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8/8/2019 Lecture 2 the Basic Structure of Argument
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Critical Thinking
Chapter 2
The Basic Structure ofArgument
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Overview of Todays Lecture
Recognising components in arguments
Understanding the process of
reconstruction The role of questions in arguments
Diagramming arguments
TEXTBOOK READING : CHAPTER 1
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Remember this .. A good critical thinkerhas the cognitive skills
and intellectual dispositions needed toeffectively identify, analyze and evaluatearguments and truth claims.
Before that , one must understandcomponents that are available in argumentssuch as :
i) Statementsii) Conclusion
iii) Pr emises
iv) Supporting statements
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Astatement (or also known as a claim) is defined as adeclarative sentence that is either true or false, but not bothsimultaneously. Simple statements convey exactly oneidea.
In order for a sentence to qualify as a statement, it mustsatisfy the following conditions:
1. The sentence must make a declaration.
2. You must be
capable
of de
te
rmining whe
the
r the
statement is True or False.
NOTE: You may not know the answer to whether thedeclarative sentence is true or false, but with someresearch, you know that the sentence can be determined tobe true or false.
Statements / Claims
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Sentence Truth or Falsity Statement
Radio provides a means ofcommunication.
True. Radio is one way tocommunicate.
Yes
2 + 1 = 6 False, since 2 + 1 = 3 Yes
President Theodore Teddy
Roosevelt was the 28th President of
the United States.
Unknown whether it is True or
False. We can certainly find out
by going to the library and doing alittle research.
Yes
Trey Yuen restaurant serves Peking
duck.
Unknown whether it is True or
False. We can certainly find out
by going to the restaurant and try
and order it for dinner.
Yes
he said it Unknown whether it is True or
False. We need to know what "it"
is.
No
Source: www.geocities.com/rharney3/115/old_notes/section6_1.doc
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Statements / Claims
But not all sentences are statements.
Shut the door! (command)
What day is it? (question)
Lets go to Singapore. (proposal)
Hello, teacher! (greeting)
Please send me your latest brochure. (request)
Place the wooded plank on top of the roof. (instruction)
Oh, my goodness! (exclamation)
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Statement / Non statement?
1. Can I get you something to drink?
2. Lets party!
3. Capital punishment is wrong.
4. Please write your name clearly.
5. What do you say we have break for lunch?
6. Cant you see that pornography insults women?
No
No
No. Suggestion
Yes
No. Request.
As it stands, it is not a statement. BUT, we might rewrite it as
Pornography insults women.
We shall learn form of questions that can take on the role of a
premise or a conclusion.
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Why is it important to differentiate
between statements and non-statements
By mistakenly treating non-statements asstatements, we can possibly draw a wrong
inference about an argument such as extractingwrong conclusion(s) or premises.
Remember, sometimes in arguments containmany noises (such exclamations, command,
threats). A critical thinker should be able to spotnoises and concentrate on theessence of the
argument , particularly, the main claim (conclusion)and its premises.
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At this Point in
BCT 1024, W
e
Are Most Interested in
Examining Statements to
Figure Out ... whether they serve asconclusions, premises, orsupport in an
argument
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Understanding the Meaning of
Argument
Usually, when we refer to an argument,
we
are
thinking of some
sort of dispute
between individuals or groups.
But, an argument has a very different meaning
when were talking about critical thinking.
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What is an argument
It is not a quarrel.
Aclaim defended with reasons.
Composed of a group ofstatements.
One or more statements (premises) support
another statement (conclusion).
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What is an Argument
(in terms of critical thinking)
An argument is a series of statements used to persuade
someone of something.
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Greg Basshams Definition ofan Argument
An argument is a a claim that is defended with reasons.More precisely, an argument is a set of statements, one
of which (called the conclusion) is intended to be
supported by the others (called the premises).
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The idea about which you aretrying to persuade someone
is calle
d the
:CONCLUSION
Or the
MAIN CLAIM
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These words or phrases are usually
combined with a CONCL
USION:
Accordingly
As a result
Consequently
Hence
It follows that
So
Thats why
Therefore ...
