Lectures 5, 6 - The Phrase Exercises

8/13/2019 Lectures 5, 6 - The Phrase Exercises

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Lectures 5, 6. The Phrase

4.1. Types of phrase

When examining a clause in English, one can sense that it is made up of words or groups of

words connected by relations that turn them into units (see 2.6.). To understand how such

relations work, look at the examples below:

The dog| ate| the treat|. SVOpattern

The big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor| ate| the tasty treat on the table near the

window that gave on the park in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral|. SVOpattern

The two clauses, though very different in length, are both SVO clauses, and have exactly the

same clause elements: subject, verb, and object.

The difference then should rest at phrase level, because syntactic functions in the clause are

realised by phrases. Indeed, every clause element consists of a grammatical unit, called phrase.

Both the dog and the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor are noun phrases that

fulfil the function of subject.

Notice: Romanian speakers of English have to be aware of the fact that phraseand frazare false friends, because they look and sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning.

The headis the most important element of the phrase, the word that cannot be omitted without

destroying the phrase itself. To put it differently, if the clause pattern is the minimal structure ofa clause, the head is the minimal structure of a phrase.

The head determines the relationships and the behaviour of the phrase as a whole. In the two

examples above, both subjects consist of nouns phrases. They are recognized as noun phrases

because the central element in both is the noundog and, consequently,each phrase behaves as a

noun.

The table below contains an example for each of the five types of phase in English.

type example word-class of head

1. noun phrase a nice chat noun: chat

2. verb phrase must have been dreaming verb: dreaming

3. adjective phrase very nice adjective: nice

4. adverb phrase very calmly adverb: calmly

5. prepositional phrase ofthe language preposition: of


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It is important to note that the number of phrase types (five) is smaller than the number of word-

classes (ten). For comparison, they are put side by side below:

type of phrase examples word-classes examples

noun phrase (NP) (the friendly) dog nouns dogverb phrase (VP) go verbs go

adjective phrase (AdjP) (very) nice adjectives nice

adverb phrase (AdvP) (very) slowly adverbs slowly

prepositional phrase (PpP) to the dog prepositions to

- pronouns it

- numerals five

- conjunctions and

- determiners the

- interjections ouch

Pronouns, numerals, conjunctions, determiners, and interjections do not have a corresponding

phrase (there is no example of Pronoun Phrase or Numeral Phrase). As for pronouns and

numerals only, sometimes they can occupy the position of head of a noun phrase ([NPI]love his

novels! [NPI]'ve read [NPfive].) or, in the case of numerals, of an adverb phrase (He came [AdvP

fifth]in the car race.)

We already know that each phrase, except the prepositional phrase, can consist of the head only.

To see how that works, let us look again at the bracketed noun phrases in the examples above:

the dogand the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor. The longer phrase can be

contracted to the head onlydogby removing in turns all the determinatives and modifiers, orcan be expanded into a longer sequence by adding the modifiers back. If we scale the phrase as

below, it becomes obvious that depending on where we start from, topdown or bottom up,

various head dependents can be added/ removed before and after the head.

[the dog]

[the big friendly dog]

[the big friendly dog of my neighbour]

[the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor]

Each object in the two examples above also consists in a noun phrase: the treat and the tasty

treat on the table near the window that gave on the park in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral,

respectively, and the difference in length between them is even more outstanding. By arranging

them on the same pyramidal scale, it becomes obvious that a phrase that consists of other

elements besides the head can be analyzed in more than one way. This happens because, in

English, phrases can be embedded (see 2.6.3).


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[NP[detthe] treat]

[NP[detthe] [AdjPtasty]treat]

[NP[detthe] [AdjPtasty]treat [PpPon the table]]

[NP[detthe] [AdjPtasty]treat [PpPon the table] [PpPnear the window]]

[NP[detthe] [AdjPtasty]treat [PpPon the table] [PpPnear the window][that-Clthat gave on the park]]

[NP[detthe] [AdjPtasty]treat [PpPon the table] [PpPnear the window][that-Clthat gave on the park]

[PpPin front of the Old Catholic Cathedral]]

As we can see, the treaton the first line is a noun phrase, which on the line below is combined

with an adjective tasty, then with a prepositional phrase, on the table, which in turn is

combined with that gave on the park, to whichin front of the Old Catholic Cathedral is added,

and such additions can potentially go on endlessly.

Notice that within a phrase, we can even add a clause like that gave on the park, as in the

window that gave on the park. Such occurrences, obtained by adding further phrases, or even

clauses, within the basic structure of a phrase, are examples of embedding(see 2.6.3.).The fact

that aphrase may contain another (embedded/nested) phrase or clause is one of the main features

of English phrases.

4.2. Syntactic functions of phrases

Another feature that describes phrases is the fact that there are two types of syntactic relations

that apply to them. As we have seen, phrases can have syntactic functions in the clause - they can

realise subjects, verbals, objects, complements or adverbials. At the same time, the phrases that

are embedded within other phases can have syntactic functions in the phrase they belong to.

The table below presents the major syntactic functions the different phrase types can have at

clause and phrase level.

phrase type syntactic function in clause syntactic function in phrase

noun phrase subject; direct object; indirect

object; subject complement;object complement, adverbial

complement of preposition in PpP;

premodifier in NP; apposition to other NP

verb phrase verbal -

adjective

phrase

subject complement; object

complement

premodifier in NP; postmodifier in NP;

head in NP

adverb

phrase

adverbial modifier in AdjP, AdvP


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prepositional

phrase

adverbial postmodifier in NP; complement in AdjP;

premodifier in NP

Examples for each situation above will be provided and discussed in the following sections.

