Leadership in the Canadian Forces · 2019. 10. 24. · iv Leadership in the Canadian Forces:Doctrine Preface T his manual is intended for a general CF audience. It provides a unified

D O C T R I N E

Leadership in the Canadian ForcesLeadership in the Canadian Forces

© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2005

Published under the auspices of the Chief of the Defence Staff by the Canadian Defence Academy – Canadian Forces Leadership Institute

NDID Number: A-PA-005-000/AP-003*

This publication is available on-line at:Internet: http://www.cda-acd.forces.gc.caIntranet: http://cda-acd.mil.ca

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Art Direction ADM(PA) CS05-0411

* A-PA-005-000/AP-003 is the first of four leadership publications that supersede:

NDID: A-PD-131-001/PT-001, and NDID: A-PD-131-002/PT-001

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Table of ContentsFOREWORD ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii

PREFACE --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv

CHAPTER 1: ABOUT LEADERSHIP ------------------------------------------------------------- 1CF Leadership in a Changing World ------------------------------------------------- 2Leadership Defined --------------------------------------------------------------------- 3Effective CF Leadership Defined ----------------------------------------------------- 3The Importance of Trust ---------------------------------------------------------------- 5Major Leadership Functions ---------------------------------------------------------- 6Individual and Distributed Leadership ---------------------------------------------- 7Leadership, Command, and Management ----------------------------------------- 7Conclusion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

CHAPTER 2: THE CF PHILOSOPHY OF LEADERSHIP ---------------------------------- 9Key Principles ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10Supporting Conditions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 11Conclusion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

CHAPTER 3: CF LEADERSHIP MODEL -------------------------------------------------------- 15Overview of the CF Leadership Model ---------------------------------------------- 16Leader Characteristics ------------------------------------------------------------------ 19Influence ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20Direct and Indirect Influence --------------------------------------------------------- 24Individual/Group Capabilities, Behaviour, and Performance -------------------- 24Situational Factors ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 25Outcomes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25Conclusion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

CHAPTER 4: LEADING PEOPLE ------------------------------------------------------------------ 27Accomplishing the Mission ----------------------------------------------------------- 28Leader Responsibilities ----------------------------------------------------------------- 30Principles of Leadership --------------------------------------------------------------- 31

Leadership in the Canadian Forces: Doctrineii

CHAPTER 5: LEADING THE INSTITUTION -------------------------------------------------- 35Creating the Conditions for Mission Success -------------------------------------- 36Leader Responsibilities ----------------------------------------------------------------- 38

A FINAL WORD ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

ENDNOTES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 42

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

Foreword iii

Foreword

Whether preparing for or conducting operations at sea, on land, or in the air, the

combined influence of the Officer-NCM leadership team in directing, motivating,

and enabling others represents a decisive contribution to the successful accomplish-

ment of CF missions. Effective leadership is a core military capability. I am pleased,

therefore, to endorse Leadership in the Canadian Forces as an authoritative guide

to leadership training, education, and practice throughout the CF.

As a companion document to Duty with Honour:The Profession of Arms in Canada, the presentmanual extends many of the key ideas aboutCanadian military professionalism to CF doctrineon leadership. There is a direct correspondencebetween the professional attributes of responsi-bility, expertise, identity, and ethos and importantleadership concepts. The CF’s collective respon-sibility to society, for example, is what justifiesthe primacy of operations, and is expressed in greater detail in the stated duties and respon-sibilities of CF leaders. Professional expertise,meanwhile, maps directly onto the essentialleader characteristic of competence. Profes-sional identity contributes to and sustains theoperational attributes of teamwork and cohesion.Finally, the values inherent in the military ethosalso underpin the responsibilities of CF leadersto defend the rule of law, uphold professionaland ethical standards of conduct, and enforcemilitary discipline.

The two most striking parallels between our ideasabout professionalism and our concept of lead-ership occur in the phrase ‘duty with honour.’

Duty is about what we do, and in our leadershipdoctrine we say that a leader’s duty is to servethe defence mission. Honour is about how weperform our duty, and in our leadership doctrinewe say that leaders must perform their duties inaccordance with the civic, legal, ethical, andmilitary values embraced by the military ethos.We define effective CF leadership in terms thatevoke the concepts of duty and honour: directing,motivating, and enabling others to accomplishthe mission professionally and ethically, whiledeveloping or improving capabilities that con-tribute to mission success.Effective CF leaders getthe job done, look after their people, think and actin terms of the larger team, anticipate and adaptto change, and exemplify the military ethos in allthey do. This is what I expect of the Officers,Warrant Officers, and Non-Commissioned Officersassigned leadership responsibilities, and also whatthe Government and Canadian people expect.

General Rick HillierChief of the Defence Staff

Leadership in the Canadian Forces: Doctrineiv

Preface

This manual is intended for a general CF audience. It provides a unified doctrinal

basis for all Officer-NCM leadership training and education in the CF. It also con-

stitutes essential guidance for CF leadership practice at all levels. For leaders in

training, the manual serves as an introduction to the CF view of leadership. For

experienced leaders, it should suggest areas of additional study and development.

For senior leaders, the manual highlights their unique strategic and professional

responsibilities and provides a framework to assist them in developing the next

generation of CF leaders.

A detailed treatment of the concepts and theorysupporting CF leadership doctrine, includingadditional reference material and illustrativehistorical vignettes, may be found in A-PA-005-000/AP-004 Leadership in the Canadian Forces:Conceptual Foundations. The Conceptual Foun-dations manual in particular contains part of thesystematic theory-based body of knowledge thatdefines the military as a profession.

Guidance on leadership practice and techniquescan be found in the applied manuals, Leader-ship in the Canadian Forces: Leading People andLeadership in the Canadian Forces: Leading theInstitution.

The Director of the Canadian Forces LeadershipInstitute is responsible for the content, produc-tion, and publication of this manual. Suggestionsand queries may be forwarded to:

DirectorCanadian Forces Leadership InstituteCanadian Defence AcademyPO Box 17000 STN FORCESKingston ON K7K 7B4

About LeadershipAbout Leadership

CHAPTER 1

CF Leadership in a Changing World ----------------------- 2

Leadership Defined -------------------------------------------- 3

Effective CF Leadership Defined ---------------------------- 3

The Importance of Trust -------------------------------------- 5

Major Leadership Functions --------------------------------- 6

Individual and Distributed Leadership --------------------- 7

Leadership, Command, and Management ---------------- 7

Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------ 8

CF LEADERSHIP IN A CHANGING WORLD

As reflected in a broad array of tasks across thespectrum of conflict, the mission of the CanadianForces (CF) is to defend Canada and Canadianinterests while contributing to internationalpeace and security. Leadership in the CF is aboutserving this mission. For the foreseeable future,this mission will be played out in a more com-plex and unpredictable security environment—reflecting a ‘new world disorder’ of multiplethreats, regional instability, and loosely net-worked anarchy. It will require today’s military

professionals to perform a broad range and mix ofroles, often sequentially or simultaneously withinone mission, and including everything fromhigh-intensity combat and peace enforcementto peacekeeping, the interdiction of illegalactivities, frontline diplomacy, nation building,and humanitarian relief. It will also involveworking with many players—traditional militaryallies as well as new military partners, otherGovernment departments and agencies, a varietyof non-governmental organizations, the media,and the civil representatives and peoples of dif-ferent cultures and national groups.

Leadership often means different

things to different people, and the

numerous books and articles on lead-

ership reflect the many contradictory

opinions that people hold. While

much of this literature is generally

helpful in contributing to an under-

standing of leadership as a common

social behaviour, only some of it is

relevant to the practice of military

leadership. This is because the

demands and duties of leadership

vary according to the setting in which

it is practiced. The implications for CF

Officers, Warrant Officers, and NCOs

seem obvious. Functionally and pro-

fessionally, it is essential that they understand what it means to be a leader in

the armed forces of Canada.

“Whenever people becomeinvolved in joint activities, aleadership structure develops.” 1

Edwin P. Hollander

“Influence is the essence ofleadership. Much of the activityof formal leaders involvesattempts to influence the atti-tudes and behaviour of people,including subordinates, peers,superiors, and outsiders.” 2

Gary Yukl

“Competent military leadersdevelop trust, focus effort, clarifyobjectives, inspire confidence,build teams, set the example,keep hope alive, rationalizesacrifice.” 3

Lieutenant-General (ret’d) Walter F. Ulmer Jr., US Army

Leadership in the Canadian Forces: Doctrine2

Chapter 1: About Leadership 3

Whether Officers and NCMs are formallyappointed to positions of responsibility andauthority or temporarily assume leadership roles,the primary duty of CF leaders, broadly speak-ing, is to use their authority and influence toaccomplish the defence mission in a professionalmanner. CF leaders have related and corre-spondingly broad duties to build an internallyco-ordinated and cohesive institution, to bediligent in taking care of the men and womenwho serve in the CF, and to develop, adapt, andimprove military capabilities in the face ofchanging conditions and emerging challenges.

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

Leadership may be defined as directly or indirectlyinfluencing others, by means of formal authorityor personal attributes, to act in accordance withone’s intent or a shared purpose. This definition

is generic and value-neutral. It is broadly inclu-sive of all forms of leadership across a wide rangeof settings and times. It makes no statementsabout what might be good or bad, effective orineffective, leadership.

EFFECTIVE CF LEADERSHIP DEFINED

Leadership roles in the CF, like leadership roles inother formal organizations, exist to serve collec-tive effectiveness. Therefore, leader effectivenessin the CF must be defined in relation to CFeffectiveness. As illustrated by Figure 1, collec-tive effectiveness in the CF can be uniquelydefined in terms of five major dimensions:mission success, internal integration, memberwell-being and commitment, external adapt-ability, and the military ethos.

Figure 1 | CF effectiveness framework.

Essential Outcomes &Conduct Values

Secondary Outcomes

• Reputation• Trust & confidence

• Support

Mission Success(Primary Outcome)

Military Ethos

(Conduct)

ExternalAdaptability

(EnablingOutcome)

InternalIntegration

(EnablingOutcome)

Member Well-being& Commitment

(Enabling Outcome)

Perceived effectiveness and legitimacy


❚ Mission Success expresses the outcome of pri-mary importance to the CF. In every militarymission across the spectrum of operations—from a search-and-rescue sortie to a campaigninvolving a multi-national coalition—the dom-inant imperative is to accomplish the mission,often at some risk to the participants, and attimes in spite of significant human, materiel,and financial costs. The primacy of operationsthat drives collective planning and action, andthe unlimited liability that members assumethrough military service, are direct conse-quences of the overriding importance we placeon mission success as an institutional value.