This shows that
This means that
This would suggest
that
Thus
in which case
Theeffect was/is
In conclusion ...
Refer to textbook page 63 .
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Another type of statement thatmustbe present for the
collection of statements to be
an argument is called the:
An argument is a series of statements used to persuadesomeone of something.
Premise
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Premises
Premises are statements that directlysupport the conclusion.
A simple argument has two premises and aconclusion.
A more complex argument may contain many
claims, but these can always be divided up
into premises and a conclusion. In an argument, the conclusion is only
supported by its premises, but each premise
itself can be supported in a number of ways.
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These words or phrases are usually
combined with a PREMISE:
As indicated by
As shown by
Because
For
Given that
Inasmuch as
Since
The reason is that
As illustrated by
On account of
In view of
By virtue of
Due to
As long as
A reason is
premised on ...
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A simple argument must have
(i) a CONCLUSION
(ii) at least two PREMISES
Premise
Conclusion
Premise
However, a complex argument may contain many more
conclusions and premises linked together
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Consider this Argument
The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,
should be abandoned because this money would bebetter spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, and the project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.
Now ask:What is the main claim about which the
speaker is trying to convince us??
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The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,should be abandoned because this money would be
better spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, and the project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.
The CONCLUSION is .
The projectshould be abandoned
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The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,should be abandoned because this money would be
better spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, andthe project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.
And what are the PREMISES?
The billions advocated fort
heprojectshould bespenton
infrastructure
There will be noeconomic benefit
P1:
P2:
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But sometimes, it can be verydifficult to logically analyze
someones attempts to persuade
you. You might want to examinethe arguments that another
person is making, but it is hard to
figure out exactly what they are.
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Why?? Because the argumentsare buried in a mass of language
that includes illustrations,
background, personal opinion andarguments, all mixed together.
And also many tim
es indicator wordsareabsent.
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The mix of messages that we
are receiving from the other
person is known as the:
RawMaterial
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And the process of finding the
arguments and then
dissecting the arguments into
their various parts is known
as:
Reconstruction
Reconstruction involves a series of techniques
where you look for indicator words.
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Donald Norman is a famouscognitive psychologist who
hasstudied the most effective
ways to design equipment
especially computerequipment.
Example 1: Findingthe Main Idea:
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D
esigning well is not easy. The manufacturerwantssomething that can be produced
economically. The store wantssomething that
will be attractive to its customers. The
purchaser hasseveral demands. In the store,the purchaserfocuses on price and
appearance, and perhaps on prestige value. At
home, the same person will paymore attention
to functionalityandusability. The needs ofthose concerned are different and often
conflict.(p. 28)
Example 1: Findingthe Main Idea:
by D. Norman
Whatisthe CONCLUSION
about which Dr Norman is
trying to persuadeus?
We askourselves:
What is the most
important idea?
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To identify the premises,
ask the key questions ...
Hey, Prof. Donald
Why do you think that its not easy
to design well?
How do you know that its not easy
to design well?
What proof do you have that itsnot easy to design well, sir?
Prove it, buddy!
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Designing well is not easy. The manufacturer
wantssomething that can be producedeconomically. The store wantssomething that
will be attractive to its customers. The purchaser
hasseveral demands. In the store, the
purchaserfocuses on price and appearance,and perhaps on prestige value. At home, the
same person will paymore attention to
functionalityandusability. The needs of those
concerned are different and often conflict.
Nonetheless, the designermaybe able to satisfy
everyone.
Whatdo youthinkhisanswerwillbe??
by D. Norman
I think its not easy to
design well because:
(1)Th
ere aremanydifferent needs(2)Thedifferent needsoften conflict
witheachother
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Whats the CONCLUSION in
the
following case
?
Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40%increase during the period from 1987 to 1997.
Studies of car-following are central if one is to
understand those factors that generate rear-end
accidents. A car-following situation also involvesspecific stress factors, such as the annoyance of
being followed too closely. This stressful situation
can have implications for safety, as well.
Askourselves:What is the most important idea?
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Whats the CONCLUSION in
the
following case
?
Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40%increase during the period from 1987 to 1997.