4.3. The noun phrase

4.3.1. Definition

A noun phrase is a phrase in which the word which acts as its head is typically a noun or a

pronoun. A noun phrase may minimally consist of a noun (cats), as in [NPCats]make wonderful

petspreceded or not by a determiner,or of a pronoun (they), as in [NPThey]make wonderful pets.

There are cases where the head of a noun phrase is an adjective, especially when the structure

definite article + adjective occurs, as in the soap opera title [NPThe young]and the restless.

Other examples include: the poor, the blind, the sick, and so on.

4.3.2. The structure of the noun phrase

The head of a noun phrase may be accompanied by other words or phrases, which provide

information about it. For instance, the noun phrase allindoor cats of different breeds contains a

determiner (all), a premodifier (indoor), the head (cats) and a postmodifier (of different

breeds).

[NP[detAll][AdjPindoor]cats [PpPof di f ferent breeds]]

The structure of the noun phrase can be represented as follows:

NP

(determiners(s)) + (premodifier(s)) + head + (postmodifier(s))

Notice: The parentheses represent optional elements.

The noun-headed NP structure is illustrated below1:

determiner premodifiers head (noun) postmodifiers

industrially advanced countries

a small wooden box that he owned

a market system that has no imperfections

the new training college for teachers

patterns of industrial development in the US

1Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English,

p. 264, 2002.


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Pronoun-headed NP phrases usually do not include a determiner or premodifiers, but they may

have postmodifiers.

determiner premodifiers head

(pronoun)

postmodifiers

Ishe

anyone who is willing to listen

those who take the trouble to register

the big one in town

According to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005) certain classes of adjectives do

not modify a noun and are themselves heads for noun phrases. This is the case for:

some adjectives, particularly superlatives, that function as heads of noun phrases that areabstract. These noun phrases are singular:

The best is yet to come.

The latestis that our team is winning.

some set expressions: from the sublime to the ridiculous, out of the ordinary, etc.Examples:

We have much in common.

Im leaving for good.

Ill tell you in private.

The situation went frombad toworse.

Adjectives normally preceded by the definite article the or by a determiner like many ormore that in this structure designate a group having a characteristic in common:

There are moreunemployedthan ever before.

These expressions are normally plural (the dead means all dead people or the deadpeople, but not the dead person) and cannot be used with a possessive s. We say the

problems of the poor or thepoor peoples problems, not the poors problems.

Adjectives without the are sometimes used in paired structures with both and:opportunities for both ri ch and poor.

A few adjectives of nationality ending in sh orch are used after the without nouns. TheyincludeIrish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish, Dutch, French: The Ir ishare very proud of

their sense of humour. These expressions are plural; singular equivalents are an Irish


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woman, a Welshman (not a Welsh). Where nouns exist, they are preferred to expressions

with the ish: the Danes or the Turks (not the Danish or the Turkish).

In a few formal fixed expressions, the + adjective can have a singular meaning. Theyinclude the accused, the undersigned, the deceased, the former andthe latter:

The accusedwas released on bail,

Mr. Gray and Mrs. Cook: the latter is a well-known designer.

Adjectives are sometimes used after the to refer to general abstract ideas, especially inphilosophical writing: the beautiful, the supernatural, the unreal. These expressions are

singular:

Shes interested in the supernatural.

A noun that has already been mentioned or that does not need to be mentioned can beomitted, when thinking about a choice between two or more different kinds of thing:

Have you got any bread? ~ Do you want whiteor brown?

Color adjectives can sometimes have a plurals in this situation:Wash the redsand the bluesseparately.

Determiners/ determinativesare function words that come before the head and before all the

other dependents in a noun phrase and determine or specify how the reference of a noun phrase

is to be understood. For example, this determines the reference of table in this table: it tells us

which or what table is intended.(G. Leech 2006, 33) the author also mentions that in an older

tradition of grammar, determiners were treated as adjectives, and terms like demonstrative

adjective and possessive adjective are still used in some grammars.(2006, 33)

The presence of determiners is obligatory before singular count nouns. Notice that, for example,

catwithout a determiner cannot be a noun phrase: Cat makes a wonderful pet, unless cat is a

name or a nickname, but in that case it no longer is a count noun.

Determiners can be divided into three classes:

1. predeterminers, e.g. all, both, half, as in [detall]cats, [detboth]breeds.

2. central determiners, e.g. a(n), the, those, as in[deta]breed, [detthose]cats.

3. postdeterminers, e.g. other, two,first, as in [dettwo]cats, [detother]breeds.

Premodifiers are modifiers placed before the head. They are normally realised by adjectives

(indoor cats), participial premodifiers (broken heart, breaking news) but can sometimes be


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realized by nouns (churchroof) or other types of phrases. An example proposed by Biber et al.

shows a prepositional phrase that premodifies a noun.

It probably fell out of the sky after an [PpPin-flight]explosion. (Biber, Johansson, et al. 1999)

The head governs concord, that is, the agreement in grammatical form between elements in aclause or a phrase. It may be preceded by determiners and premodifiers and followed by

postmodifiers.

The postmodifiers incorporate all the elements placed after the head and typically consist of

prepositional phrases (cats [PpP of different breeds]), relative clauses (cats [that-Cl that stay

indoors])and non-finite clauses (cats [ing-Clstaying on the sofa]). Appositive clauses can also be

embedded in noun phrases quite often, as in [NPthe fact [app-Clthat she was his worst nightmare]].

Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, 266) distinguish between clausal postmodifiers and phrasal

postmodifiers.