❚ Internal Integration reflects a concern for theinternal organization and stability of militaryunits, systems, and the CF. More specifically,internal integration refers to the co-ordinationof in-house functions and processes and theachievement of teamwork and cohesion amongthe people who make up a unit or organization.The parts must work together.

❚ Member Well-being and Commitment sig-nifies a concern for the people who serve inthe CF and the quality of their conditions ofservice. The CF is its people. Demonstratingcare and consideration for CF members is aboth a practical and a moral obligation.

❚ External Adaptability reflects a concern forthe external operating environment and thecapacity of a military unit, system, or the CFto anticipate and adapt to changing condi-tions. Adaptability is crucial to institutionalsurvival and operational success.

❚ The Military Ethos encompasses values thatdescribe and define professional conduct.This behavioural dimension of CF effective-ness includes: the civic values of liberaldemocracy; values subsumed by the rule oflaw; ethical values governing our treatment

of others and the conduct of operations; andthe traditional military values of duty, loy-alty, integrity, and courage. The ethos is theessence of the warrior’s honour.

The first four dimensions of effectiveness—mission success, internal integration, memberwell-being and commitment, and externaladaptability—represent essential outcomes, orwhat we strive to achieve. Mission success is ofprimary importance; the other three outcomesare enabling outcomes, important aspects ofeffectiveness in their own right, but alsobecause, as force multipliers, they enable orcontribute to mission success. The remainingdimension of effectiveness, the military ethos,prescribes general standards of conduct andsets boundaries on how outcomes may beachieved. As discussed in Duty with Honourand indicated here, the military ethos is centralto our concepts of both the profession of armsand military leadership.

To the extent that the we generally achieveessential outcomes in ways consistent with ourconduct values, we will be perceived as effectiveand maintain our legitimacy in the eyes of theGovernment, the Canadian public, military allies,and the international community. Perceivedeffectiveness and legitimacy, in turn, affect anumber of secondary outcomes, which shouldalso be of concern to all CF members: the pro-fessional image and reputation of the CF; trustand confidence in the CF; and public supportfor the CF.

At every organizational level of the CF, from asmall team to the entire institution, these fivevalue dimensions establish the common foun-dation of CF leadership. As such, they shouldnot only focus the attention of the Officer-NCMleadership cadre but should also unify theirefforts as a professional team.


In accordance with the belief that leadershipserves collective purposes and the collectivegood, effective CF leadership may be formallydefined as directing, motivating, and enablingothers to accomplish the mission professionallyand ethically, while developing or improvingcapabilities that contribute to mission success.Effective CF leadership is about accomplishingessential outcomes but is also about achievingthese outcomes in ways that are consistent withthe military ethos. The CF leadership model is avalues-based model, one that gives shape to theprofessional ideal of duty with honour.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST

Trust in leadership is positively related to indi-vidual and group performance, persistence in theface of adversity, the ability to withstand stress,job satisfaction, and commitment to continuedservice. A climate of trust between leaders andled is also positively related to such ‘good soldier’qualities as conscientiousness, fair play, and co-operation. Whether trust is based mainly ondemonstrated leader competence, the care andconsideration for others displayed by a leader,or on perceptions of a leader’s character (integ-rity, dependability, and fairness), the evidence


supporting this common understanding is com-pelling and robust. It follows that an importantpart of the leader’s job is to build and maintainhealthy trust relationships with subordinates,peers, and superiors.

Leaders build and maintain trust through theirdecisions, actions, and interactions. Henceeffective CF leaders at all levels:

❚ demonstrate high levels of proficiency in the performance of core functions and takeadvantage of opportunities to enhance theirprofessional expertise and competence;

❚ exercise good judgment in decisions thataffect others and do not expose people tounnecessary risks;

❚ show trust and confidence in their subordi-nates by giving them additional authority andinvolving them in decisions where circum-stances allow;

❚ demonstrate concern for the well-being of theirsubordinates, represent their interests, andensure they are supported and taken care ofby the organization;

❚ show consideration and respect for others,treating subordinates fairly—without favouror discrimination;

❚ focus on the mission, maintaining high stan-dards and honest and open communications;

❚ lead by example, sharing risks and hardshipsand refusing to accept or take special privi-leges; and

❚ keep their word and can be counted on tohonour their obligations.

MAJOR LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS

From lower to higher levels of responsibility andauthority in an organization, there are obviousdifferences in the focus, scope, and time horizonof leaders. Generally speaking, the leadershipenvironment becomes more ambiguous andthe leadership task becomes more complexwith increasing rank and responsibility.

At lower to middle rank levels in the CF, Officersand NCMs appointed to positions involvingleadership responsibilities are typically engagedin directing, motivating, and enabling others toaccomplish the day-to-day defence missions andtasks that have been assigned to the CF. Becauseof the requirement for a lot of face-to-faceinteraction and direct influence, this leadershipfunction is described as leading people, andgenerally corresponds to the tactical and oper-ational levels of command and activity.

At higher rank levels, senior leaders and theirstaffs are uniquely responsible for sustainingcurrent military capabilities and systems whileplanning and developing the strategic and pro-fessional capabilities needed to ensure that theCF will remain effective into the future. Thisleadership function is described as leading theinstitution, and generally corresponds to themilitary-strategic and national-strategic levelsof command and activity.

As CF leaders move up in rank and assumegreater responsibility and authority, it is essentialthat they broaden their perspective, knowledge,and skills so that they are able to provide effectiveleadership to both people and the institution.


INDIVIDUAL AND DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP

Conventional ideas about leaders and theirinfluence on people and organizations tend tofocus on heroic individuals and their efforts toalter circumstances or shape events. But no oneperson can master and control everything in alarge and complex organization such as the CF,nor is it reasonable to expect anyone to do so.From time to time, outstanding individuals willhave a significant effect on others and makesubstantial contributions to the CF. Over the longhaul, however, the effectiveness of the CF willdepend more on developing in breadth anddepth a strong Officer-NCM leadership team witha shared sense of responsibility, professionalidentity, values, and purpose.

Distributed leadership is about sharing theresponsibilities of leadership, vertically andhorizontally within teams, units, formations,and the CF as a whole.

LEADERSHIP, COMMAND,AND MANAGEMENT

Leadership is an essential role requirement forcommanders and managers but is not the samething as command or management. Commandis bounded by the lawful authority delegated toa commander and may only be exercised downthe chain of command. Management is similarlybounded by the authority delegated to a managerand may only be exercised down the managerialchain of command. Leadership, on the otherhand, may be exercised by anyone, regardless oforganizational position. Moreover, purposefulinfluence, that is, influence intended to achievea CF objective, may not only be directed downthe chain of command but also up and across thechain of command and even beyond the bound-aries of the CF. In sum, leader influence works in

concert with the formal authority of commandand management but also operates independ-ently of such formal authority.

Command and management may also bedescribed in terms of an array of functionsassociated with an appointment or as a set ofactivities related to those functions. As func-tions or activities performed by a militarycommander for example, command typicallyincludes, but is not limited to, such things asplanning, problem-solving and decision making,organizing, informing, directing and leading,allocating and managing resources, developing,co-ordinating, monitoring, and controlling. Theessence of command, however, is the expressionof human will, as reflected in the concept ofcommander’s intent. Nearly everything a com-mander does—planning, directing, allocatingresources, monitoring—is driven and governedby the commander’s vision, goal, or mission, andthe will to realize or attain that vision, goal, ormission. As such, command is the purposefulexercise of authority—over structures, resources,people, and activities.

Like command, management entails responsi-bilities for a similarly broad range of functions—planning, problem-solving and decision making,organizing, informing, directing and leading,allocating and managing resources, developing,co-ordinating, monitoring, and controlling.Whatclearly sets military command apart from man-agement are the unique authorities of militarycommanders to resort to large-scale lethal force,to compel subordinates to go into harm’s way,and to dispense a distinct military justice withsubstantial powers of punishment. But in otherrespects, there are many functional similarities,including the expectation that commandersand managers will not only lead but that theywill lead well.

CONCLUSION

Military leadership has never been an easyundertaking, but in today’s strategic, military,social, and domestic environments, it has becomean especially complex and demanding activity.Today’s leaders in the CF must deliver on a broadrange of demanding operational roles within aconstrained resource base, must continue to strivefor a common identity and teamwork within amore varied and complicated human resourcelandscape, and must also satisfy heightened

public expectations of military professionalism.And all this must be accomplished in the con-text of traditional responsibilities:

❚ resolving conflict through preventive inter-ventions if possible and force of arms whennecessary, and

❚ developing the necessary capabilities thatwill assure the CF’s success in its militaryassignments.


The CF Philosophy of Leadership The CF Philosophy of Leadership

CHAPTER 2

Key Principles ------------------------------------------------- 10

Supporting Conditions -------------------------------------- 11

Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------- 14

As used in this chapter, the term

‘philosophy’ refers to a set of principles

or ideas that should inform all aspects

of practice.The CF philosophy of leader-

ship is based on two such principles:

distributed leadership and values-based

leadership.

KEY PRINCIPLES

The CF philosophy of leadership reflects thedemands of contemporary operations, whichare typically carried out by dispersed elements,may be high tempo, and often require juniorleaders as well as senior leaders to think andact independently to achieve the military objec-tive. It is also compatible with the belief that all members share the military’s fundamentalresponsibility to accomplish the defence mission,with members’ expectations that they be treatedlike professionals, and with the social and cul-tural values of Canadian liberal democracy. TheCF philosophy of leadership is based on the keyprinciples of distributed leadership and values-based leadership. The principle of distributedleadership addresses the question of who shouldlead, while the principle of values-based leader-ship addresses the question of how CF Officersand NCMs should lead.

Distributed Leadership.

Distributed leadership means three things:

❚ that the essential functions of leadershipshould be shared to varying degrees with peerand subordinate leaders;

“In a hierarchy, delegation isthe primary tool for creatingopportunity for more leaders…If delegation is the norm, eachleader can create subordinateleaders.” 1

Gifford Pinchot

“There is no substitute for thefundamental mind-set that mem-bers of the profession, regardlessof rank, are colleagues, engagedin a common enterprise thatmatters deeply to them. If thatmind-set is present, then eachmember feels a loyalty to theother, grounded in his or hercommon professional identity.” 2

Martin Cook

“Canadian military values—which are essential forconducting the full range ofmilitary operations, up to and including warfighting —come from what history andexperience teach about theimportance of moral factors in operations… These military values are understood andexpressed within the Canadianmilitary ethos as follows:Duty…Loyalty…Integrity…Courage…” 3

Duty with Honour: The Profession ofArms in Canada

“Values are real to the degreethat we are prepared to risksomething in order to make themprevail. Values are virtual whenthey remain rhetorical, whenthe commitments we make arenot followed with action.” 4

Michael Ignatieff


Chapter 2: The CF Philosophy of Leadership 11

❚ that the leadership potential of Officers,Warrant Officers, and NCOs down to the low-est level of formal authority should be fullydeveloped and exploited; and

❚ that the latent leadership potential of all CFmembers should also be given an opportu-nity for development and expression.