Studies of car-following are central if one is to
understand those factors that generate rear-end
accidents. A car-following situation also involvesspecific stress factors, such as the annoyance of
being followed too closely. This stressful situation
can have implications for safety, as well.
Askourselves:What is the most important idea?
Weshouldstudy why people follow
tooclosely when driving theircars
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Studies of Car Crashes
Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40%
increase during the period from 1987 to 1997.Studies of car-following are central if one is to
understand those factors that generate rear-end
accidents. A car-following situation also involves
specific stress factors, such as the annoyance ofbeing followed too closely (and) This stressful
situation can have implications for safety, as well.
What reason does the author have forsaying that itis important to studywhypeople drive too closely?
P1
P2
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Studies of Car Crashes
Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40%increase during the period from 1987 to 1997.
Studies of car-following are central if one is to
understand those factors that generate rear-end
accidents. A car-following situation also involvesspecific stress factors, such as the annoyance of
being followed too closely. (and) This stressful
situation can have implications for safety, as well.
What reason does the author have forsaying that
it is important to studywhypeople drive too closely?
Its important to study why people follow tooclosely in cars because:
(1) there are a lot of rear-end car crashes
(2) following too closely can lead to stress, which
in turn, contributes to car accidents
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Sometimes, when another person is
making an argument, he or she will
assume that you can figur
eout th
eargument without having to include
all the premises oreven without
having to tell you th
econclusion.
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When the conclusion is not stated outright and the
arguer assumes that you will know it we call thatan:
implicit conclusion
And, when the premise is not stated outright and the
arguer assumes that you will know it we call that an:
implicit premise
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During reconstruction of anargument, one of the things
you have to do is to figure outif any of the premises or if the
conclusion are implicit.
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Lets practice finding the
implicit conclusion
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More music
More variety
(Listen toMIX-FMradio)
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Air Asia is affordable for everyone
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Youre late again!
The boss isnt going to be happy!
(Dont belate
on anymore
work-days)
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Sometimes, you need to fill
in theimplicit premise
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Letme tellyou a story
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O.J. Simpson
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O.J. Simpson
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O.J. Simpson
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O.J. Simpson
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O.J. Simpson
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O.J. Simpson
When the
gloves dont
fit
You have to acquit
(Nicoleskiller wore
these gloves)
(The glovesdont fit OJ)
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O.J. Simpson
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Sometimes, you need to fill
in both the implicit premise
andthe implicit conclusion
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Letme tellyou another
story
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My Trip to Japan
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My Trip to Japan
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We visited:
1- Asakusa (akin to Petaling Street in Malaysia)2- Fuji Television Studio3- Akihabara (theelectronic city shopping )4- Tokyo Disneyland5- Shopping @ Aeon Gunma
6- Sushi House7- Mombashi shopping mall and South Indian
restaurant)8- Nagasakiya gunma (another shopping trip )9- 100 bucks shops (another shopping trip , again?)10- Kusatsu resort (Now Resort volcano hot spring
spa, and karoke time , cozy sleeping COLD!!)
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My Trip to Japan
The trains
coming!!
(Thetrain wontwait forus)
(Mysistertriedto persuadeustostop
shopping sothat wecouldcatchthetrain)
While we were atAsakusa,
my sister ,Aisyah said :
Implicit premise
Implicit conclusion
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Finally, we were in the train excited, exhausted
and sleepy ZzzZZ
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Another example ...
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Star Trek
Resistance isfutile!
(Weretougherthan
you are)
(Therefore,youshouldjust giveup andletus
takeover)
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Determining conclusion and premises
from the advertisement
Implicitconclusion: This property website is clearly the best
in Malaysia.
Implicit premise: This website achieved a remarkable
achievement with 12,000 listings within 8 months.
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Determining conclusion and premises
from the advertisement
Implicitconclusion: Digi Prepaid SIM pack is clearly the best buy.
Implicit premise: Considering other things is getting expensive,
Digi prepaid SIM pack is still considered cheap.
Make this statement
sounds less
significant that it is.
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There is one more aspect of
the reconstruction process that
can be a little difficult.
That has to do with the role
that questions play in the raw
material.
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Do you remember when we
were discussing statements?
