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Felder, Richard, "Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College

Science Education."

J. College Science Teaching, 23(!, 2#$2%& ('%%3!.

REC)*+ T)E SEC-+ T*ER

LER+*+ + TEC)*+ ST/LES *+ C-LLEE SC*E+CE E0CT*-+

Richard 1. Felder

eartent o4 Cheical Engineering

+orth Carolina State 0ni5ersity

Raleigh, +C 26#%$6%&

*n her recent study o4 college science instruction, Sheila To7ias 8'%9 denes t;o

tiers o4 entering college students, the rst consisting o4 those ;ho go on to earn

science degrees and the second those ;ho ha5e the initial intention and the a7ility

to do so 7ut instead s;itch to nonscientic elds. The nu7er o4 students in the

second category ight in 4act 7e enough to re5ent the short4all o4 erican

scientists and engineers that has 7een ;idely 4orecast 4or the coing decade.

The thrust o4 To7ias


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ore ositi5e ost$course attitudes to;ard the su7Aect than do their counterarts

;ho eBerience learningteaching style isatches. ll o4 the oints raised 7y

To7ias a7out the oor Duality o4 introductory college science instruction can 7e

eBressed directly as 4ailures to address certain coon learning styles.

Felder and Sil5eran 8'&9 ha5e synthesi@ed ndings 4ro a nu7er o4 studies to

4orulate a learning style odel ;ith diensions that should 7e articularly

rele5ant to science education. *n the sections that 4ollo;, the odel diensions are

7riey suari@ed and instructional ethods are then roosed that should reach

students ;ho san the sectru o4 learning styles, including students in To7ias


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The dichotoous learning style diensions o4 this odel (sensingintuiti5e,

5isual5er7al, inducti5ededucti5e, acti5ereecti5e, and seDuentialglo7al! are

continua and not eitheror categories. student they there4ore select a inute 4raction o4 it to

adit to their ";orHing eory" and the rest o4 it is e=ecti5ely lost. *n aHing this

selection, sensing learners (sensors! 4a5or in4oration that coes in through their

senses and intuiti5e learners (intuitors! 4a5or in4oration that arises internally

through eory, reection, and iagination. (These categories deri5e 4ro Carl

Jung intuitors re4er concets and interretations. student ;ho

colains a7out courses ha5ing nothing to do ;ith the real ;orld is alost certainly

a sensor. Sensors liHe to sol5e ro7les using ;ell$esta7lished rocedures, don since ;ords and alge7raic 5aria7les$$$thestu= o4 eBainations$$$are sy7olic, sensors ust translate the into concrete

ental iages in order to understand the. This rocess can 7e a lengthy one, and

any sensors ;ho Hno; the aterial tyically run out o4 tie on tests. The net

result is that sensors tend to get lo;er grades than intuitors in lecture courses 8''9>

in e=ect, they are selecti5ely ;eeded out, e5en though they are as liHely as intuitors

to succeed in scientic careers 869.


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Kisual and Ker7al *nut.

Kisual learners get ore in4oration 4ro 5isual iages (ictures, diagras,grahs, scheatics, deonstrations! than 4ro 5er7al aterial (;ritten and soHen

;ords and atheatical 4orulas!, and 5ice 5ersa 4or 5er7al learners 8',29. *4

soething is sily said and not sho;n to 5isual learners (e.g. in a lecture! there is

a good chance they ;ill not retain it.

1ost eole (at least in ;estern cultures! and resua7ly ost students in science

classes are 5isual learners 829 ;hile the in4oration resented in alost e5ery

lecture course is o5er;helingly 5er7al$$$;ritten ;ords and 4orulas in teBts and

on the chalH7oard, soHen ;ords in lectures, ;ith only an occasional diagra, chart,or deonstration 7reaHing the attern. Iro4essors should not 7e surrised ;hen

any o4 their students cannot reroduce in4oration that ;as resented to the

not long 7e4ore> it ay ha5e 7een eBressed 7ut it ;as ne5er heard.

*nducti5e and educti5e -rgani@ation.

*nducti5e learners re4er to learn a 7ody o4 aterial 7y seeing secic cases rst

(o7ser5ations, eBeriental results, nuerical eBales! and ;orHing u to

go5erning rinciles and theories 7y in4erence> deducti5e learners re4er to 7egin

;ith general rinciles and to deduce conseDuences and alications. Since

deduction tends to 7e ore concise and orderly than induction, students ;ho re4er

a highly structured resentation are liHely to re4er a deducti5e aroach ;hile

those ;ho re4er less structure are ore liHely to 4a5or induction.