Distributed leadership emphasizes the importanceof the leadership team, which may be variouslydescribed in terms of Officers and NCMs, theleadership cadre in a unit, or the senior staff in aheadquarters. Distributed leadership stresses thecollective contribution that different leadersperforming complementary functions can maketo performance and effectiveness, and can beobserved in such actions as joint planning anddecision making,or temporarily assigning leader-ship on a mission or task to the most experiencedor best qualified individual. Distributed leader-ship also fosters the basic understanding that allCF members have a personal and professionalduty to assume a leadership role when there isno superior present to provide direction and thethreat of failure looms or when an opportunitypresents itself to gain a tactical, operational, orstrategic advantage. Such occasions could arisein peace or war or any circumstance in between.This is when their sense of responsibility forthe group, the unit, the mission, or the profes-sion should most obviously oblige them to takecharge of the situation and others and get thejob done.

Values-based Leadership.

Values-based leadership means that leaders areto be guided in their decisions and actions by theinstitutional values that define CF effectiveness:accomplishing the mission; contributing to andacting as part of a co-ordinated and cohesiveteam; developing and looking after CF members;

anticipating and adapting to change; and exem-plifying and upholding the ideals of conductinherent in the military ethos. The civic, legal,ethical, and military values embraced by themilitary ethos are especially important, becausethey are intended to guide decisions and actionsin all circumstances. As discussed in Duty withHonour, Canadian society is based on civic valuesemphasizing fundamental freedoms and equalrights. Our legal values are premised on the ruleof law, which affirms: that the social order estab-lished under reasonable laws made by reasonablepeople is preferable to other forms of social order;that the law is the supreme authority in society;and that everyone is equally subject to the law,including government officials, the armed forces,and private individuals.As the ultimate defendersof Canadian society, it is imperative that all CFpersonnel, but especially CF leaders, be imbuedwith these values. CF ethical values are based onthe principles of respect for others, service toCanada, and obedience to authority, while prin-ciples incorporated in the law of armed conflictgovern conduct in operations. The military val-ues of duty, integrity, loyalty, and courage flowfrom the CF’s unique responsibility to society andthe uncompromising demands of military service.

The principle of values-based leadership is fun-damental to the issue of how CF leaders oughtto lead. It affirms that leadership practice, likeservice in the CF, should be governed by theprofessional ideal of duty with honour.

SUPPORTING CONDITIONS

For the CF philosophy of leadership to thrive, ithas to be supported by the right conditions. Theseinclude: broadly based leader development; theappropriate delegation of authority; professionalcohesion; an open culture; and a living ethos.


Broadly Based Leader Development.

This condition is considered to provide the best fit with the demands of contemporary andfuture operations. As noted earlier, a number oftechnical and military developments have madeaccelerated decision-making, initiative, and co-ordinated independent action highly valuedcapabilities across the spectrum of operationsand at increasingly lower levels of responsibilityand authority. This is why the CF philosophy ofmission command explicitly recognizes the neces-sity of allowing subordinates maximum freedomof action consistent with commander intent.

Operating requirements call for a similar ap-proach to leadership. What this means is thatleading should not be viewed solely as the respon-sibility of the people wearing the highest rank.Everyone has to accept some responsibility forthe mission and the effectiveness of the team, theunit, and ultimately the CF. Everyone, regardlessof rank, should be considered as part of a systemof interlocking relationships based on both posi-tion and personality. Therefore, with respect to

the question ‘Who should lead?’ the CF answeris: in principle, everyone—in particular Officersand NCMs assigned to positions of responsibility,but, also, anyone else presented with the oppor-tunity or called upon by circumstances to lead.Given this requirement, leadership training anddevelopment should start relatively early in everyCF member’s career and, based on demonstratedpotential and increased responsibility, should becontinual and progressive thereafter. The objectiveof the CF’s leadership-development programshould be to create a broadly distributed capabilityfor both position-based leadership and emergentleadership. Leader development is critical tooperational success and the professional healthof the CF.

Appropriate Delegation of Authority.

Like the doctrine of mission command, the philosophy of distributed leadership encouragesthe practice of delegating authority to createsubordinate leaders and the capability for inde-pendent action in teams and units. This is not

Chapter 2: The CF Philosophy of Leadership 13

the same thing as universal empowerment. Noteveryone is at the same level of readiness tooperate independently or to lead or commandothers, so that to delegate authority indiscrimi-nately would do some people a disservice andpossibly jeopardize mission accomplishment.As a general rule, the delegation of authoritymust be balanced against the readiness of theperson to whom authority is delegated; subor-dinates should be given as much authority asthey can competently and responsibly handle.Beyond that, to satisfy developmental objectives,it may sometimes be desirable to give them verychallenging duties and correspondingly greaterauthority (so-called ‘stretch’ assignments). Thecorollary to the general rule is that, wheneverauthority is delegated to subordinates, the canonsof accountability require that their performancebe monitored, and energized, re-directed, facil-itated, or corrected as necessary.

Professional Cohesion.

Duty with Honour defines a profession essen-tially as an exclusive group of peoplevoluntarily performing a service to society andunified by a common body of expertise andcode of conduct. Consistent with these ideas,the condition of professional cohesion pro-motes distributed leadership through the equalprofessional status accorded all Officers andNCMs of the Regular Force and PrimaryReserve. There is an important but subtle dis-tinction that applies here. While CF membershave different competencies, perform differentroles, and are assigned different levels ofauthority commensurate with their roles andresponsibilities, each member of the professionof arms in Canada is considered on some levelas an equal member of a distinctive commu-nity. In this respect, it is essential that CFOfficers, Warrant Officers, and NCOs think ofthemselves as belonging to the same leadershipteam, sharing a common set of values and

engaged in a common enterprise. Conse-quently, all have a shared responsibility andright to contribute to the health and function-ing of the profession, principally through theprocess of mutual influence. By building astrong sense of, and attachment to, the profes-sional community, it is reasonable to expectthat each member will be motivated to answerthe call of duty when required and use what-ever influence he or she has to serve theprofession’s purpose in society.

An Open Culture.

An open culture means that people are encour-aged to engage in broad inquiry, to thinkcritically, and to venture and debate new ideasin the interests of contributing to collectiveeffectiveness. These are the means by whichany organization or society is able to managechange and evolve. In short, they are the char-acteristics of a learning and adaptive cultureand what CF leaders must foster if they are totake full advantage of the organization’s intel-lectual and social capital. This condition reflectsthe belief that knowledge grows and societythrives most advantageously in an environmentthat encourages the free exchange of reasonedideas reasonably presented and reasonablyevaluated. Hence, in an open culture, the taken-for-granted assumptions about leadership are:that people in positions of authority are recep-tive to upward influence; and that no one needspermission to lead.

A Living Ethos.

Values express what we consider useful, impor-tant, and desirable. They are comparable tohigh-level statements of intent—intentionsabout what we want to achieve and about howwe should go about it. Because they motivateand guide behaviour, values provide a highlyeffective means of allowing individuals and

teams considerable freedom of action while, atthe same time, ensuring that their behaviour isboth appropriate and professional. In an operat-ing environment in which independent thinkingand action are increasingly important to effec-tiveness, values-based discipline and leadershipserve as a reliable and flexible guide to action.

To motivate and guide behaviour, however,values must be a living part of the CF. Hence,the civic, legal, ethical, and military values at theheart of the military ethos must be reflected inday-to-day decisions and actions. They cannotbe just words on paper or empty commitments.They must be publicly visible consistent patternsof behaviour. Leaders make the difference. Byinternalizing the values of the military ethos andliving by them, by instilling the ethos in others,by establishing and maintaining a professionalculture, by protecting the professional reputationof the CF, by facing and resolving problems law-fully and ethically, leaders make values real.

CONCLUSION

These are the elements of values-based and dis-tributed leadership. It is a basic duty of leadersat all levels to instill and uphold the CF’s profes-sional values and to make distributed leadershipa reality in their team, unit, or organization.What this philosophy should ultimately provide,if applied correctly, is the confidence that CFOfficers, Warrant Officers, and NCOs can andwill develop the capabilities necessary to ensuremission success, and that they can also direct,motivate, and enable others to accomplish themission ethically and professionally.


CF Leadership ModelCF Leadership Model

CHAPTER 3

Overview of the CF Leadership Model ------------------- 16

Leader Characteristics --------------------------------------- 19

Influence ------------------------------------------------------- 20

Direct and Indirect Influence ------------------------------- 24

Individual/Group Capabilities, Behaviour,and Performance --------------------------------------------- 24

Situational Factors ------------------------------------------- 25

Outcomes ------------------------------------------------------ 25

Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------- 26

OVERVIEW OF THE CF LEADERSHIP MODEL3

As part of the theory-based body of knowledgethat defines the military profession, the simpli-fied CF leadership model shown in Figure 3 isbased on a systems view of leadership in formalorganizations and is intended to illustrate thelinkages among the key variables that contributeto collective performance and effectiveness. Themodel consists of four major classes of variables:leader characteristics and behaviour; individual/group variables; situational factors; and out-comes. Partitioning Figure 3 according to the four

major classes of variables, leader characteristicsand behaviour occupy the top-left and centre-leftareas of the model, situational factors are locatedin the bottom area of the figure, individual andgroup variables are in the centre of the schematic,and outcomes are shown on the far right of themodel. The purpose of the model is to illustrate:

❚ how personal and situational characteristicsmake leader influence possible;

❚ how leader influence affects the capabilities,behaviour, and performance of individualsand groups;

Taking a comprehensive systems view

of CF functioning, it is clear that collec-

tive performance and effectiveness are

jointly determined by many factors: the

knowledge, skills, and personality of

individual CF members; the group char-

acteristics and dynamics of teams and

units; and the institutional structure,

policies, technology, and culture of the

CF as a whole. Hence, leadership, whether

examined at the team/unit level or at

the strategic level, is only one of many

variables that contribute to collective

performance. On the other hand, leaders

not only influence people directly, as

their role is conventionally understood,

but they can also shape the internal and external environments that influence

performance and behaviour indirectly.Viewed in this way, CF leaders can potentially

affect all aspects of CF functioning.

“Leadership is only one of many determinants of organizational performance.” 1

Gary Yukl

“Leadership affects everything.”