Clausal postmodifiers can be finite (relative clauses) or non-finite (to-clauses, ing-clauses, and

ed-clauses).

Phrasal postmodifiers consist of two main types: prepositional phrases and appositive noun

phrases, but adjective phrases can also occur, less commonly, as in President Bush will reiterate

he wants a smooth transition and will cooperate in [any waypossible]2.

Occasionally adverbs can also be premodifiers or postmodifiers in noun phrases:

a. adverb as premodifier: the nearbyguardsb. adverb as postmodifier: a block behind

Relative clauses are a common type of postmodifier. In the clause He has two cats that stay

indoors, the relative clause is embedded in the noun phrase. In order to highlight the process of

embedding, we should try to recreate previous stages, starting from two independent clauses and

moving towards the embedded relative clause provided above:

He has two cats. The cats stay indoors.

The next step connects the two clauses into a sentence, by replacing cat(which is object in the

former and subject in the latter) with the relative pronoun that:

He has two cats that stay indoors.

2Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English,

p. 266, 2002.


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In the sentence we obtained, the first clause is the main clause, and the second the relative clause.

Thatpreserves its syntactic function of subject in the dependent clause and the whole relative is

embedded in the noun phrase [NPcats [that-Clthat stay indoors]].

The same procedure can be used for embedded non-finite clauses:

He caressed two cats. The cats were staying on the sofa.

He caressed the two cats that were staying on the sofa.

He caressed the two cats staying on the sofa.

Appositive clauses embedded in a noun phrase are introduced by the conjunction that: the fact

that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa

We can distinguish between the conjunction that in appositive clauses and the relative that by

noticing that, as a conjunction, that does not have a function within its clause, while as a relative

pronoun it is realised at subject of its clause. Consequently, thatcan be omitted in the appositive

clause (thathe caressed the two cats staying on the sofa) but not in the relative clause (cats stay

indoors).

A copular relation can be identified between the appositive clause and the head of the phrase in

which it is embedded: the fact that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa can be converted

into a finite clause by inserting be: the fact is that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa.

The issue can be further clarified if we consider Leech's definition of the apposition:

A relation between two constituents such that the following statements normally apply: (a)apposition exists between two noun phrases; (b) the two constituents in apposition are in a

relationship which could be expressed by the verb be; (c) the two constituents are juxtaposed and

combined in a single noun phrase, which can act, for example, as subject or object of a

sentence. Examples of apposition are: George Washington, first President of the USA; My

neighbour Mrs Randall; tequila, a powerful Mexican drink. By extension, the term apposition

can apply to a noun phrase next to a coreferential nominal clause (for example, the idea/hope

that the White House would change its policy can become a sentence with be: The idea/hope was

that the White House would change its policy). An of-phrase in which of links coreferential

expressions may also be termed appositive: the city of Beirut; the disgrace of losing the contest.

(2006, 12)

In conclusion, appositive relationships appear between two noun phrases or between a noun

phrase and an appositive clause which have identical reference. It would be useful for the

Romanian speaker of English to note that both types of apposition correspond to the Romanian

atribut, which in the approach of this course is not recognized as a clause element together with

the subject, verbal, object, complement, and adverbial, but rather as a phrase element.


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To sum it up, modifiers are optional elements that are dependent on the head. Premodifiers and

postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure of noun phrases:

noun phrase structure example

head Cats

determiner + head those catspremodifier + head white cats

determiner + premodifier + head some white cats

head + postmodifier cats on the sofa

determiner + head + postmodifier some cats on the sofa

premodifier + head + postmodifier white cats on the sofa

determiner+premodifier+head+postmodifier some white cats on the sofa

All the NPs in the table above can have the same function in a clause; they can all realise, for

example, subjects, as in Cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats

on the sofa/ white cats on the sofa/ some white cats on the sofa are asleep , or objects, as in Heliked cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats on the sofa/ white

cats on the sofa/ some white cats on the sofa.

There can be more than one premodifier or postmodifier in a noun phrase: nice whi te cats,cats

on the sofa whi ch requir e my attenti on

Both the two premodifiers in the first example and the two in the second separately modify the

head word, cats.Consequently, the two examples can be re-written as follows:

nice whi te cats

nicecats white cats

catson the sofa whi ch requi re my attention

catson the sofa catswhich requir e my attenti on

Another characteristic of the modifier is that it may itself be modified by the addition of adverb

phrases, as in a verynice cat.

Kies proposes the following diagram of the functional components of a noun phrase:


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He explains that, depending on the context of the situation, determiners and modifiers are chosen

according to our needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP. The diagram is one

way to represent the dual nature of a phrase, seen as a merger of both form and function.

4.3.3. Coordination

Noun phrases can be linked together with the conjunctions and or or, as in the white cats and

their owner. The same applies to premodifiers or postmodifiers, which can also be coordinated.

Especially for the non-native speakers of English, this possibility can pose certain problems of

understanding who/ what the modifiers refer to. For example, in a situation where two adjectives

coordinated by and premodify a noun in the singular, it is clear that the noun has both of the


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attributes expressed by the two adjectives. In apolite and friendly person, it is easy to understand

that thepersonis bothpoliteandfriendly. The difficulty appears when two adjectives modify a

head noun in the plural, as in literate and religious inhabitants, because the phrase can be

interpreted in two ways: inhabitants that are both literate and religious, but also literate

inhabitants and religious inhabitants. The same is true, for instance, about young men and

women,because it is not clear whether both categories share the attribute young.

