Lecture 1 Stone Age Europe

7/28/2019 Lecture 1 Stone Age Europe

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Lecture 1: Stone AgeEuro e

Lascaux Southern France 20,000 ~ 50,000BC

Stonehenge Salisbury, England 3,000 BC

Temple at Tarxien, Malta 3,000BC

dnesday, April 10, 2013


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Lecture 1: Stone AgeEuro e

Ritual

Place

Refuge



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Lascaux, France20,000~50,000

Found in France approximately 50,000years ago

One of the first examples of humandwelling

Known for the cave paintings depictingmany aspects of daily life and reverence to

natural environment



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Lascaux, France 20,000 BC



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Stonehenge Salisbury,En land 3,000 BC

Found in England approximately 3,000 yearsago

Place of Rituals known throughout Europe

Known for the complex stone work

Reformed many times over 1,000 yearperiod



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Durrington Walls Salisbury, England



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Carved Image Of A Deer In The Chalk Soil



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Menhirs




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Menhirs




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Avebury, England 3,000 BC



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Sarsen Stones



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Blue Stones With Sarsen Stones



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Found in Malta approximately 3,000 yearsago

Much like cave dwelling but man madeshelter

A planned complex with a specific purpose

Developed Stone Working Techniques

Temples at Tarxien



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Plan

Tarxien, Malta 3,000 BC



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Plan




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Plan




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Plan




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Plan




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Plan




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Lecture Notes Stone Age Europe

I. LascauxThe cave contains nearly 2,000 figures, which can be grouped into three main categories

animals, human figures and abstract signs. Notably, the paintings contain no images of thesurrounding landscape or the vegetation of the time.[8][not in citation given] Most of the major images

have been painted onto the walls using mineral pigments, although some designs have also been

incised into the stone. Many images are too faint to discern, and others have deteriorated entirely.

Over 900 can be identified as animals, and 605 of these have been precisely identified. There are

also many geometric figures. Of the animals, equines predominate, with 364 images. There are 90

paintings ofstags. Also represented are cattle and bison, each representing 4-5% of the images. A

smattering of other images include seven felines, a bird, a bear, a rhinoceros, and a human. There

are no images of reindeer, even though that was the principal source of food for the artists.[9]

The most famous section of the cave is The Great Hall of the Bulls where bulls, equines and stagsare depicted. The four black bulls, or aurochs, are the dominant figures among the 36 animals

represented here. One of the bulls is 17 feet (5.2m) long the largest animal discovered so far in

cave art. Additionally, the bulls appear to be in motion.[10]

A painting referred to as "The Crossed Bison" and found in the chamber called the Nave is often

held as an example of the skill of the Paleolithic cave painters. The crossed hind legs create the

illusion that one bison is closer to us than the other. This visual depth in the scene demonstrates a

primitive form of perspective which was particularly advanced for the time.

In recent years, new research has suggested that the Lascaux paintings may incorporate prehistoric

star charts. Dr Michael Rappenglueck of the University of Munich argues that some of the non-figurative dot clusters and dots within some of the figurative images correlate with the

constellations ofTaurus, the Pleiades and the grouping known as the "Summer Triangle".[11] Based

on her own study of the astronomical significance of Bronze Age petroglyphs in the Valle des

Merveilles[12] and her extensive survey of other prehistoric cave painting sites in the region most

of which appear to have been specifically selected because the interiors are illuminated by the

setting sun on the day of the winter solstice French researcher Chantal Jgues-Wolkiewiez has

further proposed that the gallery of figurative images in the Great Hall represents an extensive star

map and that key points on major figures in the group correspond to stars in the main constellations

as they appeared in the Paleolithic.[13][14]

II. Stone Henge1. Stonehenge was produced by a culture that left no written records. Many aspects

of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of

them very colourful, are often called the "mystery of Stonehenge".[citation needed]

There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders.