Anonymous

“model n. A representation thatmirrors, duplicates, imitates or insome way illustrates a patternof relationships observed in dataor in nature… When used in thissense, a model becomes a kindof mini-theory, a characterizationof a process and, as such, itsvalue and usefulness derivefrom the predictions one canmake from it…” 2

Arthur Reber


How personal and situational characteristicsmake leader influence possible:

❚ Relationship a. Whether they areemployed in solving a tactical-level problem or a strategic one, technical,cognitive, social, and other competenciesare the basis of a leader’s personal power and affect the quality of a leader’sanalyses, decisions, and plans.

❚ Relationship b. Analysis and intent formation are also influenced by varioussituational factors. For example, a leader’sconsciousness of his or her responsibilities,channels attention, thinking, imagination,and decision making. Situational constraintsand opportunities also guide and mould

behaviour. Constraints operate at all levelsand may apply to time, resources, orbehaviour. For example, constraints onbehaviour can take the form of the rulesof engagement applicable to a specificmission, or Government policies that pertain to the CF as a whole. Similarly,for the prepared and situationally awareleader, opportunities that get noticed canresult in dramatic changes in plans ordirection at the tactical, operational, orstrategic level.

❚ Relationships c and d. The influenceprocesses depicted in the central portionof Figure 3 are the essence of leadership.As an expression of intent, leader influence

Figure 3 | Simplified CF leadership model.

LeaderCharacteristics

a

b d g h j

c

Analysis &intent formation Influence

Direct

ei

k

fIndirect

Individual/GroupCapabilities,Behaviour,

and Performance

Outcomes

Situational Factors

Chapter 3: CF Leadership Model 17

❚ how leader influence affects the capabilitiesand performance of CF systems, the institu-tion as a whole, and other aspects of thesituation; and

❚ ultimately, how people and situational factorsgenerate essential outcomes and other indi-cators of effectiveness.


may be either enhanced or diminished bythe leader’s personal characteristics andsituational factors. A leader’s technicaland tactical competence, for example, willearn the confidence of subordinates andenhance the leader’s ability to obtain theirwilling support. Similarly with respect tosituational factors, a unit climate charac-terized by pride and professionalism makesit easier for a commanding officer tocommunicate intent and implement plans.

How leader influence affects the capabilities,behaviour, and performance of individualsand groups:

❚ Relationship e. Outcomes are achievedthrough others, which means that influenceis typically applied in a face-to-face wayto modify the capabilities, behaviour, orperformance of individuals and groups.In addition to influencing subordinates,leaders may also influence the decisionsand actions of peers, superiors, and peopleexternal to the organization.

❚ Relationship f. Conversely, any of thesepeople may equally attempt to pro-activelyinfluence or reactively counter-influencewhoever is doing the leading. These obser-vations should make it clear that leadershipis a dynamic interactive process, involvingboth hierarchical and mutual influence.

How leader influence affects the capabilitiesand performance of CF systems, the institutionas a whole, and other aspects of the situation:

❚ Relationship g. Leader influence is alsoexercised indirectly, to shape task, group,system, institutional, or environmentalcharacteristics. According to their level ofresponsibility and authority, CF leadersmay change or influence an operationalprocedure (e.g., a tactical innovation),

organizational structure (e.g., to process-based rather than functional), systemcapabilities (e.g., new technology or doctrine), institutional characteristics(e.g., unit climate, organizational normsand culture), or conditions in the externalenvironment (e.g., through public relationsactivities, advice on national security policy). In this way, leaders attempt toimprove situational favourability and createthe conditions necessary for effective performance and mission success.

❚ Relationship h. Through indirect influenceof this kind, leaders enhance individual andgroup capabilities and performance. Whengroup, system, or institutional improve-ments become stabilized (e.g., tacticaldrills, integrated technologies, standardoperating procedures, professionalism,cultural norms), they make the process ofleading easier and may even substitute,in some cases, for weak leadership.

How people and situational factors generateessential outcomes and other indicators of effectiveness:

❚ Relationships i and j. As indicated byFigure 3, the key determinants of CFeffectiveness are its people and its systems.The performance of CF members and theperformance of various CF systems con-tribute jointly and independently to theessential outcomes of mission success,internal integration, member well-beingand commitment, and external adaptability.The performance of people and systemsalso affects such secondary outcomes asthe CF’s image and reputation and publicattitudes toward the military. However,events are not entirely subject to humancontrol, and therefore outcomes are notpredetermined even in the best-equipped,


best-trained, and best-led military forces.Desired outcomes may be thwarted byhuman error, natural phenomena, thebehaviour of independent actors, equipmentfailure, chance, and other uncontrollablefactors. Even tactical-level decisions andactions can have a strategic impact. Con-sequently, leaders must constantly be alertto the possibility of plans and actionsmiscarrying and strive to contain or offsetidentifiable risks.

❚ Relationship k. Naturally, outcomesachieved reflect back on leaders, affectingtheir subsequent behaviour. Outcomes alsoinfluence how a leader’s capability andeffectiveness are perceived by subordinates,peers, and superiors, and thus may eitherenhance or diminish a leader’s legitimacyand capacity to lead.

LEADER CHARACTERISTICS

There is neither a definitive list of essential leaderqualities nor any guarantee that the possession ofall or most of the commonly identified attributeswill result in effective leadership. Nevertheless,CF Officers and NCMs can improve their capacityto be effective leaders by acquiring and develop-ing competencies in the following five domains:

❚ Knowledge and skills. A high level of pro-ficiency in technical and tactical skills ismandatory for Officers and NCMs in directcommand and leadership positions. Seniorleaders at the operational and strategic levelsrequire broader knowledge and expertiserelating to strategic systems and institutionalfunctioning.

❚ Cognitive ability.Analytical skills and creativethinking are essential abilities for all leaders.The ability to handle abstract concepts andideas, principled moral reasoning, and pro-fessional judgement increase in importanceat senior leadership levels.

❚ Social capacities. At all levels of leadership,interpersonal skills such as communication,persuasion, and conflict management arecritical to working with others. Strategic rolesand functions require a broader repertoire ofsocial-influence and communications skills tomanage multi-level relationships inside andoutside the CF and to lead strategic change.

❚ Personality traits. Effective leaders exemplifypersonal integrity in their decisions andactions. They also demonstrate a number ofpersonal characteristics that relate to adapt-ability: openness to experience, flexibility ofthought and behaviour, and self-assurance.

❚ Professional motivation and values. Profes-sionalism reflects a strong commitment tothe social responsibilities of the profession, ahigh valuation of professional competence andmilitary skills, and a personal identificationwith the values of the Canadian military ethos.


Many of the attributes that underpin effectiveleader performance are acquirable to a greateror lesser degree. By taking full advantage ofprofessional development opportunities and pur-suing a personal program of self-improvement,Officers and NCMs performing leadership rolescan ensure that they will be ready, confident,and able to lead.

INFLUENCE

Formal leadership in the CF is based on lawfulauthority. This relationship reflects the highvalue that Canadian society places on the ruleof law. Under the rule of law, the law is themeans by which social order is established andmaintained, and is the supreme authority insociety. No one is above the law, and actions bythe state and its representatives must be sanc-tioned by the law. Under the rule of law, CFleaders have obligations (1) to obey the law,that is, to use any authorities and powers pro-vided by the law in accordance with the law,(2) to instruct CF members on their obligationsunder the law, and (3) to uphold the law, that is,to defend the rule of law as an important societalvalue and to enforce discipline and obedienceto the law.

The relationship between military leadershipand obedience to lawful authority is clearly andforcefully expressed in two ways. First, pursuantto section 19 of the National Defence Act, Queen’sRegulation and Order 19.015 establishes thelawful authority of superiors as follows: “Everyofficer and non-commissioned member shallobey lawful commands and orders of a superiorofficer.” Second, section 83 of the Code of ServiceDiscipline provides a coercive support to thislawful authority: “Every person who disobeys alawful command of a superior officer is guilty of

an offence and on conviction is liable to impris-onment for life or to less punishment.” Lawfulauthority allows military leaders, even of juniorrank, to get difficult things done, while powersof punishment help ensure the maintenance ofmilitary discipline.

Lawful authority and powers of punishmentalone, however, will not make an Officer,WarrantOfficer, or NCO a good or effective leader. Thepowers that come with rank and position in theCF represent an initial line of credit that juniorofficers and junior NCOs are given to get themstarted as leaders. Whether they become fullydeveloped effective leaders depends on howwisely they use their authority, what they do toinvest in and augment other capacities forinfluence, and how skillful they are in usingappropriate influence behaviours.

Figure 4 provides a reasonably comprehensiveinventory of leader influence behaviours. Theseare roughly ordered by the amount of controlemployed by the leader, ranging from the totalcontrol that epitomizes authoritarian leader-ship to the complete absence of control thattypifies laissez-faire leadership. The influencebehaviours that define and are associated withtransformational leadership largely overlap withthe centre-right part of this spectrum.

Effective Influence Behaviours.

Effective influence behaviours and their uses maybe described as follows:

❚ Directive influence involves telling subordi-nates what they are to do and, possibly, when,how, and to what standard. Direction is appro-priate when conveying and implementing asuperior commander’s intent, when allocatingand co-ordinating tasks, when subordinates


lack information or experience and need guid-ance, to stiffen the resolve of individuals or agroup when they are at risk of faltering intheir efforts, and in emergencies and high-stress situations when subordinates may betemporarily disoriented or their thinking maybe impaired. Unlike authoritarian leadership,directive influence is exercised in an ethicalway that respects the dignity of subordinates.

❚ Contingent reward and punishment areintended either to reinforce observed desirablebehaviour or discourage observed undesirablebehaviour. Rewards and punishments may betangible (e.g., time off, a fine) or social (e.g.,recognition or praise, disapproval or repri-mand). The contingent allocation of rewardsand punishments is a very powerful techniquefor entraining or conditioning many kinds ofbehaviour, but does not guarantee maintenance

of the desired behaviour. Leaders must alsobe fair in meting out both rewards and pun-ishments. Rewards must be proportional tomerit, punishments must be consistent andappropriate to offences, and neither rewardsnor punishments should be allocated randomlyor arbitrarily.

❚ Achievement-oriented influence is primarilyconcerned with developing the competenceand self-confidence of subordinates. This kindof enabling influence typically involves: set-ting difficult but achievable goals, expressingconfidence in the ability of subordinates orothers to achieve the goals,and providing verbalsupport and encouragement. Achievement-oriented influence is appropriate across a widerange of developmental and performance sit-uations where either proficiency or confidenceis in doubt.