Similar examples can be provided for postmodifiers: a dessert of chocolate and cream meansa

dessert that consists of both chocolate and cream, while desserts of chocolate and cream can

mean desserts that consist of both chocolate and cream, as well as desserts that consist of

chocolate and desserts that consist of cream.

Determiners can also apply to two or more nouns or modified nouns, as in her sister and two

brothersmeaning 'her sister and her two brothers'. Consequently, there are ambiguous situations

involving determiners as well; their cats and other petscan be understood as either their cats

and their other pets or other pets and their cats.

4.3.4. Noun phrase complexity

In 4.3.2. and 4.3.3., we saw that noun phrases become more complex by embedding and

coordination for the following reasons:

a noun phrase may contain more than one premodifier or postmodifier a modifier may itself be modified by the addition of adverb phrases like noun phrases, premodifiers and postmodifiers can also be coordinated.

One-word modifiers, especially adjectives and nouns, are typically placed before the head, i.e. a

white cat, a white Siamese cat, their white Siamese cat, while multi-word modifiers generally

occur after the head, i.e. the cat of the man, the cat that the man loves, the cat of the man that she

loves best.

An exception to the general rule that governs the ordering of NP dependents is; for example, the

fact that the genitive phrase, which is a multi-word modifier, always precedes the head, as in my

friend'scar.

Leech (2006, 74) provides a noun phrase to demonstrate that, as a result of the combination ofmodifiers in one noun phrase, long sequences can be built up: the recent unrest in Ruritania,

which has led to a cautious measure of liberalization in a regime that up to recently has been a

byword for totally inflexible authoritarianism.


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Even more elaborate examples and comments are provided by Downing and Locke (2006, 455).

The following structure is an example of a pronominal head (something) which has as

postmodifier a single finite relative clause, some of whose elements are realised more than once.3

The other night, on television, I saw something[which reminded me of the Spaniards [going into

South America + and advancing over the mountains + and terrifying the population with terriblenew weapons, + cannon + and the horse [which nobody [in their world] had ever seen]]].

The next sentence uses a different organisation of successive post-modification. Each of the two

NPs, every studentand a grant, is post-modified by three coordinated units:

a. in the case of the first, AdjP + PpP + non-restrictive relative clauseb. in the case of the second, PpP + two relative clauses.

Virtually every student [AdjP normally resident in England or Wales], [AdjP with specified

minimum qualifications], [relative-Clwho is admitted to a full-time degree, [PpPat a university [PpPin the UK]]] is entitled to a grant[PpPfrom his/ her Local Education Authority], [relative-Clwhich is

intended to cover his/ her tui tion fees and maintenance[PpPfor the duration [PpPof the course]

[relative-Cland which also includes an element[PpPtowards his/her vacation maintenance.]]

Three of these six modifiers contain embedded units of their own.

Under certain circumstances, complex noun phrases may be split up, as in the following

examples4:

A rumour spread through the camp that a reli eving force from D inapur had been cut to pieces

on the way to Kr ishnapur .

The time was coming for me to leave Fr isco or I would go crazy.

In this chapter a description will be given of the food assistance programs that address the

needs of the fami ly.

This arrangement is in agreement with general principles for the ordering of elements within the

clause. The principal syntactic means are:

word order the passive existential there

3Embedding is indicated by a bracket, and coordination by +:4Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Johansson, et al.Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English,

1999, p. 99, 886)


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dislocation clefting

Choices also vary according to register, reflecting differences in communicative needs and

stylistic norms. In registers where use of language is the focus, as in in fiction and journalism,choices may sometimes simply be due to a desire to achieve stylistic variation.

As these examples show, noun phrases can display considerable structural complexity generated

by combinations of different kinds of modifiers and through embedding noun phrases,

appositional structures and clauses.

4.3.5. Syntactic functions of noun phrases

As we have already seen in 3., 4.2., 4.3., noun phrases can have various syntactic functions both

in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below.

in the

clause

syntacticfunction example

1. subject His friendswere preparing a surprise party.

2. direct object His friends were preparing asurpr ise party.

3. indirect object His friends were preparing a surprise party for

him.

4. subject complement That was a special sur pri se party.

5. object complement They called him party boy.

6. adverbial They'll have the party next week.

in the

phrase

1. complement of preposition

in PpP

a surprise party of his own

2. premodifier of a noun or NP a surpriseparty of his own

3. apposition to another NP the surprise party, their gift for him

4. premodifier in AdjP the two weeksold baby

5. premodifier in AdvP one monthearlier than expected

In addition to the functions above, noun phrases can also be used as peripheral elements in the

clause. Biber, Johansson, et al. enumerate and illustrate them as follows (1999, pp.134-10):

a. detached predicatives are similar to subject complements in form and meaning, butunlike the latter, they can be used independently of the type of verb. They are looselyattached to the core of the clause, usually at the beginning or the end, and

characteristically take the form of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase which describes

the subject referent(1999, 134):

A republi can, he recognized the authority of Victor Emmanuel.


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b. parentheticalelements5are mainly used in writing and are signalled typographically byparentheses, dashes, or some other typographic device. They give additional information

which is related to, but not part of, the main message of the clause. They mostly consist

of noun phrases or numeral phrases, and sometimes of complete independent clauses.

At precisely 11.07 (Earth time), a message flashed up on the ITN screen.

The first thing we notice about the rocks of the Grand Canyon is a pronounced layering, or

stratification (F igure 2-6).

One of the first to make it in modern times (some Greeks had known i t long before) was

Leonardi da Vinci.

c. Preface/left dislocation is typical of speech. It consists of a noun phrase, with acoreferent pronoun (marked here with [I) following in the core of the clause:

This woman, [she]'s ninety odd.