Over the years, various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were

used, usually asserting that the stones were impossible to move otherwise. However, conventionaltechniques using Neolithic technology have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solsticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solsticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chantal_J%C3%A8gues-Wolkiewiez&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_des_Merveilleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_%28constellation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiadeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Trianglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Munichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chantal_J%C3%A8gues-Wolkiewiez&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chantal_J%C3%A8gues-Wolkiewiez&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solsticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solsticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_des_Merveilleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_des_Merveilleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_des_Merveilleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A9e_des_Merveilleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyphshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyphshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Trianglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Trianglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiadeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiadeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_%28constellation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_%28constellation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Munichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Munichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#cite_note-7


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stones of a similar size. Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical

observatory, or as a religious site.

More recently two major new theories have been proposed. Professor Geoffrey WainwrightOBE,

FSA, president of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and Professor Timothy Darvill, OBE of

Bournemouth University have suggested that Stonehenge was a place of healing the primeval

equivalent ofLourdes.[17] They argue that this accounts for the high number of burials in the areaand for the evidence of trauma deformity in some of the graves. However they do concede that the

site was probably multifunctional and used for ancestor worship as well.[18] Isotope analysis

indicates that some of the buried individuals were from other regions. A teenage boy buried

approximately 1550 BC was raised near the Mediterranean Sea; a metal worker from 2300 BC

dubbed the "Amesbury Archer" grew up near the alpine foothills of Germany; and the "Boscombe

Bowmen" probably arrived from Wales or Brittany, France.[19] On the other hand, Professor Mike

Parker Pearson ofSheffield University has suggested that Stonehenge was part of a ritual landscape

and was joined to Durrington Walls by their corresponding avenues and the River Avon. He

suggests that the area around Durrington Walls Henge was a place of the living, whilst Stonehenge

was a domain of the dead. A journey along the Avon to reach Stonehenge was part of a ritual

passage from life to death, to celebrate past ancestors and the recently deceased.[15] It should bepointed out that both explanations were mooted in the 12th century by Geoffrey of Monmouth

(below), who extolled the curative properties of the stones and was also the first to advance the idea

that Stonehenge was constructed as a funerary monument. Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual

elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which

might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a

contemporary religion[20]

Archaeologists have found four, or possibly five, large Mesolithicpostholes (one may have been a

natural tree throw), which date to around 8000 BC, beneath the nearby modern tourist car-park.

These held pine posts around 0.75 metres (2ft6in) in diameter which were erected and eventually

rotted in situ. Three of the posts (and possibly four) were in an east-west alignment which may have

had ritual significance; no parallels are known from Britain at the time but similar sites have been

found in Scandinavia. Salisbury Plain was then still wooded but 4,000 years later, during the earlier

Neolithic, people built a causewayed enclosure at Robin Hood's Ball and long barrow tombs in the

surrounding landscape. In approximately 3500 BC, a Stonehenge Cursus was built 700 metres

(2,300ft) north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees and develop the area.

Stonehenge 1 (ca. 3100 BC)

Stonehenge 1. After Cleal et al.

The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure made ofLate Cretaceous

(Santonian Age) Seaford Chalk, (7 and 8), measuring about 110 metres (360ft) in diameter, with a

large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south (14). It stood in open grassland on a

slightly sloping spot.[11] The builders placed the bones ofdeer and oxen in the bottom of the ditch,

as well as some worked flint tools. The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to

dig the ditch, and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial.