Aut

hori

tari

an

Dir

ecti

ve

Cont

inge

nt r

ewar

d&

pun

ishm

ent

Ach

ieve

men

t-or

ient

ed

Transformational Leadership

Effective Influence Behaviours

Totalcontrol

Zerocontrol

Pers

uasi

ve

Faci

litat

ive

Supp

orti

ve

Part

icip

ativ

e

Del

egat

ion

Lais

sez-

fair

e

Figure 4 | Spectrum of leader influence behaviours.


❚ Persuasive behaviours are primarily intendedto influence decision-making and task com-mitment by explaining to, or convincing, otherswhy a certain course of action is necessary.Persuasion usually involves: rational argu-ments based on facts, reason, and logic;inspirational appeals which arouse emotionsor make professional values salient; andapprising subordinates or others of potentialside-benefits to them. Persuasive influence isappropriate to secure agreement or commit-ment and when particularly high or sustainedlevels of effort are required.

❚ Facilitative influence involves modeling,coaching, mentoring, and other types of leaderbehaviour that either demonstrate a desiredbehaviour for others or enable its performanceby others, such as securing necessary taskresources. Exemplary task dedication or risk-taking can also facilitate performance, but

only if the leader is respected or trusted;subordinates will not willingly follow theexample of leaders they consider to beincompetent or reckless. Facilitative influenceis generally appropriate for achieving per-formance standards, establishing behaviouralnorms, or satisfying the task-support needsof subordinates.

❚ Supportive influence reflects a concern forthe general welfare of subordinates and isintended to assist them in resolving personalproblems or to improve their morale andwell-being. Supportive behaviours include:recognition of and responsiveness to individ-ual needs; demonstrations of understandingand empathy; offers of help or collaboration;representing subordinate interests to admin-istrative authorities; and efforts to improveworking conditions and unit climate.


❚ Participative behaviours involve the timelysharing of decision authority with others toimprove the quality and/or acceptance ofdecisions. The two basic methods of obtainingadvice, opinions, and recommendations are:individual or group consultations; and jointdecision-making. The use of participativemethods depends on the availability of suffi-cient time to involve others, but they areconsidered essential when subordinates orothers possess critical information or expert-ise, and when the acceptance of a decision orplan by subordinates or others is key to suc-cessful implementation.

❚ Delegation entails a transfer of specificauthorities from the leader to one or moresubordinates. Provided delegated tasks andauthorities are meaningful, delegation usuallyhas an enriching effect—enhancing the valueof a role or assignment, autonomy, motivation,and satisfaction. Delegation is appropriate torelieve a leader’s task overload, to maintaintempo and enhance responsiveness, or todevelop subordinates for higher rank or morechallenging assignments. When authority isdelegated, it is essential that the leader’saccountability be protected by obtaining rou-tine reports from subordinates, monitoringperformance indicators,or conducting personalcheck-ups and inspections.

Transformational Leadership.

Transformational leadership is a general patternof influence that incorporates and combinesseveral of the influence behaviours in Figure 4(i.e., idealized influence matches up with facili-tative behaviour, intellectual stimulation andinspirational motivation correspond to persuasiveinfluence and achievement-oriented behaviour,and individualized consideration incorporateselements of both supportive and participative

behaviours). As commonly used, transforma-tional leadership refers to a pattern of leaderinfluence intended to alter the characteristics ofindividuals, organizations, or societies in a fairlydramatic or substantial way so that they aresomehow more complete, or else are betterequipped to deal with the challenges they faceor are likely to face. In this general sense, trans-formational leadership reflects the ordinarydictionary meaning of the word transform—make (especially considerable) change in the form,outward appearance, character, disposition, etc.of something.

As used in the CF, transformational leadershipis anchored in the values of the military ethosand a relationship of trust between the leaderand led. It is characterized by the intent to bringabout significant reform or radical change inindividual, group, or system capabilities and out-comes. The leader behaviours that are most oftenassociated with transformational leadershipare neither new nor magical. But transforma-tional leaders bring together a mix of insight,imagination, rational persuasion, values-basedinspiration, and concern for followers in onepackage. Especially valuable in an environmentof multiple challenges and where the trust anddedication of others are critical to success, trans-formational leadership is simply another namefor superior leadership. Superior CF leaders, ortransformational leaders, give followers validreasons to be hopeful and committed.

Transformational leadership may be exercisedby a talented individual with a compelling ideaand the skill to communicate it to others, or bya cohesive Officer-NCM leadership team. At anylevel of CF functioning, from individual toinstitutional, the principal benefits of transfor-mational leadership are increased followertrust, commitment, and effort, which often


translate into performance beyond leaderexpectations, as well as high levels of individualand group confidence and morale.

In accordance with institutional values, CFleaders ought to ensure that they exercise theirinfluence in ways that are most likely to earnrespect, trust, and commitment. This preceptapplies equally to interactions with subordinates,peers, superiors, and anyone else they seek toinfluence. Hence influence behaviours that reflecta disdain for others (authoritarian behaviour) or alack of accountability (laissez-faire leadership) arenot acceptable in the CF. The remaining influencebehaviours shown in the spectrum of influence areconsidered effective when used in the appropri-ate circumstances, and the influence behaviourscited in the definition of effective CF leadership(“directing, motivating, and enabling others…”)can be considered as an abbreviated representationof this range of effective leadership behaviours.Additionally, influence behaviours associated withtransformational leadership (exemplary personalcommitment to duty, motivating and enablingothers through ideas and ideals, individualizedconsideration of others) are highly congruent withCF institutional values, and ought to be cultivatedin training and consistently reinforced in line unitsand staff organizations.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT INFLUENCE

Leadership is about influencing people to accom-plish tasks.As depicted in Figure 3, it is also aboutshaping the task environment. Leaders influencepeople directly, or in a face-to-face way, by clar-ifying individual and group roles and tasks,developing individual and group skills, sharingrisks and hardships, maintaining discipline andmorale, and encouraging high levels of effort andpersistence. Leaders influence people indirectly

by designing and creating the unit, institutional,and environmental conditions that enhance indi-vidual and collective performance, such asoperational drills, tactics, advanced doctrine,organizational structure, equipment, culture andidentity, and human resource programs andservices that support members and ensure theirfair treatment.

Direct and indirect influence processes apply toall levels of leadership—from every Junior NCOto the Chief of the Defence Staff. Both direct andindirect kinds of influence are critical to leadereffectiveness, and the way they work can beexpressed in two general principles:

❚ Direct Influence Principle: To contribute toCF effectiveness directly, leaders develop andcapitalize on people’s capabilities, and takeappropriate action to correct or compensatefor their deficiencies.

❚ Indirect Influence Principle: To contribute toCF effectiveness indirectly, leaders establishor modify task, group, system, institutionalcharacteristics and environmental condi-tions that enable or enhance individual andcollective performance, and attempt toneutralize or adapt to situational factorsthat constrain performance.

INDIVIDUAL/GROUP CAPABILITIES,BEHAVIOUR, AND PERFORMANCE

The CF’s essential outcomes are principallyachieved through the capabilities, behaviour,and performance of CF members working co-operatively with others and or as part of anintegrated team. Consequently, at all levels ofthe CF, leaders must devote considerable effortto developing and harnessing the collective capac-ity of people who work for them and with them.In this respect, the kinds of things typically


influenced by leaders include ability, motivation,decisions, conduct, performance, perceptions,beliefs, attitudes, values, and such group charac-teristics as teamwork, group norms, unit climate,and cohesion. In many cases, leaders will attemptto achieve their intent through the efforts of sub-ordinates, but they may also seek to influencethe decisions and behaviour of peers, superiors,people outside their chain of command, or evenpeople external to the CF. An often overlookedbut critical function of leadership is the exerciseof lateral and upward influence. Influence is not,however, a one-way street, and under a philoso-phy of distributed leadership, military leadersmust also be receptive to the views and opinionsof peers, subordinates, and others.

SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Apart from leaders and the people they are lead-ing or attempting to lead, situational factorsinclude all human and non-human elements thathave the potential to affect leader behaviour,follower behaviour, or outcomes. As shown inFigure 3, a number of these factors both influ-ence and are influenced by leader behaviour.Situational factors that are highly influential onleaders include the formal responsibilities theyare assigned and the authorities they are given todischarge a role or perform a task. More generally,resources, organizational structures, procedures,and external relationships may constrain leaderand follower behaviour to some degree. On theother hand, if task, group, system, institutional,or environmental conditions are positively alteredin some way by a leader’s initiative (e.g., changesin technology or administrative policies andservices, improving civil-military co-operationin an operational theatre), they may facilitate

certain actions and enhance follower perform-ance. Likewise, the extent to which the operatingculture reflects the conduct values of the militaryethos will have a generally positive or negativeeffect on both leader and follower conduct.

The characteristics of tasks, groups, systems, theCF, and even the physical and psychological envi-ronments are all, in principle, alterable to somedegree. Some situational factors that often have abig effect on outcomes are not controllable—theweather, geography, the actions of an adversary—and the only options for leaders when dealingwith such situational constraints are either toadapt to these conditions or to overcome them.

OUTCOMES

The whole purpose of leadership in the CF is toachieve essential outcomes. Essential outcomesfor the CF fall into the four broad categories ofmission success, internal integration, memberwell-being and commitment, and external adapt-ability. Although mission success will almostalways take precedence over other considerations,failure to pay sufficient attention to other dimen-sions of effectiveness can seriously undermineoverall performance and may have secondaryadverse effects on the image and reputation ofthe CF or on public confidence and support. CFleaders have to understand that effectivenessmeans paying attention to all essential outcomes.At times, this may require leaders to maketrade-offs, but part of the burden of leadershipinvolves dealing with competing values andpriorities and managing the risks inherent inmaking decisions.

CONCLUSION

The key determinants of CF effectiveness are itspeople and its systems. Leaders can influenceboth and must use all professional means attheir disposal to effect the changes necessary toachieve essential outcomes. While leaders mustbe held accountable for results, as well as actionstaken or not taken, no blame can be attachedfor failure if they act conscientiously and give

the mission or task their best effort. As historyillustrates, outcomes can affect the perceivedeffectiveness of individual leaders, the leadershipcadre, and the CF as a whole. Results also shapepublic perceptions of the CF’s legitimacy. Suc-cess almost always has a positive effect on thesesecondary outcomes, but even a failed missioncan bring credit to the CF and its leaders if carriedout with intelligence, courage, and discipline.


Leading PeopleLeading People

CHAPTER 4

Accomplishing the Mission -------------------------------- 28

Leader Responsibilities -------------------------------------- 30

Principles of Leadership ------------------------------------- 31

At the tactical and operational levels

of command and activity, the primacy

of operations means that the focus of

leadership is on influencing people to

accomplish missions and tasks. This is

the ‘leading people’ function.