Mark - will [he] be first to finish? ( c o ~ v )

d. Tags/ right dislocations are short structures which can be added at the end of the clausein conversation or in written representations of speech to clarify or underline the

reference of the noun phrase. They take either the form of a noun phrase or of an

interrogative or declarative clause. Noun phrase tags examples:

Oh [he] was a, [he] was a lovely man, wasn't [he], Doctor Jones?

[It] makes you wonder, you know, all thi s unemployment.

[It] was a good book this.

e. Vocatives takethe form of noun phrases (very often proper names) and are used to singleout the addressee of a message:

Are you singing mate?

Mum,I'm making such a big sandwich.

5The term is used here for elements which cannot be assigned to a more specific category.


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Lecture 6

4.4. The verb phrase

4.4.1. Definition and structure

Most grammars agree that the verb phrase (VP) consists of a head, which is a lexical or a

primary verb6, preceded by the optional elements, the primary and/or modal auxiliaries. A

simple verb phrase consists in the head/main verb only.

The main verb selects the other clause elements that can occur in the clause (see valency). The

auxiliaries further characterize the action, state, or process expressed by the main verb.

Finiteverb phrases mark distinctions of tense between present and past and can be preceded by

modal auxiliaries. Non-finiteverb phrases are not marked for tense and cannot occur with modal

auxiliaries.

According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, 42), in two situations verb phrases are

discontinuous/split into two parts:

- In questions, the subject is placed after the (first) auxiliary verb: What's hedoing? (verbphrase is doing)

- Adverbs or other adverbials can interrupt the parts of a verb phrase: He hasjust arrived. (just is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb). Notice that this

interposed position of the adverb between the auxiliary and the main verb never occurs in

Romanian (El atocmai ajuns.).

Kies models the structure of a verb phrase in the following diagram:

6Lexical, primary and auxiliary verb are discussed in 5.4.


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Due to its clarity and simplicity, it can be used for future reference, together with Leech's

patterns of verb choices discussed in 3.9.2 and with Biber, Conrad and Leechs table of the main

forms of the VP below, illustrated withshow as main verb and could as a modal auxiliary (2002,

43).

present tense past tense modal

simple shows/show showed could show

perfect has/have shown had shown could have shown

progressive am/is/are showing was/were showing could be showing

passive am/is/are shown was/were shown could be shown

perfect+

progressive

has/have been showing had been showing could have been showing

perfect

+passive

has/have been shown had been shown could have been shown

progressive

+passive

am/is/are being shown was/were being shown could be being shown

As we can see in the table above, primary and modal auxiliaries can combine in forms like may

have done, has been done, is being done. Primary auxiliaries follow modals and, as we have

already seen in Leech's model, if all are present, they occur in the order shown below.

MODAL + PERFECT + PROGRESSIVE + PASSIVE

Nevertheless, the verb phrases with four or more verbs (such as could have been being shown)

are quite uncommon.

Notice that, in both Romanian and English, more than one auxiliary can occur in the same verb

phrase.

English Romanian

structure example structure examplefuture perfect will have done viitor anterior va fi fcut

modal perfect

progressive

might have been doing condiional-optativ perfect ar fi putut face

modal perfect

progressive passive

could have been being

made

condiional-optativ perfect

pasiv

ar fi putut fi fcut


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4.4.3. Syntactic functions of verb phrases

As we saw in 4.2, the verb phrase has only one function in the clause and no function in the

phrase. Thus, both the a. finite and b. non-finite verb phrases always realise the verbal of the

clause they belong to.

a.His friends| were preparing|a surprise party. (were preparingverbal, finite VP)

b. His friends enjoy || |preparing| surprise parties||. (preparing verbal in ing-Cl, non-finite

VP)

4.5. The adjective phrase


An adjective phraseis a phrase in which the head is an adjective. The simplest type of adjective

phrase consists of an adjective only, as in They had powerfulcars.

Like nouns phrases, adjective phrases can be made more complex by adding words that

modify/complement the head. Modifiers qualify what is denoted by the adjective, and they are

optional.

Thus, in terms of structure, the adjective phrase (AdjP) typically consists of a head, optionally

preceded and followed by modifiers. Modifiers that precede the head are alternatively called

specifiersand those that follow it, complements.

Heads, premodifiers and postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structureof AdjPs:

The structure of the adjective phrase can also be arranged diagrammatically (source,papyr.com):

adjective phrase structure example

head nice

premodifier + head very nice

head + postmodifier nice of you to come

premodifier + head + postmodifier very nice of you to come
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The headof the adjective phrase is always realised by an adjective. Adjectives are words that

typically modify nouns, by specifying the properties or the attributes of that noun.

[NPa [AdjPcalm]attitude]

His mother is [AdjPveryangry with him].

He is [AdjPsoi nterested in linguistics].

Specifiers typically indicate the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective. The most

common type of specifier consists of degree adverbs, such as very, so, too, etc.

The elements following the head serve to complete the meaning of the adjective and are

generally called complements. Complements mainly take the form of

- prepositional phrases (too late for reconcili ation)- comparative constructions (funnier than the last show)-

degree adverbs (useful enough)

- to-infinitive clauses (too poorto feed themselves)- comparative clauses (His behaviour was ruder than I could imagine.)

Postmodifiers are called complementsbecause they normally complete what is implied in the

meaning of the adjective. For example, if we say His mother is veryangry,we mean that the


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subject is characterized in some respect by a certain state, and the postmodifier specifies in what

respect: with him.