The ditch was continuous but had been dug in sections, like the ditches of the earlier causewayed

enclosures in the area. The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank. This first stageis dated to around 3100 BC, after which the ditch began to silt up naturally. Within the outer edge of

the enclosed area is a circle of 56 pits, each about a metre (3'3") in diameter(13), known as the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-field2010-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-field2010-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-field2010-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge_Cursushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causewayed_enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood%27s_Ballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_barrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_throwhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-M._Parker_Pearson_2005._p63-67-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourdeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourdeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Darvillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoffrey_Wainwright_%28archaeologist%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-field2010-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-field2010-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santonianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Cretaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge_Cursushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge_Cursushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_barrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_barrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood%27s_Ballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood%27s_Ballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causewayed_enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causewayed_enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_throwhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_throwhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postholehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postholehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-M._Parker_Pearson_2005._p63-67-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-M._Parker_Pearson_2005._p63-67-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-medit-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-medit-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourdeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourdeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Darvillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Darvillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoffrey_Wainwright_%28archaeologist%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoffrey_Wainwright_%28archaeologist%29&action=edit&redlink=1


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Aubrey holes after John Aubrey, the 17th-century antiquarian who was thought to have first

identified them. The pits may have contained standing timbers creating a timber circle, although

there is no excavated evidence of them. A recent excavation has suggested that the Aubrey Holes

may have originally been used to erect a bluestone circle.[12] If this were the case, it would advance

the earliest known stone structure at the monument by some 500 years. A small outer bank beyond

the ditch could also date to this period.

Stonehenge 2 (ca. 3000 BC)

Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible. The number of postholes dating to the early 3rd

millennium BC suggest that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during

this period. Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance, and a parallel alignment

of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes,

being only around 0.4 metres (16in) in diameter, and are much less regularly spaced. The bank was

purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up. At least twenty-five of the Aubrey

Holes are known to have contained later, intrusive, cremation burials dating to the two centuries

after the monument's inception. It seems that whatever the holes' initial function, it changed to

become a funerary one during Phase 2. Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure's

ditch and at other points within the monument, mostly in the eastern half. Stonehenge is therefore

interpreted as functioning as an enclosed cremation cemetery at this time, the earliest known

cremation cemetery in the British Isles. Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in

the ditch-fill. Dating evidence is provided by the late Neolithic grooved ware pottery that has been

found in connection with the features from this phase.

Stonehenge 3 I (ca. 2600 BC)

Graffiti on the sarsen stones. Below are ancient carvings of a dagger and an axe

Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, the builders abandoned timber in

favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes (the Q and R Holes) in the centre of the site.

These stone sockets are only partly known (hence on present evidence are sometimes described as

forming crescents); however, they could be the remains of a double ring. Again, there is little firm

dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan),

only 43 of which can be traced today. The bluestones (some of which are made ofdolerite, an

igneous rock), were thought for much of the 20th century to have been transported by humans from

the Preseli Hills, 150 miles (240km) away in modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Another theorythat has recently gained support is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics

by the Irish Sea Glacier.[13] Other standing stones may well have been small sarsens, used later as

lintels. The stones, which weighed about four tons, consisted mostly of spotted Ordovician dolerite

but included examples ofrhyolite, tuffand volcanic and calcareous ash; in total around 20 different

rock types are represented. Each monolith measures around 2 metres (6.6ft) in height, between 1m

and 1.5m (3.34.9ft) wide and around 0.8 metres (2.6ft) thick. What was to become known as the

Altar Stone(1), is almost certainly derived from either Carmarthenshire or the Brecon Beacons and

may have stood as a single large monolith.

The north-eastern entrance was widened at this time, with the result that it precisely matched the

direction of the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset of the period. This phase of the

monument was abandoned unfinished, however; the small standing stones were apparently removed
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and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled. Even so, the monument appears to have eclipsed the

site at Avebury in importance towards the end ofthis phase.

The Heelstone(5), a tertiary sandstone, may also have been erected outside the north-eastern

entrance during this period. It cannot be accurately dated and may have been installed at any time

during phase 3. At first it was accompanied by a second stone, which is no longer visible. Two, or

possibly three, large portal stones were set up just inside the north-eastern entrance, of which onlyone, the fallen Slaughter Stone (4), 4.9 metres (16ft) long, now remains. Other features, loosely

dated to phase 3, include the four Station Stones(6), two of which stood atop mounds (2 and 3).