Research sho;s that o4 these t;o aroaches to education, induction rootes

deeer learning and longer retention o4 in4oration and gi5es students greater

condence in their ro7le$sol5ing a7ilities 8'&,'?9. The research not;ithstanding,

ost college science instruction is eBclusi5ely deducti5e$$$ro7a7ly 7ecause

deducti5e resentations are easier to reare and control and allo; ore raid

co5erage o4 aterial. *n the ;ords o4 a student e5aluating his introductory hysics

course, "The students are gi5en reasticated in4oration sily to iic and

aly to ro7les. Let the, rather, 7e eBosed to concetual ro7les, try to nd

solutions to the on their o;n, and then hel the to understand the istaHes they


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aHe along the ;ay" 8'%, . 29. The aroach suggested 7y this student is

inducti5e teaching.

cti5e and Reecti5e Irocessing.

cti5e learners tend to learn ;hile doing soething acti5e$$$trying things out,

7ouncing ideas o= others> reecti5e learners do uch ore o4 their rocessing

introsecti5ely, thinHing things through 7e4ore trying the out 8'29. cti5e learners

;orH ;ell in grous> reecti5e learners re4er to ;orH alone or in airs.

0n4ortunately, ost lecture classes do 5ery little 4or either grou: the acti5e

learners ne5er get to do anything and the reecti5e learners ne5er ha5e tie to

reect. *nstead, 7oth grous are Het 7usy trying to Hee u ;ith a constant 7arrage

o4 5er7iage, or else they are lulled into inattention 7y their en4orced assi5ity.

The research is Duite clear on the Duestion o4 acti5e and reecti5e 5ersus assi5e

learning. *n a nu7er o4 studies coaring instructor$centered classes

(lecturedeonstration! ;ith student$centered classes (ro7le$sol5ingdiscussion!,

lectures ;ere 4ound to 7e arginally ore e=ecti5e ;hen students ;ere tested on

short$ter recall o4 4acts 7ut acti5e classroo en5ironents ;ere suerior ;hen the

criteria in5ol5ed corehension, long$ter recall, general ro7le$sol5ing a7ility,

scientic attitude, and su7seDuent interest in the su7Aect 8'9. Su7stantial 7enets

are also cited 4or teaching ethods that ro5ide oortunities 4or reection, such as

gi5ing students tie in class to ;rite 7rie4 suaries and 4orulate ;ritten

Duestions a7out the aterial Aust co5ered 8',2&9.

SeDuential and lo7al 0nderstanding.

SeDuential learners a7sor7 in4oration and acDuire understanding o4 aterial in

sall connected chunHs> glo7al learners taHe in in4oration in seeingly

unconnected 4ragents and achie5e understanding in large holistic leas.

SeDuential learners can sol5e ro7les ;ith incolete understanding o4 the

aterial and their solutions are generally orderly and easy to 4ollo;, 7ut they ay

lacH a gras o4 the 7ig icture$$$the 7road conteBt o4 a 7ody o4 Hno;ledge and its

interrelationshis ;ith other su7Aects and discilines. lo7al learners ;orH in a ore

all$or$nothing 4ashion and ay aear slo; and do oorly on hoe;orH and tests

until they gras the total icture, 7ut once they ha5e it they can o4ten see

connections to other su7Aects that escae seDuential learners 8'69.


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e4ore glo7al learners can aster the details o4 a su7Aect they need to understand

ho; the aterial 7eing resented relates to their rior Hno;ledge and eBerience,

7ut only eBcetional teachers routinely ro5ide such 7road ersecti5es on their

su7Aects. *n conseDuence, any glo7al learners ;ho ha5e the otential to 7ecoeoutstanding creati5e researchers 4all 7y the ;ayside 7ecause their ental rocesses

do not allo; the to Hee u ;ith the seDuential ace o4 their science courses 89.

T-R 10LT*ST/LE IIR-C) T- SC*E+CE E0CT*-+

Students ;hose learning styles 4all in any o4 the gi5en categories ha5e the otential

to 7e eBcellent scientists. The o7ser5ant and ethodical sensors, 4or eBale,

aHe good eBerientalists, and the insight4ul and iaginati5e intuitors aHe goodtheoreticians. cti5e learners are adet at adinistration and tea$oriented roAect

;orH> reecti5e learners do ;ell at indi5idual research and design. SeDuential

learners are o4ten good analysts, sHilled at sol5ing con5ergent (single$ans;er!

ro7les> glo7al learners are o4ten good synthesi@ers, a7le to dra; aterial 4ro

se5eral discilines to sol5e ro7les that could not ha5e 7een sol5ed ;ith

con5entional single$disciline aroaches.

