Lecture 6 Learning

8/6/2019 Lecture 6 Learning .

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Learning

Definition

Significance

Theories

Strategies of reinforcement


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Learning is an important variable in humanLearning is an important variable in human

behaviour.behaviour.

Organisations survival and success dependOrganisations survival and success depend

upon continuous learning of employeesupon continuous learning of employees

Through learning opportunities, employeesThrough learning opportunities, employees

acquire knowledge, attitudes , skills andacquire knowledge, attitudes , skills andstay motivatedstay motivated


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Learning

Learning

Any relatively permanent change inbehavior that occurs as a result of

experience.

In other words, learning is understood as theIn other words, learning is understood as themodification of behaviour through practice, trainingmodification of behaviour through practice, training

or experienceor experience

It is to be remembered that learning involvesIt is to be remembered that learning involvesmodification of behaviour and all behaviourmodification of behaviour and all behaviour

modification is not learningmodification is not learning


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Nature of Learning (Components)

Learning involves change although change

may be for good or bad

Change should be relatively permanent

It should be reflected in behaviour It should occur as a result ofexperience,

practice or training

The practice or experience must be

reinforced in order for learning to sustain

Learning occurs through out ones life and

not restricted to schools, and educational

institutions


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Theories of Learning

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an

individual responds to some stimulus that

would not ordinarily produce such aresponse.

Repeated actions lead to desired

behaviour

stimulus-Response

connection


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Ivan Pavlov popularized this Classical

Conditioning

He made use of dog to demonstrate the

conditioning

classical conditioning is a form of learning

where two stimuli become associated so

strongly that the presence of only one of thestimuli will elicit the same response as if

both were present.


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Key Concepts

Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation)

Conditioned stimulus (Bell)

Conditioned response (salivation in reaction to the bell

alone)

Key Concepts

Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation)

Conditioned stimulus (Bell)

Conditioned response (salivation in reaction to the bell

alone)

Unconditioned

Stimulus (natural)

Conditioned

stimulus (neutral)

Conditioned response (learning)


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Classical Conditioning (Contd)

In an organisational setting, there are varietyof behaviours we can see classical

conditioning work

Organisations are spending lot of time on ads

to provide the link of the information value of a

stimulus to prospective customer s buying

behaviour. For instance, Fabindias promotionof its products


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Evaluation of Classical conditioning

It represents only a small part ofhuman

learning

They only explain simple reflexive behaviour

and not complex one

Organisations are employing this concept toincrease the sales of their products

Has got limited scope in OB


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Theories of Learning (contd)Theories of Learning (contd)

Key Concepts

Conditioned (learned) behavior

Reinforcement

Key Concepts

Conditioned (learned) behavior

Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary

behavior leads to a reward or prevents a

punishment.

stimulus-

response

connection


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This was popularised by B.F.Skinner

Behaviouris a function ofconsequences Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the

consequences are favourable. It will not be

repeated if the consequences are unfavourable

A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulusresults in an increased probability of that

behavior occurring in the future

Operant conditioning is when you do one thing,

another thing happens, and you therefore learnto do the first thing in order to cause the

second thing to happen


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Examples of Operant Behaviors

and Their Consequences

works and is paid.

is late to work and is docked pay.

enters a restaurant and eats.

enters a football stadium and watches a

football game.

enters a grocery store and buys food.

BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES

The Individual


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Operant Conditioning (Contd)

Boss assures his subordinate that he would berewarded in the next performance appraisal,

provided employee works overtime. If he

worked hard , he will be rewarded by the

manager and worker repeats his hard work with

enthusiasm. This is an illustration of operant

conditioning

In CC, individual is reactive and in OC ,he is pro

active. There is no choice in CC and in OC,

there is a choice. Response is elicited in CC

and it is emitted in OC


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Cognitive Theory of learning This theory assumes that organism learns the

meaning of various objects and events and learned

responses depending upon the meaning assigned

to stimuli. Learner forms a cognitive structure in memory

which preserves and organizes information about

the various events that occur in a learning situation

The role of an organism in receiving , memorizing ,

retrieving and interpreting stimuli and reacting is

recognized and emphasized.



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Cognitive Theory (Contd)

This theory is very much alive and

relevant

Expectations , attributions and locus ofcontrol are all cognitive concepts and

represent the purposefulness of

Organisational Behaviour

There is a relationship between

cognitions and behaviour


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Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation

and direct experience.

This is called observational learning

This emphasises the ability of an individual to

learn by observing models-parents, teachers,

bosses, peers and others. Many patterns of

behaviour are learned by watching the behaviourof others and observing its consequences for

them.


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Social Learning Theory

This theory is an extension of operant

conditioning and it involves observational

learning and the importance of perception in

learning.