And we said that questionscould never be statements
because they can neither be
right nor wrong.
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Well, theres a certain form of
question that can take on the
role of a premise or a
conclusion in an argument.
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QUESTIONS
Interrogative
Questions
Rhetorical
Questions
Questionsintendedto
solicitsomeinformation
fromyou
Questionsintendedto
solicityour agreement
ortomotivateyouto
takesome action
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Interrogative Questions
Where were you born?
Which team won the championship in the
Barclaycard English Premiership League
in 2006?
What is the square root of 25?
Do you like BCT1024?
Who is your favourite lecturer?
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InterrogativeQuestions
differ from
Rhetorical
Questions
trying to findoutsomeinformation
trying toencourage
someoneto agree
orencouragethemto
actin some way
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Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
Rh t i l Q ti
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Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
You were late again!
The boss is really going to be angry.
Dont you think maybe you should make
more of an effort to be on-time?
(I wantto persuadeyouto arrive at workat
thetimeyoushould)
Rh t i l Q ti
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Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
Ive been waiting here for an hour while
youve been taking photos
Im beginning to get bored and impatient
Isnt it time to go yet?
(I wantto persuadeyoutostop taking photos
so wecan leave)
Rh t i l Q ti
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Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
Our budget projections are due
tomorrow.
Ive noticed that you still havent finished
them.
Youre going to get them in by thedeadline, arent you?
(I wantto persuadeyouto getthe projections
finishedon-time)
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Rhetorical Questions
as Premises
Rh t i l Q ti
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Rhetorical Questions as
PremisesThe prosecution found some bloody
gloves at the murder site.
But, did you hear that the gloves didnt fitthe person (O.J Simpson) they accused?
He must not be guilty after all.It can be written this way:
Ifa person fit the bloodygloves, the person is guilty
O.JSimpson does notfit the gloves
Therefore, O.JSimpson is not guilty
Rh t i l Q ti
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Rhetorical Questions as
PremisesWell, you know that all dogs bark, dont
you?
And Ralph is a dog, right?
Therefore, Ralph barks.
It can be written this way:
All dogs bark
Ralph is a dog,
Therefore, Ralph barks
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We have another type of
questions called
Leading Question
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What is a Leading Question?
It is a question that is worded in a way
that will guide the person being
questioned in making his or her
response.
In a leading question, the questioner
uses language which suggests a
particular answer.
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RhetoricalQuestions
differ from
Leading
Que
stions
trying toencourageagreementor action
trying to guidesomeones
answerin a certain
direction trying to getthemtosaythethings
you wantthemtoAspecial formof
interrogative
questions
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Instead of asking a witness on the stand ,
Where were you on the night ofDecember 20th, 2008
The questioner would say: You were driving to Klang onthe night ofDecember 20th, 2008, werent you?
Note that:
Many leading questions are framed as yes or no questions,in a way which lead to the information that the questionerwishes to elicit.
LEADING QUESTIONS
Q
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A Leading Question
Is David Beckham a loving husband?
Wouldnt you agree that David Beckham
is one of the most loving husbands in
the world today?
Look at the difference between these questions:
A L di Q i
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A Leading Question
How did you feel about your retirement
savings when the share prices started
dropping?
Werent you scared that all your retirementsavings would be lost when the share prices
started dropping?
Look at the difference between these questions:
A L di Q i
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A Leading Question
Would you like to come and see the new Pirates
of the Caribbean movie with me on Friday?
How could you even think of refusing to come andsee the new Pirates of the Caribbean movie with
me on Friday?
Look at the difference between these questions:
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Interesting reading material about leading
questions :
http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepag
e/faculty/Swann/docu/swegner.pdf
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Why Do PeopleUse
Rhetorical and LeadingQuestions
More powerful persuasion can be
achieved if you involve the other personin theexchange of ideas.
By putting a premise in the form of a
rhetorical question, you are inviting theperson to be pulled into thinking about the
argument, rather than just listening to it.
Practical Applications of this
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Practical Applications of this
Knowledge
When writing a
recommendation or
giving a spee
ch insupport of an idea,
use rhetorical or
leading questions to
capture
the
attentionof your audience, to
pull them onto your
side.