Certain adjectives (aware, fond, subject, afraid, etc.) require the presence of a postmodifier for

completeness. Together with other adjectives, they are grouped in lists labelled 'adjectives with

obligatory prepositions' that can be found in usage books such as Raymond Murphys EnglishGrammar In Use with Answers and CD ROM: A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for

Intermediate Students of English.

Such adjectives that take obligatory postmodifiers have verbs with corresponding meanings. A

few examples are provided in the table below.

adjective example verb example

aware I'm aware of the consequences. know I knowthat there will be consequences.

fond She is fond of cats. like She likes cats.

subject The proposal is subject to

debate.

submit They submitthe proposal for debate.

afraid She is afraid of snakes. fear She fearssnakes.

4.5.2. Syntactic functions of adjective phrases

Adjective phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are

illustrated with examples in the table below.

In the clause

Syntactic function Example

1. subject complement That moment was special.

2. object complement They found him nice.

In the phrase 1. premodifier of a noun or NP a specialsurprise

2. postmodifier of a noun or NP the nicest surpriseparty possible

3. head in NP the blind

Subject complement is the most typical role of the adjective phrase in the clause. The head

adjective in an adjective phrase functioning as subject complement is classified as predicative

adjective. Predicative adjectives occur after a link verb, which is the normal position the subject

complement.The most typical role the adjective phrase at the level of phrase is that of premodifier of NP,

where the adjective is classified as attributive adjective.

Attributive adjectives normally occur before the nouns they modify (see examples above), but

the members of a small subclass, called postpositive adjectives, actually follow the head noun.


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The resulting noun phrases are fixed official expressions such asAsia Minor, attorney general,

governor general, heir apparent,notary public, PrincessRoyal, timespast,etc.

Another situation of postposition is when the head the adjective modifies indefinite or

demonstrative pronouns such as something (somethingnice), everyone (everyonealive), those

(no oneresponsible), etc.

Postpositive adjectives often combine with specifiers in the superlative, as in the nicest dress

imaginableor the best services available.

Notice that, with the exception of the fixed expressions above, only predicative adjectives can be

postposed.

his closest relative alivehis closest relative living

This happens because they can be expanded into relative clause with subject complement, which

can be reconstructed as follows:

the nicest dress imaginablethe nicest dress that was imaginable

the best services availablethe best accommodations that is available

The adjective living (= alive now, according to Cambridge Dictionaries Online n.d.) can be

used predicatively only, so the instance below is ungrammatical.

his closest relative living his closest relative who is living

Livingshould be replaced by alive(as in his closest relative alive, that can be expanded to his

closest relative who is alive), which is an exclusively predicative adjective. Nevertheless, most

adjectives can occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions.

A very long modifying adjective phrase can also be postposed, as in the following two examples.

Our mother was a fabulous farm cook, able to mix, roll , and cut biscui ts as easil y as blinking.

(The Sun Magazine n.d.)

An adjective phrase modifying a noun can be discontinuous, with the noun head splitting it in

two parts:

During journeys to and from school Asia was a differentsibling than the one I knew at home.

(The Sun Magazine n.d.)

4.6. The adverb phrase



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The adverb phrase(AdvP) is a phrase in which the head is an adverb. An adverb phrase may

consist of one word (an adverb alone) or of two or more words. Mainly one-word adverb phrases

modify adjectives(barelyalive) or adverbs (very slowly).

Adverb phrases (as forms) should not be mistaken for adverbials (as functions).The adverb

phrase is a phrase (= a word or group of words which can fulfil a syntactic function in a clause),while the adverbial is a clause element that can be realised by adverb phrases, prepositional

phrases and adverbial clauses.

Much like adjective phrases, adverb phrases (AdvP) may contain, besides the head, one or more

modifiers. The modifiers (premodifiers/ specifiers and postmodifiers/complements) in an adverb

phrase are optional elements that are dependent on the head. They can all combine to form the

following basic structures:

(premodifier/specifier) head (postmodifier/complement)

separatelyalmost separately from him

The structure of the adverb phrase was arranged diagrammatically by Kies (papyr.com):

Semantically, most of the premodifiers are intensifiers that express the degree of the

characteristic expressed by an adjective or adverb. The most common intensifier is very.

Premodifiers are usually realized by degree adverbs, while postmodifiers are typically realized

by prepositional phrases or comparative clauses (She did not manage as smooth ly as she had

expected).

Here are some examples of possible structures of adverb phrases:
http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adv.htmhttp://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adv.htmhttp://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adv.htmhttp://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adv.htm


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4.7. The prepositional phrase


The prepositional phrase is a phraseconsisting of a preposition followed normally by a noun

phrasecalled either prepositionalcomplementor the object of the preposition.

The structure following a preposition is called a complement because it completes the meaning

of the preposition, due to the semantic association between the preposition and the following NP.

The same structure is also called the object of the preposition because a prepositional

complement is object territory and personal pronouns are therefore in the objective case

(Greenbaum and Quirk 1990, 188).

The prepositional phrase is a structure with three parts:

(modifier/specifier) head complement/object

into the carright towards her

The headof a prepositional phrase is always a preposition, and, unlike the heads of all the other

phrase types, it cannot occur by itself, without its complement.

Much like in Romanian, the preposition can be seen as a link that connects the noun phrase and

the preceding units. The order of the constituents in the prepositional phrase can be inferred from

the name of the word-class the head word belongs to: the preposition (foregoing position)

normally comes before its complement.