The mounds are known as "barrows" although they do not contain burials. Stonehenge Avenue,

(10), a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading 2 miles (3.2km) to the River Avon, was also

added. Two ditches similar to Heelstone Ditch circling the Heelstone (which was by then reduced to

a single monolith) were later dug around the Station Stones.

Stonehenge 3 II (2600 BC to 2400 BC)

During the next major phase of activity, 30 enormous Oligocene-Miocene sarsen stones (shown

grey on the plan) were brought to the site. They may have come from a quarry, around 25 miles

(40km) north of Stonehenge on the Marlborough Downs, or they may have been collected from a

"litter" of sarsens on the chalk downs, closer to hand. The stones were dressed and fashioned with

mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a 33 metres (108ft) diameter circle of standing

stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using

another woodworking method, the tongue and groove joint. Each standing stone was around 4.1

metres (13ft) high, 2.1 metres (6ft11in) wide and weighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been

worked with the final visual effect in mind; the orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order

that their perspective remains constant when viewed from the ground, while the lintel stones curve

slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The inward-facing surfaces of

the stones are smoother and more finely worked than the outer surfaces. The average thickness ofthe stones is 1.1 metres (3ft7in) and the average distance between them is 1 metre (3ft3in). A

total of 75 stones would have been needed to complete the circle (60 jystones) and the trilithon

horseshoe (15 stones). Unless some of the sarsens have since been removed from the site, the ring

appears to have been left incomplete. The lintel stones are each around 3.2 metres (10ft), 1 metre

(3ft3in) wide and 0.8 metres (2ft7in) thick. The tops of the lintels are 4.9 metres (16ft) above

the ground.

Within this circle stood five trilithons of dressed sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe shape 13.7

metres (45ft) across with its open end facing north east. These huge stones, ten uprights and five

lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each. They were linked using complex jointing. They are arranged

symmetrically. The smallest pair of trilithons were around 6 metres (20ft) tall, the next pair a littlehigher and the largest, single trilithon in the south west corner would have been 7.3 metres (24ft)

tall. Only one upright from the Great Trilithon still stands, of which 6.7 metres (22ft) is visible and

a further 2.4 metres (7ft10in) is below ground.

The images of a 'dagger' and 14 'axeheads' have been carved on one of the sarsens, known as stone

53; further carvings of axeheads have been seen on the outer faces of stones 3, 4, and 5. The

carvings are difficult to date, but are morphologically similar to late Bronze Age weapons; recent

laser scanning work on the carvings supports this interpretation. The pair of trilithons in the north

east are smallest, measuring around 6 metres (20ft) in height; the largest, which is in the south west

of the horseshoe, is almost 7.5 metres (25ft) tall.

This ambitious phase has been radiocarbon dated to between 2600 and 2400 BC,[14] slightly earlier

than the Stonehenge Archer, discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978, and the two
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sets of burials, known as the Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen, discovered 3 miles

(4.8km) to the west. At about the same time, a large timber circle and a second avenue were

constructed 2 miles (3.2km) away at Durrington Walls overlooking the River Avon. The timber

circle was orientated towards the rising sun on the midwinter solstice, opposing the solar alignments

at Stonehenge, whilst the avenue was aligned with the setting sun on the summer solstice and led

from the river to the timber circle. Evidence of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two

avenues also suggests that both circles were linked, and they were perhaps used as a processionroute on the longest and shortest days of the year. Parker Pearson speculates that the wooden circle

at Durrington Walls was the centre of a 'land of the living', whilst the stone circle represented a 'land

of the dead', with the Avon serving as a journey between the two.[15]