The influence of model is central here.


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Four processes determine the influence. They are

1. Attentional process: people learn from a model

only when they recognise & pay attention to its

critical features.

2. Retention processes: extent to which one

remembers the models action after the model isno longer available.

3. Motor reproduction processes: our ability to

act on the memory representations4. Reinforcement processes: extent to which one

repeats the above behaviours if positive

incentives are provided.


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Key Concepts

Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

Some rewards are more effective than others.

The timing of reinforcement affects learningspeed and permanence.

Key Concepts

Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

Some rewards are more effective than others.

The timing of reinforcement affects learningspeed and permanence.

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step

that moves an individual closer to the desired

response.


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Reinforcement

This refers to the psychological process ofmotivating a person

It will be any action that the person findsrewarding. Common reinforcement gestures

include pat on the back, increase in pay,

given a day off or a citation

This is something which enhances the

strength of the response and prompts the

repetitions of the behaviour


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Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant consequence when

the desired behavior occurs. Punishment

Applying an undesirable condition to

eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction

Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to

cause its cessation.


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Positive Reinforcement

This strengthens and enhances behaviour by

presenting a desirable consequence. A

manager praises his subordinate for his

quality work performance and if thesubordinate continues to produce quality

work and this is type of positive

reinforcement


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Principles ofPositive Reinforcement

Contingent reinforcementonly reinforcedesired behavior

Immediate reinforcementreinforce

immediately after desired behavior occurs

Reinforcement sizea larger amount of

reinforcement has a greater effect

Reinforcement deprivationdeprivation

increases effect on future behavior


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Example of Contingent Reinforcement

Manager compliments

employee for

accomplishments

Manager and

employee

set goal

Does

employee

achieve goal?

Manager is silent

or reprimands

employee

YES

NO

ReinforcementContingenton Consequence

EmployeeTaskBehavior

Antecedent(precedes thebehavior)

Consequences(result of thebehavior)


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Organisational

RewardsUsed by Organizations

MATERIAL REWARDSPayPay raisesStock optionsProfit sharingDeferred compensation

Bonuses/bonus plansIncentive plansExpense accounts

SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS

Company automobiles

Health insurance plans

Pension contributions

Vacation and sick leave

Recreation facilitiesChild-care support

Club privileges

Parental leave

STATUS SYMBOLS

Corner offices

Offices with windows

Carpeting

Drapes

PaintingsWatches

Rings

Private restrooms

SOCIAL/INTER-PERSONAL REWARDSPraise

Developmental feedbackSmiles, pats on the back,other nonverbal signalsRequests for suggestionsInvitations to coffee/lunchWall plaques

REWARDS FROMTHE TASKSense of achievement

Jobs with more responsibilityJob autonomy/self-directionPerforming important tasks

SELF-ADMINISTEREDREWARDSSelf-congratulation

Self-recognitionSelf-praiseSelf-development throughexpanded knowledge/skills

Greater sense of self-worth


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Negative Reinforcement

Any unpleasant event that precedes the

employee behaviour is removed when the

desired behaviour occurs. Such procedures

will increase the likelihood of the desiredbehaviour to occur

Managers make use of negative

reinforcement when an employee does not

perform something which is desirable or

necessary


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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is

reinforced each time it is

demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is

reinforced often enough tomake the behavior worth

repeating but not every time it

is demonstrated.


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Intermittent Reinforcement:

Can be of a ratio or interval type.

Ratio schedules depend on how many

responses the subject makes. The individual isreinforced after giving a certain number of

specific types of behaviour.

Interval schedules depend on how much time

has passed since the previous reinforcement.


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Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at

uniform time intervals.

Eg. Salary


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Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed

or constant number of responses.

Eg. A series of randomly timed

unannounced visits to a company

office by the corporate audit staff.


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Fixed-ratio schedule:

Rewards are initiated after a fixedor a constant number of

responses.

Eg. Piece-rate incentive plan


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Variable-ratio schedule:

The reward varies relative to the

behaviour of the individual.Eg. Salespeople on commission.


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Fixed-ratio


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How to Make Punishment Effective

Praise in public, punish in private

Pinpoint and specifically describe the

undesirable behavior to be avoided

Develop alternative desired behavior

Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant

events


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Learning and Organisational Behaviour

There is little Organisational behaviour notdirectly or indirectly influenced by learning

Skills, knowledge, attitude , manners etc are

learned

The specific application of learning to OB

include using lotteries to reduce absenteeism,

enhancing employee discipline, developing

training programmes in order to provide a

model for the trainees to emulate and to

practice behaviours

Principles of learning also facilitate manager

to learn effectively

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Lecture 6 Learning