutside world such as raw materials, human resources and capital. Theytransform these inputs into outputs that meet the markets needs forgoods and services.

The environment reacts to the outputs through a feed backloop; this feed back provides input for the next cycle of the system. Theprocess repeats itself for the life of the system.


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CHESTER BARNARD

THE ACCEPTANCETHEORY OFAUTHORITY

In 1938 wrote The Functions of the Executive, based on his years ofexperience as president of the New Jersey Bell Telephone Company.He Focused on the psychosocial aspects of organization andmanagement. He considers the organization a social system in hisdefinition of formal organization as system of consciouslycoordinated activities or forces of 2 or more persons.

He maintained that the people form organizations to achieve

common goals and stressed cooperative effort as a key toorganizational success and managerial effectiveness.

He also focused on:

7.Maintenance of organizational COMMUNICATION through a schemeof organization coupled with LOYAL, RESPONSIBLE, and CAPABLE

people8.Securing of essential services from individuals in the organization9.The formulation and definition of purpose or stating theimportance of objectives.
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KEY CONCEPTS

Organization is viewed as an open systemManagement must interact with the environment to gatherinputs and return the outputs of its production.Organizational activities must encompass both efficiency andeffectiveness.Organization contains series of subsystems.Synergies exist where the whole is greater the sum of the

partsContributions

Recognize the importance of the organizations relationshipwith the external environment.

Limitation

Does not provide specific guidance o the function and duties ofmanagers.


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The Contingency Approach

The contingency approach to management asserts thatthere is no universally applicable approach to a managementproblem, but that the needs of the particular situation determinethe best approach to the organizational problem.

The contingency approach is eclectic in that managercan make use of techniques of other approaches to managementif the application of these various techniques is the best solutionto the specific problem.

Three components of the contingency approach are theenvironment, management concepts and techniques, and theinterrelationships between them.


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The contingencies include:

Circumstances in the organizations external

environment.

The internal strengths and weaknesses of the

organization.

The values, goals, skills, and attitudes of managers and

workers in the organization.

The types of tasks, resources, and technologies the

organization uses.

Documents

Leadership and Management 2003