ACCOMPLISHING THE MISSION

What makes military leadership at tactical andoperational levels especially difficult and chal-lenging is the requirement for teams and unitsto function and perform like high reliabilityorganizations. As a rule, high reliability organi-zations operate in complex environments, aresubject to a variety of demands, and must oftencontend with extreme, variable, and unpredictableconditions. They use sophisticated technologies(e.g., surveillance, communications, weaponsplatforms, and weapons systems) and rely onlarge numbers of people with diverse skills toperform their functions.The primary distinguish-ing feature of such organizations, however, isthat the consequences of error, even low-levelerror, can be catastrophic.

In military operations, which are intrinsicallyrisky and dangerous, performance errors may,for example, lead to widespread loss of life or serious injuries, mission failure, loss of or damage to high-value materiel and equipment,environmental degradation, serious collateraldamage to protected sites and civilian commu-nities, death and injury of non-combatants, ornegative political repercussions at the local,national, or international level. Experience showsthat individual and group misconduct may also result in equally negative consequences.Hence military units, like other high reliability

“Military leadership is essentiallyabout preparing for, and conducting, operations.”

Vice-Admiral (ret’d) Lynn Mason

“The prototype of military leadership, despite all thechanges that have occurredthrough the ages, has alwaysbeen fashioned on the basis ofa model of heroism in the faceof physical risk and hardship,suffering, pain, and death…

Armies in the post-World War IIera have increasingly been calledupon to deal with a multiplicityof tasks and missions: variousforms of low-intensity warfareinvolving guerrillas and insurgents organized in non-governmental movements;peacekeeping and policing;humanitarian aid and disasterrelief; and various kinds ofmediation. All of these missions,furthermore, are now oftenbeing carried out both withinmultinational frameworks…and under the watchful eye of the media and of variousinterested publics…. Thesetrends present military leadersat all levels with new challengesand responsibilities requiringhitherto undeveloped skills and capabilities…” 1

Boas Shamir & Eyal Ben-Ari


Chapter 4: Leading People 29

organizations, must strive to achieve consis-tently high levels of proficient performancewhile keeping the risks of serious error in check.Generally speaking, the odds of achieving highreliability performance can be enhanced bycareful planning and rigorous preparation, capi-talizing on the pool of expertise available withinthe team or unit, maintaining high standards ofprofessional conduct, constant monitoring ofand adjustment to the operating environment,developing error-recovery capabilities, andlearning from mistakes and near misses.

Thorough planning, realistic mission-focussedtraining, and other preparatory activities go along way to ensuring proficient performance.Nevertheless, even the best plans and prepara-tions have to be supplemented by capabilities to deal with unexpected events and emergencyor traumatic situations. It is a truism of groupbehaviour that leadership matters most and ismost severely tested:

❚ when plans go awry and mission failurethreatens;

❚ when the unexpected happens and it is notclear what needs to be done (either tacticallyor ethically) to prevent mission failure or harmto others; and

❚ when casualties are taken or the group is in psychological shock and team membersbecome disheartened or immobilized.

These kinds of situations, which require compo-sure under pressure, adaptive problem solving,and decisive action, distinguish operationalsettings from non-operational environments(routine and predictability are more typical ofthe latter). They define what some have called“the leadership moment” or “leading at the edge,”that is, a turning point in an unfolding scenario

when success is on the line and the safety or livesof others may depend on the actions of appointedor emergent leaders.When danger is also involvedand the leader is obliged to assume or share ahigh level of risk to catalyze or sustain groupeffort, we tend to classify this kind of leader-ship as heroic.

Such defining moments may occur rarely ornever in a CF leader’s experience. But they arelatent in every operational mission and task, and,if and when they do occur, the consequences ofineffective leadership can be disastrous. The bestdefence leaders can take against the likelihoodof mission failure in crisis moments and otherhigh-demand situations is to prepare themselves,their people, and their organizations. But theymust also develop the resilience in their organ-izations to adapt to and handle the unexpectedand the uncertain.

From the preceding requirements and consider-ations, we can identify five major ways in whichtactical and operational leaders can improve theodds of accomplishing the mission effectivelyand professionally:

❚ developing the individual and team capabilitiesof followers (task proficiency, teamwork, confi-dence, cohesion, and distributed leadership)to ensure high reliability mission performance;

❚ building individual and collective resilience(stress-prevention measures, situational aware-ness, improvisational skills) to enable peopleto withstand the stresses of operations andrecover from misfortune or adversity;

❚ instilling the military ethos (through socializa-tion practices, establishment and reinforcementof appropriate group or unit norms) to ensurehigh standards of professionalism and self-discipline;


❚ altering or improving situational conditions(unit/organizational characteristics and pro-cedures, external relations, relationships withsuperiors) to facilitate or enhance perform-ance; and

❚ effectively executing tasks, monitoring andadaptively managing performance, and mak-ing a deliberate effort to improve futureperformance by reviewing such experiencesand adopting any lessons learned.

LEADER RESPONSIBILITIES2

At the tactical and operational levels of activity,leaders must engage in a great deal of face-to-face contact with subordinates, other leaders,and external contacts. Direct influence is criticalto accomplishing missions and tasks. But lead-ership at these levels also requires substantialefforts to engineer the operating environmentto advantage, and to improve conditions in thesituation that affect mission performance andthe chances of success.

Although the focus of tactical and operationalleaders is on accomplishing the mission, CFleaders at all levels have responsibilities acrossall five dimensions of military and professionaleffectiveness: Mission Success, Internal Inte-gration, Member Well-being and Commitment,External Adaptability, and the Military Ethos.The following paragraphs provide an overviewof leader responsibilities in each of these areas.

Mission Success.

In relation to the mission success dimension ofeffectiveness, leaders spend much of their timepreparing for, and conducting or supporting,operations, and more generally, implementingthe policy direction of superiors. As an essential

prerequisite to assuming these responsibilities,tactical- and operational-level leaders mustexemplify personal competence and commit-ment. The basic task-oriented duties of tacticaland operational leaders are to clarify their goalsand intent, make and execute plans, solve prob-lems and make timely decisions, secure andmanage task resources, direct and motivateothers, train hard to improve individual andteam performance, and supervise individual andgroup performance. In the mission-leader orcommander role, the emphasis is on getting thejob done in a professional manner.

Internal Integration.

With respect to the internal integration domain,the primary roles of the Officer-NCM leadershipteam are those of co-ordinator, team-builder,and monitor. In the co-ordinator role, leadersprovide a common operating picture, establishroutines to facilitate coherent action,and maintaingood internal communications.As team-builders,the leadership cadre creates a sense of sharedidentity, and orchestrates training experiencesthat build teamwork and cohesion. In the mon-itor role, leaders continually assess the operatingstatus of the unit or sub-unit, by generally ensur-ing compliance with policies and procedures,conducting evaluations and inspections, review-ing status reports, and holding subordinatesaccountable for their actions.

Member Well-being and Commitment.

The primary leader roles pertaining to the mem-ber well-being and commitment dimension ofeffectiveness are those of sustainer and devel-oper. In the sustainer role, the Officer-NCMleadership team is responsible for establishinga healthy unit climate, treating people fairly,managing interpersonal conflict, responding to

complaints and concerns, representing the indi-vidual and collective interests of their people to administrative staffs and superiors, and gen-erally monitoring and building morale andcommitment to serve. In the developer role,leaders foster and recognize achievement, andprotect depth and continuity in teams and unitsby cultivating potential replacement leaders.They mentor people in apprenticeship positionsand challenging assignments, and encourage andsupport subordinate participation in training,educational, and professional activities over thecareer span.

External Adaptability.

To enhance the external adaptability of teamsand units and their preparedness for potentialdemands and challenges, leaders at all levels mustbe learners and innovators. As learners, leadersseek to understand the context of missions andother assignments, they maintain situationalawareness, and they draw on the knowledge ofmore experienced unit or staff members to prepare their teams and units for both knownscenarios and unpredictable contingencies.They are skilled in exercising influence in joint,inter-agency, and multi-national environments.Following exercises, operations, projects, andother activities, they conduct lessons-learnedreviews to improve operating procedures andpractices. As innovators, leaders support theDND/CF philosophy of continuous improvement,and are open to experimenting with proceduresand structures to strengthen team and unit capa-bilities. Consistent with this philosophy, theyfoster initiative, innovation, and experientiallearning in their subordinates.

Military Ethos.

With respect to the military ethos, the Officer-NCM leadership team has a joint responsibilityfor continuing and extending the professionalsocialization of new members that begins inentry training. Individually and collectively, theymust, at a minimum, maintain military standardsof good order and discipline. Over and above that,they have to create the conditions that will fosteracceptance and internalization of the ethos. Inpart, this means they have to be good teachers ofunit and CF history and heritage. They must alsoestablish a climate of respect for all members ofthe profession. More fundamentally, it means thatthey have to accept the responsibilities of militaryprofessionalism and set a positive example ofprofessionalism in their day-to-day behaviour.

PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP

Many military forces, including the CF, haverelied on a short list of principles as a way ofsummarizing the key responsibilities of small-unit leadership and communicating them toleaders in training and apprentice leaders. These“principles of leadership,” as they are called,remain valid as basic statements of a juniorleader’s responsibilities. But with greater expe-rience, responsibility, and authority, CF leadershave to acquire a more extensive understandingof their duties and responsibilities if they are todeal effectively with the many demands of acomplex world, a complex operating environment,and a correspondingly complex role.



❚ Achieve professional competence and pursue self-improvement—Leadercompetence is critical to mission accomplish-ment and the preservation of lives. Very earlyon, junior leaders must master the technicaland tactical skills of their military specialty,maintaining and improving proficiencythrough self-study, experiential learning,formal training, and education.

❚ Clarify objectives and intent—To provide subordinates with maximum freedom of action and the capability to operate independently if necessary, leaders mustcommunicate a clear picture of the outcomeor outcomes they wish to achieve.

❚ Solve problems; make timely decisions—The whole purpose of small-unit leadership isto accomplish missions and tasks. This meanssolving mission problems and making appro-priate considered decisions. Some decisionsituations will allow for little or no analysis,but where time and circumstances allow,leaders should gather as much pertinent information as possible, involve others whopossess relevant experience or a have stakein the decision, and consider the advantagesand risks of each option before making a decision.

❚ Direct; motivate by persuasion andexample and by sharing risks and hardships—Leadership is about exercisinginfluence. Leaders have to know when to direct, when to motivate, and when toenable performance through the conspicuoussharing of risks and hardships.