III. TarxienThe Tarxien consist of three separate, but attached, temple structures. The main entrance is a

reconstruction dating from 1956, when the whole site was restored. At the same time, many of the

decorated slabs discovered on site were relocated indoors for protection at the Museum ofArchaeology in Valletta. The first temple has been dated to approximately 3100 BC and is the most

elaborately decorated of the temples of Malta. The middle temple dates to about 3000 BC, and is

unique in that, unlike the rest of the Maltese temples, it has three pairs ofapses instead of the usual

two. The east temple is dated at around 3100 BC. The remains of another temple, smaller, and older,

having been dated to 3250 BC, are visible further towards the east.[1]

Of particular interest at the temple site is the rich and intricate stonework, which includes depictions

of domestic animals carved in relief, altars, and screens decorated with spiral designs and other

patterns. Demonstrative of the skill of the builders is a chamber set into the thickness of the wall

between the South and Central temples and containing a relief showing a bull and a sow.[2]

[edit] Function in prehistory

Excavation of the site reveals that it was used extensively for rituals, which probably involved

animal sacrifice. Especially interesting is that Tarxien provides rare insight into how the megaliths

were constructed: stone rollers were left outside the South temple. Additionally, evidence of

cremation has been found at the center of the South temple, which is an indicator that the site was

reused as a Bronze Age cremation cemetery.[2]

[edit] Discovery and history

A relief showing goats and rams in one of the temples at Tarxien.

The large stone blocks were discovered in 1914 by local farmers ploughing a field.[2] After the

accidental discovery of the nearby Tarxien hypogeum in 1913, the proprietor of the land underneath

which the temples were buried figured that the large stones that were continually struck by workers'

ploughs may also have had some archaeological value. On that notion, he contacted the director of

the National Museum, Sir Themistocles Zammit, who began to dig even on his first inspection of

the site, where he discovered the center of the temple compound. It was not long before Zammit

found himself standing in what appeared to be an apse formed by a semicircle of enormous hewn

stones. Over the course of three years, Zammit enlisted the help of local farmers and townspeople

for an excavation project of unprecedented scale in Malta. By 1920, Zammit had identified and
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carried out restoration work on five separate but interconnected temples, all yielding a remarkable

collection of artifacts, including the famous "fat lady" statue (a representation of a Mother Goddess

or a fertility charm), and several unique examples of prehistoric relief, including ships.[3] Further

excavations at the temples were conducted in the post-World War II period under the directorship of

Dr. J.G. Baldacchino.

[edit] Significance

The discovery of the complex did much to further Malta's national identity, solidly confirming the

existence of a thriving ancient culture on the island. Also, the general interest aroused by the finds

engendered for the first time a public concern for the protection of Malta's historical treasures,

including a need for management of the sites, the promulgation of laws, and other measures to

protect and preserve monuments. At the same time, Sir Themistocles' thorough method in

excavating the site paved the way for a new scientific approach to archaeology.[3]

[edit]

IV Anasazi in AmericaThroughout the southwest Ancient Puebloan region and at Mesa Verde, the best known site for these

large number of well preserved cliff dwellings, housing, defensive and storage complexes were built

in shallow caves and under rock overhangs along canyon walls. The structures contained within

these alcoves were mostly blocks of hard sandstone, held together and plastered with adobe mortar.

Specific constructions had many similarities, but were generally unique in form due to the

individual topography of different alcoves along the canyon walls. In marked contrast to earlierconstructions and villages on top of the mesas, the cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde reflected a region-

wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close, highly defensible

quarters during the 13th century.

While much of the construction in these sites conforms to common Pueblo architectural forms,

including Kivas, towers, and pit-houses, the space constrictions of these alcoves necessitated what

seems to have been a far denser concentration of their populations. Mug House, a typical cliff

dwelling of the period, was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas

built right up against each other and sharing many of their walls; builders in these areas maximized

space in any way they could and no areas were considered off-limits to construction.[13]

Not all of the people in the region lived in cliff dwellings; many colonized the canyon rims and

slopes in multi-family structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled.[13]

Decorative motifs for these sandstone/mortar constructions, both cliff dwellings and non-, included