Nevertheless, according to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005), in contemporaryEnglish, structures with stranded prepositions have become the rule (or at least a popular

alternative) in the following situations:

The stranding is obligatory when the prepositional complement becomes the subject ofthe clause.

o Your case will soon be attended to.o The picture is worth looking at.

In questions and relative clauses the prepositional complement may be a pronoun oradverb that is fronted. In that case, the preposition is normally stranded.

o Where are you coming from?o I am the person (that) you are waiting for.[In relative clauses the pronoun may be

omitted.]


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Notice that in formal style the preposition is fronted with its complement.o Forwhom are you waiting?o I am the person forwhom you are waiting. In passive structures, prepositions go with their verbs:

o She likes to be looked at.o Carol was operated onlast night.

Notice that even in a formal style, prepositions cannot be moved away from passiveverbs:

o In my family, money was never spoken about. (not about money was neverspoken)

In infinitive structures, infinitive complements can have prepositions with them:o The village is pleasant to live in.o Ive got lots of music to listen to.

Even in very formal style, prepositions are not often put at the beginning of questionswhich have be as the main verb.

o Who is it for, madam? (notFor whom is it?) The structures whereto, whatlikeandwhatfor have a fixed order:

o Whereshall I send it to? (but not To where shall I send it?)o Whatdoes she look l ike? (but notLike what does she look?)

Additionally, Swan (2005, 453-4) lists a number of exceptions to the exceptions above.

common adverbial expressions consisiting of preposition + NP (e.g. with greatpatience, in a temper) in which the preposition is closely connected with the noun and is

kept as near as possible to it. The preposition cannot usually be moved to the end of a

clause.

o I admired the patience with whichshe spoke. (not the patience she spoke with). During andsince are not normally put at the end of clauses.

o Duringwhich period did it happen? (not Which period did it happen during?)


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o Sincewhen have you been working for her?(not When have you been working forher since?)

The modifieris normally a degree object and it is the only optional element of a prepositional

phrase.

The prepositional complementis typically realised by a noun phrase, but it may also be realised

by other word classes or phrases8: Adjective and adverb phrases as complements are uncommon

and limited to certain set expressions such as at last, for good, for ever, etc. (see 4 and 5 below).

prepositional complement example

1. noun phrase at home, above the city

2. nominal relative clause fromwhat I know

3. -ing clause beforegetti ng to you

4. adjective phrase at longlast,forgood, inpri vate

5. adverb until veryrecently, eversince,forever6. preposition phrase except in here,from out of the forest

7. wh + to-inf. Cl Do you have any problems apart from where to stay?

4.7.2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They can

actually realise every element of clause structure except the predicator, each illustrated with

examples in the table below9.

Syntactic function Example

In theclause

1. adverbial She talked to himafter the party.2. subject Af ter darkis the only good time for fireworks.

3. direct object I dont consider next to a railway li ne a good place to

live.

4. prepositional object Someone has been tamperingwith the scanner.

5. subject complement Monica must be out of her mind to reject such an

interesting offer.

object complement His illness left him without a job.

In the

phrase

1. postmodifier in NP the tree in the garden

2. complement in AdjP happywith his reaction, brilliant at gardening

3. complement in AdvP far fr om here

4. premodifier in NP an out-of-datereport, off-the-recordcomments

5. complement in PpP except on Mondays

8Realisations and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, 536)9F unctions and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, 541-2).


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As Downing and Locke note, the use of PpPs in the functions of subject and object is normally

restricted to expressions of place or time. PpPs are used freely as sCs or oCs to express

temporary states, where they are often interchangeable with adjectives. (Monica must be out of

her mind~ mad, His illness left him without a job ~jobless)

PpPs have an ability to be embedded recursively in other PpPs or phrases. In other words, one

unit is embedded in another, which is embedded in another, and so on, as in: A car accident[on

the motorway[to Yorkshire]]. (2006, 541)

Another illustration is provided by Greenbaum and Nelson (2002: 89). In the clause There were

variationsin the degree of bi tterness of taste, embedding can be shown as follows:

prepositional phrase in the degree of bitterness of taste

noun phrase the degree of bitterness of taste

prepositional phrase of bitterness of taste

noun phrase bitterness of taste

prepositional phrase of taste

A last observation here is that two or more prepositional phrases that realise adverbials may

appear independently and simultaneously in the same clause (see 3.8.), as in the following

example:

At midnight(1)she secretly (2)eloped with her lover (3)to his lodgings (4).


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Exercises:

1. Identify the head in each of the following bracketed noun phrases:

1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets

2. [ The editor] rejected the manuscript3. We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany

4. [People who cycle] get very wet

5. We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells]

2. Identify the phrase type:

1. Houses are [unbelievably expensive] just now.

2. We [met Paul] last week.

3. [A car that won't go] is not particularly useful

4. I enjoy eating [in Indian restaurants]

5. Don't you have to leave [early]?6. Tell [him] not to worry.

Exercise 4.1 The noun phrase

Indicate whether each underlined noun phrase contains a pre-modifier, a postmodifier, or both.

1. The umbrella originated in Mesopotamia over 3000 years ago.

2. It was an emblem of rank and distinction.

3. It protected Mesopotamians from the harsh sun.

4. For centuries, umbrellas served primarily as a protection from the sun.

5. The Greeks and Romans regarded the umbrella as effeminate and ridiculed men who carried

umbrellas.

*Exercise 4.2 The noun phrase

Bracket the noun phrases in each sentence below. Some sentences may have more than one noun

phrase. If a noun phrase contains another noun phrase within it, bracket the embedded noun

phrase a further time.

For example: [Microwave cooking] is [an absolutely new method for [the preparation of [food]]].