❚ Train individuals and teams underdemanding and realistic conditions—Being operationally ready means being ableto deal effectively with normal and worst-case scenarios, handle the unexpected, andrecover from setbacks. Demanding and realis-tic training provides these capabilities.

❚ Build teamwork and cohesion—Trainingand other formative activities that reinforcemutual dependence and support will pay off in enhanced performance and greaterresistance to stress.

❚ Keep subordinates informed; explainevents and decisions—The routine andprompt passage of information contributes tosubordinates’ situational awareness and theirability to respond appropriately to a chang-ing situation. Candidly explaining events anddecisions often reduces tensions created byuncertainty, and is critical to maintaining thetrust relationship between leaders and led.

❚ Mentor, educate, and develop subordi-nates—Leaders must train and developsubordinates to master the unit’s operationalfunctions, provide strength in depth, andensure a broadly distributed leadership capability.

❚ Treat subordinates fairly; respond to their concerns; represent their inter-ests—Leaders have moral and practicalobligations to know their subordinates’needs, take care of them, treat them fairly,and provide essential support for their families. Such actions help to establish and maintain trust, while also enhancingsubordinates’ service commitment.

The following principles, updated to reflect lessons learned from experience, cover importantaspects of the five major dimensions of effectiveness and are offered here as an introduction to theresponsibilities of leadership:

❚ Maintain situational awareness; seekinformation; keep current—Leaders haveto develop the habit of being on top of whatis happening around them. Situationalawareness is critical to anticipating futureenvironmental conditions and identifyingopportunities to secure a tactical advantage.

❚ Learn from experience and those who haveexperience—In both training and operations,leaders must constantly review performancewith a critical eye and ask if there isn’t a betterway. Learning from personal experience and the experience of others is critical to ensuringhigh reliability performance and maintaining acompetitive edge.

❚ Exemplify and reinforce the militaryethos; maintain order and discipline;uphold professional norms—Disciplined,obedient, and law-abiding military forces area mark of civilization. Leaders must ensurethat their personal conduct and the conductof their subordinates at all times reflect thebest of Canadian military professionalism.


LEADING PEOPLE

“In Holland on the night of25th-26th February, 1945,the 1st Battalion, TheQueen’s Own Rifles ofCanada launched an attackon the hamlet of Mooshof,to capture ground which was considered essential for the development offuture operations.

Sergeant [Aubrey] Cosens’platoon, with two tanks in support, attacked enemy strong-points in three farm buildings,but were twice beaten back byfanatical enemy resistance then fiercely counter-attacked, duringwhich time the platoon suffered heavy casualties and the platooncommander was killed. Sergeant Cosens at once assumed commandof his platoon, whom he placed in a position to give him coveringfire, while he himself ran across open ground under heavy mortar andshell fire to the one remaining tank, where, regardless of danger, hetook up an exposed place in front of the turret and directed his fire.

After a further enemy counter-attack had been repulsed, SergeantCosens ordered the tank to attack the farm buildings, while the foursurvivors of his platoon followed in close support. After the tank hadrammed the first building, he entered it alone, killing several of thedefenders and taking the rest prisoners. Single-handed he thenentered the second and third buildings, and personally killed or captured all the occupants ...

The outstanding gallantry, initiative and determined leadership of thisbrave N.C.O. …resulted in the capture of a position which was vitalto the success of future operations of the Brigade.”

Victoria Cross Citation


Leading the InstitutionLeading the Institution

CHAPTER 5

Creating the Conditions for Mission Success ----------- 36

Leader Responsibilities -------------------------------------- 38

36

At the strategic level of command

and activity, the imperatives of oper-

ational effectiveness mean that senior

leaders and their staffs are uniquely

responsible for sustaining and develop-

ing the systems and capabilities that the

CF requires to meet its defence commit-

ments, both now and into the future—

that is, to deliver the requisite capability

to meet Government’s goals. This is the

‘leading the institution’ function.

CREATING THE CONDITIONS FOR MISSION SUCCESS

What makes the world of the senior leaderespecially challenging is that it is an extremelycomplex one—broader responsibilities, longertime horizons, more uncertainties to deal with,webs of interpersonal relationships to manage.Moreover, as a consequence of their broadresponsibilities, senior leaders operate in a socialenvironment consisting of numerous collabora-tive relationships, as well as competing interestsand points of view, and requiring the applica-tion of 360-degree influence.

To senior leaders falls the responsibility ofensuring that the CF satisfies the requirementsof the Government’s national security policy andis ready for whatever an uncertain future maybring. The CF cannot be caught unprepared. Con-sequently, senior leaders have no choice but tobe agents of change. To ensure continuing readi-ness, they must have an in-depth understandingof the environment in which they operate andhow it might look five, ten, and twenty years fromnow. They must have an accurate and reliableappreciation of security threats. They must be

“We can now arrive at a shorterdefinition of strategy as—‘the art ofdistributing and applying militarymeans to fulfil the ends of policy’.” 1

B.H. Liddell Hart

“In the process of visioning, leadersforecast the future pragmaticallyand realistically. They then developthe image of ‘what ought to be’ forthe organization to position itselffor success… Once a desired futureor vision has been postulated, strate-gic leaders bridge to the future bymeans of a strategy and plans. Theydevelop ends (objectives), ways(concepts), and means (resources) toachieve the vision… ‘Strategy’ is thecrossover mechanism between theforecast future and the envisioned,desired future.” 2

Roderick R. Magee II

“Strong and effective leaders are atthe heart of military professionalism.Such leaders ensure that the pro-fession is constantly evolving tohigher planes of effectiveness andperformance. They set and main-tain the necessary standards, andthey set an example that inspiresand encourages all members toreflect these standards in their day-to-day conduct. Leaders at everylevel contribute to professionalismthrough their influence on education,training andself-development, alwaysseeking to make every aspect ofmilitary experience professionallyinstructive and rewarding… Aboveall, effective leaders exemplify themilitary ethos, and especially the coremilitary values that are the essenceof military professionalism.”

Duty with Honour: The Profession of Arms in Canada

Leadership in the Canadian Forces: Doctrine

Chapter 5: Leading the Institution 37

familiar with the nature and causes of the manysocial and military conflicts in which the CF maybecome involved. They must be knowledgeableabout the workings of international alliances andkeep abreast of advances in military technology.They must have a deep understanding of Cana-dian culture and values and maintain strongconnections with society. And they must com-prehend and work within, influencing wherepossible, Government’s policies and priorities.

To satisfy the array of requirements presentedby the post-Cold War world, the CF has adopteda capability-based approach as its strategic-planning tool of choice.In the ordinary dictionarysense of the word, capability refers to the poweror means to do something. The notion of requisitecapability addresses the question:‘What capabil-ities must be developed to ensure operationaleffectiveness and mission success, given, amongother things, a long list of actual and potentialmilitary tasks, competing interests and prior-ities, a constrained resource envelope, and theunavoidability of risk in making planning deci-sions?’ Developing requisite capability is aboutcreating the conditions for success across a broadrange of known and unknown circumstances.The principal benefit of the capability-basedapproach is that it provides the best assurance ofrobustness across a variety of plausible futures.This aspect of leadership is also a striking illus-tration of indirect influence. In building bridgesto the future,strategic leaders shape and influenceperformance enablers which they may neversee during their tenure.

While a focus on strategic capability is expectedof the officers who occupy the most seniorappointments in the CF, it must be emphasizedthat the staffs who work for and support themmust share their understanding and world viewif they are to be fully effective. Consistent withthe strategic direction and intent set by seniorleaders, they too are engaged in leading the insti-tution, and will occasionally find it necessary to

exercise downward, lateral, and upward influ-ence along these lines. Institutional leadershipis also distributed to some degree.

In addition to sustaining and developing func-tional capabilities, senior leaders have specialresponsibilities for maintaining professionalcapabilities. Senior leaders must not only epit-omize professional qualities, but also assume, byvirtue of their status, broad responsibilities tofoster and maintain a culture based on militaryprofessionalism. This means that, in order todischarge the profession’s responsibility to soci-ety, and consistent with the primacy of missionsuccess, senior leaders must ensure adequateoperational capability and the professionalconduct of operations. Similarly, to maintainmilitary expertise, as a consequential obligationof the military’s responsibility to society andjurisdictional privilege, senior leaders mustconstantly extend the boundaries of professionalknowledge. Senior leader support for history andheritage programs, as well as participation incommemorative events and ceremonies, are partof the necessary work of strengthening profes-sional identity. And finally, to shape the culture,senior leaders have to ensure new members areappropriately and effectively socialized into thevalue systems of the CF ethos, confirm thatlegal and ethical regulatory systems operate asintended, and, more generally, align administra-tive policies and practices with the values of theethos. In this fashion, the legitimacy of the CFand trust in the military as a national institutionare preserved.

In sum, there are four general ways in whichsenior leaders shape requisite capability andcreate the conditions for operational and pro-fessional success:

❚ adapting systems and the CF to the externalenvironment, through strategic planning andthe initiation and implementation of strate-gic change;


❚ influencing the external environment, throughdirect advice and influence, public affairsactivities, strategic partnerships, and profes-sional networking;

❚ achieving alignment across organizationalsystems and sub-systems, through the relent-less communication of strategic intent, theformalization of policy and doctrine, controlof activities and resources, and active perform-ance management; and

❚ exercising stewardship of the profession,through the strengthening of professionalcapabilities and culture.

LEADER RESPONSIBILITIES3

At the strategic level of command and staff activ-ity, influence on organizational performance islargely indirect. Strategic leaders uniquely con-tribute to CF effectiveness through the internalintegration and management of organizationalsystems, and by positioning the CF favourablyin relation to its environment.

While senior CF leaders are responsible fordeveloping and maintaining the capabilities thatwill enable success at tactical and operationallevels of command, they too are guided by thesame value structure as tactical and operationalleaders. Senior leaders have institutional respon-sibilities across all five dimensions of militaryand professional effectiveness.

Mission Success.

To support the objective of mission success, sen-ior leaders must perform the roles of visionary,entrepreneurial developer, and political advisor.In the visionary role, the senior leadership teammust anticipate the future, both realistically andimaginatively, and establish a comprehensivestrategic direction for the CF over the long term.As developers, senior leaders must set achievablegoals, match resource allocations to goals andpriorities, and build the operational capabilitiesnecessary to fulfill today’s and tomorrow’sdefence tasks, including the development of thenext-generation leadership cadre. In the advisorrole, senior leaders must be capable of securing

the trust and confidence of the top levels of mil-itary and civilian leadership, and must be able toprovide, taking into account requirements andcapabilities, judicious professional counsel con-cerning the deployment and use of military assets.

Internal Integration.