T-shaped windows and doors. This has been taken by some archaeologists, such as Stephen Lekson

(1999), as evidence of the continuing reach of the Chaco Canyon elite system, which had seemingly

collapsed around a century before.[14] Other researchers see these motifs as part of a more

generalized Puebloan style and/or spiritual significance, rather than evidence of a continuing

specific elite socioeconomic system

Evidence suggests a profound change in religion in this period. Chacoan and other structures

constructed originally along astronomical alignments, and thought to have served important
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ceremonial purposes to the culture, were systematically dismantled. Doorways were sealed with

rock and mortar. Kiva walls show marks from great fires set within them, which probably required

removal of the massive roof - a task which would require significant effort. Habitations were

abandoned, tribes split and divided and resettled far elsewhere. This evidence suggests that the

religious structures were deliberately abandoned slowly over time. Puebloan tradition holds that the

ancestors had achieved great spiritual power and control over natural forces, and used their power in

ways that caused nature to change, and caused changes that were never meant to occur. Possibly, thedismantling of their religious structures was an effort to symbolically undo the changes they

believed they caused due to their abuse of their spiritual power, and thus make amends with nature.

Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) assert the ancient Pueblo did

not "vanish", as is commonly portrayed in media presentations or popular books, but migrated to

areas in the southwest with more favorable rainfall and dependable streams. They merged into the

various Pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in Arizona and New Mexico. This perspective

is not new. It was presented by early 20th century anthropologists, including Frank Hamilton

Cushing, J. Walter Fewkes and Alfred V. Kidder. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage

from settlements. For example, the San Ildefonso Pueblo people believe that their ancestors lived in

both the Mesa Verde and the Bandelier areas. Evidence also suggests that a profound change tookplace in the Ancestral Pueblo area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the Mogollon.

The contemporary historian James W. Loewen agrees with the oral traditions in

V JomonThe Early and Middle Jmon periods saw an explosion in population, as indicated by the number of

settlements from this period. These two periods occurred during the prehistoric Holocene Climatic

Optimum (between 4000 BC and 2000 BC), when temperatures reached several degrees Celsiushigher than the present, and mean sea level was higher by 5 to 6 metres.[14] Beautiful artistic

realisations, such as highly decorated "flamed" vessels, remain from that time. After 1500 BC, the

climate cooled, and populations seem to have contracted dramatically. Comparatively few

archaeological sites can be found after 1500 BC.

The Early Jmon is the first stage in the Jomon era ofJapanese pre-history. The Jomon period itself

ranged from 10,000 to 300 BC, with the first stage lasting from 4000 to 3000 BC. The Early Jomon

is characterized by the high sea level (2 to 3 meters higher than the modern day) and a significant

population increase.[15] This period saw a rise in complexity in the design ofpit houses, the most

commonly used method ofhousing at the time.[16]

The Late Jmon covered the period of history from around 2000 to 1000 BC, while the Final Jmonspanned from around 1000 to 300 BC.

By the end of the Jmon period, a slow shift had taken place according to archaeological studies.

New arrivals from the continent seem to have invaded Japan from the West, bringing with them new

technologies such as rice farming and metallurgy. The settlements of the new arrivals seem to have

coexisted with those of the Jmon for some time. Under these influences, the incipient cultivation of

the Jmon evolved into sophisticated rice-paddy farming. Many other elements of Japanese culture

also may date from this period and reflect a mingled migration from the northern Asian continent

and the southern Pacific areas. Among these elements are Shinto religion, marriage customs,

architectural styles, and technological developments such as lacquerware, textiles, laminated bows,

metalworking, and glass making. The Jmon is succeeded by the Yayoi period outside Hokkaido,where the Jmon is succeeded by the Zoku-Jmon (post-Jmon) period. The Zoku-Jmon culture is

succeeded by the Satsumon culture around the 7th century.
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Documents

Lecture 1 Stone Age Europe