0n4ortunately$$$in art 7ecause teachers tend to 4a5or their o;n learning styles, in

art 7ecause they instincti5ely teach the ;ay they ;ere taught in ost collegeclasses$$$the teaching style in ost lecture courses tilts hea5ily to;ard the sall

ercentage o4 college students ;ho are at once intuiti5e, 5er7al, deducti5e,

reecti5e and seDuential. This i7alance uts a si@ea7le 4raction o4 the student

oulation at a disad5antage. La7oratory courses, 7eing inherently sensory, 5isual,

and acti5e, could in rincile coensate 4or a ortion o4 the i7alance> ho;e5er,

ost la7s in5ol5e riarily echanical eBercises that illustrate only a inor su7set

o4 the concets resented in lecture and seldo ro5ide signicant insights or sHill

de5eloent. Sensing, 5isual, inducti5e, acti5e, and glo7al learners thus rarely get

their educational needs et in science courses.

The isatches 7et;een the re5ailing teaching style in ost science courses and

the learning styles o4 ost o4 the students ha5e se5eral serious conseDuences 8'&9.

Students ;ho eBerience the 4eel as though they are 7eing addressed in an

un4ailiar 4oreign language: they tend to get lo;er grades than students ;hose

learning styles are 7etter atched to the instructor


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eBtree, the students are at to lose interest in science altogether and 7e aong

the ore than 2&&,&&& ;ho s;itch to other elds each year a4ter their rst college

science courses 8'%9. Iro4essors con4ronted 7y inattenti5e classes and oor student

er4orance ay 7ecoe hostile to;ard the students (;hich aggra5ates the

situation! or discouraged a7out their ro4essional coetence. 1ost seriously,

society loses otentially eBcellent scientists.

These ro7les could 7e inii@ed and the Duality o4 science education

signicantly enhanced i4 instructors odied their teaching styles to accoodate

the learning styles o4 all the students in their classes. ranted, the rosect o4

trying to address 32 di=erent learning styles siultaneously in a single class ight

see 4or7idding to ost instructors> the oint, ho;e5er, is not to deterine each

student


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aterial that ehasi@es 4undaental understanding (intuiti5e!$$$in all courses.

hen co5ering concets o4 5aor$liDuid eDuili7ria, go through Raoult


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Iro5ide tie in class 4or students to thinH a7out the aterial 7eing resented

(reecti5e! and 4or acti5e student articiation (acti5e!. -ccasionally ause during a

lecture to allo; tie 4or thinHing and 4orulating Duestions. ssign "one$inute

aers" close to the end o4 a lecture eriod, ha5ing students ;rite on indeB cards

the ost iortant oint ade in the lecture and the single ost ressing

unans;ered Duestion 82&9. ssign 7rie4 grou ro7le$sol5ing eBercises in class in;hich the students ;orHing in grous o4 three or 4our at their seats send one or

se5eral inutes tacHling any o4 a ;ide 5ariety o4 Duestions and ro7les. ("egin

the solution to this ro7le." "TaHe the neBt ste in the solution." "hat


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thesel5es that (in To7ias


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La;rence, ordon. Ieole Tyes and Tiger Stries: Iractical uide to Learning

Styles, 2nd Edition. Center 4or lications o4 Isychological Tye, aines5ille, FL,

'%2.

1cNeachie, il7ert. "*ro5ing Lectures 7y 0nderstanding Students< *n4oration

Irocessing." *n 1cNeachie, .J., Ed., Learning, Cognition, and College Teaching. +e;irections 4or Teaching and Learning, +o. 2. Jossey$ass, San Francisco, '%&, . 32.

$$$. Teaching Tis: uide7ooH 4or the eginning College Teacher, th Edition.

LeBington, 1ass., .C. )eath O Co., '%#.

1yers, *.. and 1.). 1cCaulley, 1anual: uide to the e5eloent and 0se o4 the

1yers$riggs Tye *ndicator, 2nd Edition. Consulting Isychologists Iress, Ialo lto,

'%#.

IasH, . "Learning Strategies, Teaching Strategies, and Concetual or Learning

Style." *n SchecH, R., Ed., Learning Strategies and Learning Styles, Ilenu Iress,

+e; /orH, '%, Ch. ?.

SchecH, Ronald, Ed. Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. Ilenu Iress, +e;

/orH, '%.

To7ias, Sheila. They '%#.

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