In support of internal-integration objectives,senior leaders communicate their strategic intentand provide authoritative guidance through abody of coherent policy and advanced doctrine.They also play the roles of spokesperson andsystem manager. As a spokesperson for theinstitution, the senior leader creates a commonpicture of reality through the effective use ofsymbols and media, performs ceremonial func-tions, and represents the CF to the public. As asystem manager, the leader must ensure thatvarious enabling systems of the CF (materiel,personnel, financial) function as a co-ordinatedand integrated whole, while ensuring that theeffectiveness and efficiency of all systems areperiodically evaluated to determine their utilityand efficiency.

Member Well-being and Commitment.

At the institutional level of leadership, effec-tiveness in assuring member well-being andcommitment obliges senior leaders to assumethe role of personnel champion. In this capac-ity, senior leaders must thoroughly understandsocial contract principles, must be pro-active inproviding satisfactory conditions of service,and they must ensure that fair mechanisms existto respond to members’ concerns about theirtreatment. They must manage the personalexpectations of members while fostering theircommitment to serve through appropriate rewardand recognition practices. Similarly, senior lead-ers must also try to balance the obligations ofmilitary service with the ability to accommodatebasic individual needs.

External Adaptability.

Ensuring the external adaptability of the CF is acrucial strategic-leadership responsibility, requir-ing senior leaders to take on the roles of brokerand change-leader. In the broker role, the seniorleader must develop and manage external rela-tionships with the Government, other governmentdepartments (especially DND) and central agen-cies, other militaries, and private and publicorganizations. To position the CF favourably interms of influence and collaborative arrange-ments, senior leaders must have a thoroughunderstanding of Canadian society and itsinstitutions and must be able to explain the CFto the Government, central agencies, externalorganizations, and the Canadian people. Bothformal linkages and personal networks areequally important to this role.As a change agent,the senior leader develops and uses capabilitiesin mid- to long-range environmental scanningand analysis, thereby acquiring advance under-standing of the forces of change and the ability todevelop competitive advantages through trans-formational initiatives.

Military Ethos.

Within their broad responsibilities for steward-ship of the profession, senior leaders have anobligation to promote policies and programs thatsustain the health of the profession, especiallyin the areas of professional development, humanresource policies and programs, history andheritage, and military justice and discipline.Withparticular reference to the military ethos dimen-sion of effectiveness, this entails a combinationof personal example, systematic instruction, andinstitutional reinforcement, namely: serving asa role-model of professional conduct that is abovereproach; establishing broadly based programsof education and training in law, ethics, andmilitary history; and aligning the CF’s culture inuse (its decisions and practices) with the valuesand ideals of the military ethos.

Chapter 5: Leading the Institution 39

LEADING THE INSTITUTION

“Vice-Admiral Harold Taylor Wood Grant, CBE, DSO, CD, took command of the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) as the fifth Chief of the Naval Staff (CNS) on 1 September 1947 when it was at its lowestebb of the post-war period.

Grant faced the daunting task of rebuilding the peacetime CanadianNavy into an effective force with recruits from a society and for anation that had both been transformed substantially by the SecondWorld War. During his four year tenure, he would adopt Anti-SubmarineWarfare (ASW) as the Navy’s primary role and inaugurate the construc-tion of a new fleet of Canadian designed destroyer escorts. Thesedecisions set the course for a rapid expansion of the Navy to meet the challenges of the Cold War and large commitments to the NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Grant also had to overcomesevere personnel problems and reorient the administrative and culturalstructure of the Navy to meet the demand for change…

He readily embraced the new commitments to NATO and the ASW role for the RCN. He was particularly vigorous in his efforts to improveprofessional opportunities, conditions of service, and welfare for thesailors and their families… Grant made the difficult transition to anAmerican orientation during his tenure as CNS… This was particularlyevident in Grant’s decisions to sustain naval aviation, to introduceUSN standards of habitability in ships, and to adopt USN tactical doctrine and communications procedures.”

Captain (N) Wilfred G. LundIn Warrior Chiefs:Perspectives on Senior Canadian Military Leaders


A Final Word 41

A Final Word

Appointment to a position of superior rank and authority in the CF brings many

responsibilities, including the expectation that the Officers, Warrant Officers, and

NCOs entrusted with such authority will use it well, do their duty in accordance

with the CF ethos, and prove to be good leaders.

A significant part of being a good leader meansacting in the interests of collective effectivenessand discharging the particular responsibilities ofleadership—including the professional develop-ment of the next generation of leaders. But, at allrank levels, leaders in the CF are also expected toact like leaders—that is, to be ahead of issues andproblems, to be dynamic, to actively apply theirintelligence, imagination, and judgment, and tochallenge the status quo with fresh ideas anddisciplined independence. Leaders are expected

to take calculated risks. In this respect, a leader’sfreedom of action is limited only by his or herimagination and resolve. Thus, in addition tocarrying out assigned responsibilities capablyand efficiently, effective CF leaders also use theirintelligence, imagination, and initiative and dowhat they decide needs to be done to make theirteam, their unit, or the CF stronger and moreeffective. This is the broader meaning of dutyas it applies to leaders in the CF.

Endnotes


CHAPTER 1: ABOUT LEADERSHIP1 Edwin P. Hollander. “Leadership and Power.”

In Gardner Lindzey & Elliot Aronson (eds.)Handbook of Social Psychology: Volume II 3rd ed.(New York: Random House), 1985.

2 Gary Yukl. Leadership in Organizations 5th ed.(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall), 2002.

3 Lieutenant General Walter F. Ulmer Jr., U.S.Army (ret’d). “Military Leadership into the21st Century.” In Robert L. Taylor & William E.Rosenbach (eds.), Military Leadership: In Pursuitof Excellence 4th ed. (Boulder, CO: WestviewPress), 2000.

CHAPTER 2: THE CF PHILOSOPHY OF LEADERSHIP1 Gifford Pinchot. “Creating Organizations with

Many Leaders.” In Frances Hesselbein, MarshallGoldsmith, & Richard Beckhard (eds.) TheLeader of the Future: New Visions, Strategies,and Practices for the Next Era. (San Francisco:Jossey-Bass), 1996.

2 Martin L. Cook.“Army Professionalism: Serviceto What Ends?” In Lloyd J. Matthews (ed.) TheFuture of the Army Profession. (Boston: McGraw-Hill), 2002.

3 Duty with Honour: The Profession of Arms in Canada. (Kingston, ON: CF LeadershipInstitute), 2003.

4 Michael Ignatieff. Virtual War: Kosovo andBeyond. (New York: Henry Holt and Company),2000.

CHAPTER 3: CF LEADERSHIP MODEL1 Gary Yukl. Leadership in Organizations 2nd ed.

(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall), 1989.

2 Arthur S. Reber. The Penguin Dictionary ofPsychology. (Markham, ON: Penguin BooksCanada), 1985.

3 The model presented in this chapter is basedon Gary Yukl’s Multiple-Linkage Model of leaderperformance and effectiveness, which synthe-sizes and integrates the material presented inhis Leadership in Organizations 5th ed. (UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall), 2002.

CHAPTER 4: LEADING PEOPLE1 Boas Shamir & Eyal Ben-Ari. “Leadership in

an Open Army?” In James G. Hunt, George E.Dodge & Leonard Wong (eds.) Out-of-the-BoxLeadership: Transforming the Twenty-firstCentury Army and Other Top-PerformingOrganizations. (Stamford, CT: JAI Press), 1999.

2 For a detailed listing of leaders’ general respon-sibilities at the tactical and operational levelsof command and activity, see the left-hand col-umn of Table 4-1 in Leadership in the CanadianForces: Conceptual Foundations.

CHAPTER 5: LEADING THE INSTITUTION1 Sir Basil H. Liddell Hart. Strategy 2nd ed. (New

York: Frederick A. Praeger), 1967.

2 Roderick R. Magee II (ed.). Strategic LeadershipPrimer. (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Department ofCommand, Leadership, and Management, U.S.Army War College), 1998.

3 For a detailed listing of leaders’ general respon-sibilities at the strategic level of commandand activity, see the right-hand column ofTable 4-1 in Leadership in the Canadian Forces:Conceptual Foundations.

Select Bibliography 43

Select BibliographyBarnes, Rudolph C., Jr. Military Legitimacy: Mightand Right in the New Millennium. (Portland, OR:Frank Cass), 1996.

Bass, Bernard M. Bass and Stogdill’s Handbookof Leadership: Theory, Research, and ManagerialApplications 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press), 1990.

Bass, Bernard M. & Bruce J. Avolio (eds.).Improving Organizational Effectiveness ThroughTransformational Leadership. (Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage Publications), 1994.

Duty with Honour: The Profession of Arms inCanada. (Kingston, ON: CF Leadership Institute),2003.

Fundamentals of Canadian Defence Ethics.(Ottawa, ON: National Defence Headquarters/Chief of Review Services), January 2002.

Hesselbein, Frances, Marshall Goldsmith, &Richard Beckhard (eds.). The Leader of the Future:New Visions, Strategies, and Practices for the NextEra. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass), 1996.

Horn, Lieutenant-Colonel Bernd & Stephen J.Harris (eds). Generalship and the Art of theAdmiral: Perspectives on Canadian Senior MilitaryLeadership. (St. Catharines, ON: Vanwell Publish-ing), 2001.

Hunt, James G. George E. Dodge & Leonard Wong(eds.). Out-of-the-Box Leadership: Transformingthe Twenty-first Century Army and Other Top-Performing Organizations. (Stamford, CT: JAIPress), 1999.

Kellett,Anthony. Combat Motivation: The Behaviorof Men in Battle. (New York: Kluwer AcademicPublishers), 1982.

McCann, Carol & Ross Pigeau (eds.). The Humanin Command: Exploring the Modern MilitaryExperience. (New York: Kluwer Academic/PlenumPublishers), 2000.

Quinn, Robert E. Beyond Rational Management:Mastering the Paradoxes and Competing Demandsof High Performance.(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass),1988.

Useem, Michael. The Leadership Moment: NineTrue Stories of Triumph and Disaster and TheirLessons for Us All. (New York: Three Rivers Press),1998.

Weick, Karl W. & Kathleen M. Sutcliffe. Managingthe Unexpected: Assuring High Performance in anAge of Complexity. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass),2001.

Yukl, Gary. Leadership in Organizations 5th ed.(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall), 2002.

Zaccaro, Stephen J. & R.J. Klimoski (eds.). TheNature of Organizational Leadership: Under-standing the Performance Imperatives ConfrontingToday’s Leaders. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass),2001.


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Leadership in the Canadian Forces · 2019. 10. 24. · iv Leadership in the Canadian Forces:Doctrine Preface T his manual is intended for a general CF audience. It provides a unified