When critically
analysing the arguments
of others, dont allow
your own objectivity to
be swayed by the fact
that you were pulled into
agreeing with an earlier
premise by a rhetorical
or leading question.
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Whyare we studying about
this?IF youcan develop a habit, when youwriteorspeak,of firstidentifying theidea in which
you want peopleto believe(main claim) andthen
telling yourreasons(premises) for agreeing withthemain claim andthen finding waysofhelping
peopletounderstand and believein yourpremises ...
THEN you will become a better writer/speaker,capableofexplaining andsupporting yourideas
clearly !
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Whyare we studying about
this?IF youcan develop a habit, when youwriteorspeak,of firstidentifying theidea in which
you want peopleto believe(main claim) andthen
telling yourreasons(premises) for agreeing withthemain claim andthen finding waysofhelping
peopletounderstand and believein yourpremises ...
THEN you will become a better writer/speaker,capableofexplaining andsupporting yourideas
clearly.
AND people who are better atexplaining and
supporting theirideastendto achieve a greaterdegree
ofsuccess..
As students: In business:
Th th h
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Theres another reasons why
we
study about the
parts of anargument ...When people are abletocritically analysetheinformation
thattheyrehearing -- todetermine whethertheyshould
believetheclaimsthatothers aremaking byexamining the
conclusion,the premises andstatements-that-support-the-
premises,
then theytendtomakebetterdecisions andtoavoid being
misled.
Betterdecision-makers and people whocan avoid being
misled
tendto bemoresuccessful also!
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Diagramming arguments
Arrow Diagramming:
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Arrow Diagramming:
Five Steps1. Read through the
argument and circle any
premise or conclusion
indicators you see.
2. Bracket and Numberthe statements
consecutively (1, 2, 3,
etc)
3. Arrange the numberson a page with
premises placed above
the conclusions they
are claimed to support.
4. Omit any statements
that dont function as
either premises or
conclusions in theargument
5. Finally, using arrows to
mean therefore (or is
offered as evidence
for), create a flowchart
that indicates
relationships of
argumentative support.
1 ) Read through the argument and
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1.) Read through the argument and
circle any premise or conclusion
indicators
You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures because we cover a lot ofmaterial, missing classes can get you
barred and the lecturer is cute.
Remember that, okay?
INDICATORWORD
FORAPREMISE
2.) Bracket each premise and
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conclusion, and number the statements
consecutiv
ely as th
eapp
ear in th
eargument
[You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures] because [we cover a lot ofmaterial], [missing classes can get
you barred] and [the lecturer is cute].
Remember that, okay?
1
2
3
4
5
3 ) Arrange the numbers on a page
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3.) Arrange the numbers on a page
with premises placed above the
conclusion(s) they support
[You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures] because [we cover a lot ofmaterial], [missing classes can get
you barred] and [the lecturer is cute].
[ Remember that, okay? ]
1
2
3
4
5
3
1
2 4
4 ) Omit statements that dont function
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4.) Omit statements that don t function
as a conclusion or premise within the
argument
[You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures] because [we cover a lot ofmaterial], [missing classes can get
you barred] and [the lecturer is cute].
[ Remember that, okay? ]
1
23
4
5
3
1
2 4
5 ) Add arrows to show the
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5.) Add arrows to show the
relationships of argumentative
support
[You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures] because [we cover a lot ofmaterial], [missing classes can get
you barred] and [the lecturer is cute].
[ Remember that, okay? ]
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5
3
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2 4
Sometimes the premises are
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Sometimes the premises are
linked
[Nobody whostaking BCT1024likesArsenal].
[Philip istaking BCT1024].
Therefore [Philip doesntlikeArsenal].
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2
3
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3
+
Sometimes there are
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Sometimes there are
supporting arguments
[Dont goscuba-diving byyourself]. [You need a partner]
because [sometimes accidentscan happen] and
[youcannotrescueyourself]. [Also,there areregulations
stating thatyoushouldonly godiving with a partner].
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4 5
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3 4+
5
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Additional Readings
Try exercises on pg 388.