1. Fire is not used in microwave cooking.

2. Electromagnetic energy agitates the water molecules in the food.

3. The agitation produces sufficient heat for cooking.

4. The electronic tube that produces microwave energy is called a magnetron.

5. The magnetron was in use a decade before the birth of the microwave oven.

*Exercise 4.3 Relative clauses

Combine the (a) and (b) sentences in each set below by turning one of the sentences into a

relative clause.


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la. The drugs inevitably damage a patients healthy cells as well.

b. The drugs are used for chemotherapy.

2a. Human infants pass through a critical period.

b. The period lasts a few years.

3a. It was a mystery.

b. They could not solve the mystery.

4a. The fundraising campaign has recruited a core of graduates.

b. They in turn contact more graduates.

Exercise 4.4 Appositive clauses

Indicate whether each underlined clause is a relative clause or an appositive clause.

1. The manager lacked the experience that would have helped him overcome the crisis.

2. You have undermined my conviction that a nuclear war is inevitable.

3. She has heard the news that all the passengers and crew escaped unhurt.

4. I cannot dispute the fact that you have won the support of most members.

Exercise 4.5 Apposition

In the sentences below, underline the noun phrases that are in apposition.

1. The accelerator hurled ions of carbon and neon at a foil target of bismuth, a metal related to

lead.

2. Helena Bonham-Carter was in it, the actress who played Ophelia inHamlet.

3. UK drug authorities have asked for more data on the companys anti-migraine drug, Imigran.

4. Wood can supply 5 per cent of our energy needs, leaving 95 per cent that must come from

other sourcessolar, wind, coal, nuclear, biomass.

Exercise 4.6 Coordination

The coordinated noun phrases below are ambiguous. Rewrite the phrases unambiguously to

show the different meanings.

1. my friends and good neighbours

2. aged cheese and wine

3. their properties and other businesses

Exercise 4.8 Functions of noun phrases

Identify the function of each underlined noun phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in

the brackets after it: S (subject) oC (object complement) dO (direct object) cP (complement of

preposition) iO (indirect object) pM (pre-modifier of a noun or noun phrase) sC (subject

complement) A (adverbial)

1. The great fire of 1174 ( ) did not affect the nave, but it gutted the choir ( ).

2. The book offers a vivid picture of Poland and its people ( ).

3. The whole Dickens ( ) family went to stay with Mrs Roylance in Little College Street ( ).


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4. Last April ( ), security staff ( ) spotted an intruder ( ) on the White House lawn ( ).

Exercise 4.25 The adjective phrase

Underline each adjective phrase.

1. Fragrant homemade bread is becoming common in many American homes.

2. In a recent sample, 30 per cent of the subscribers to a womans magazine said that they baked

bread.

3. The first bread was patted by hand.

4. The early Egyptians added yeast and made conical, triangular, or spiral loaves as well as large,

flat, open-centred disks.

Exercise 4.26 The adjective phrase

Complete the sentences below by adding a post-modifier to the adjectives at the ends of the

sentences.

1. No doubt you are aware _______________________2. My children are always happy _______________________

3. It is sometimes possible _______________________

4. They are sure _______________________

Exercise 4.27 Functions of adjective phrases

Identify the function of each underlined adjective phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation

in the brackets after it: PrM (pre-modifier in noun phrase) PM (post-modifier in noun phrase)

sC (subject complement) oC (object complement)

1. The former ( ) champion is now very ill ( ).

2. He has a rare ( ) viral ( ) infection.3. The drugs he takes make him sick ( ).

Exercise 4.28 The adverb phrase

Underline each adverb phrase.

1. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that has recently gained much attention.

2. Authorities are having difficulties finding locations where nuclear waste can be disposed of

safely.

3. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the containers in which it

is stored.

4. Because of this danger, many people have protested quite vehemently against the dumping of

any waste in their communities.

Exercise 4.29 Functions of adverb phrases

Identify the function of each underlined adverb phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in

the brackets after it: A (adverbial) M Adj (modifier of adjective) M Adv (modifier of adverb)


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1. Small forks first ( ) appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany.

2. They were widely ( ) condemned at the time.

3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly ( ) became fashionable.

4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly ( ) concave pieces of

wood.

5. Knives were used far ( ) earlier than spoons.

Exercise 4.32 The prepositional phrase

Underline each prepositional phrase and circle each preposition. If a prepositional phrase is

embedded within another prepositional phrase, underline it twice.

1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu Chinese writings.

2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles.

3. The Swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation by manipulation.

4. Its value is recognized by many doctors.

5. Some doctors refer to massage as manipulative medicine.

*Exercise 4.33 The prepositional phrase

Rewrite the sentences below, moving prepositions to alternative positions that they can occur in.

You may need to make some consequent changes.

1. The secretary is the person who you should send your application to.

2. Relativity is a theory on which many modern theories in physics are based.

3. Who are you writing to?

4. This article is one that researchers in economics often make reference to.

Exercise 4.34 Functions of prepositional phrasesIdentify the function of each underlined prepositional phrase by writing the appropriate

abbreviation in the brackets after it: pN (post-modifier of a noun) pAdj (post-modifier of an

adjective) A (adverbial)

1. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money ( ) if they want to get elected.

2. A candidate can no longer win with little campaign money ( ).

3. Candidates are keenly aware of the need for huge financial contributions ( ).

4. They need the money to employ staff and for the frequent advertisements they run on

television ( ).

5. In recent campaigns ( ), television advertisements have been quite belligerent.

Documents

Lectures 5, 6 - The Phrase Exercises