Legal English《法律英语——美国法律制度》

(September 6,2010—November2, 2010)

• Four questions before class

• 1, How will we study the course of legal English?

• 2,What will we learn from this course?• 3. What are the difficulties in studying

legal English?• 4,What are the requirements of this cours

e?

• Question one: How will we study the course of Legal English?

• Ways of teaching and studying:

a. This course will be taught bilingually in Chinese and English.

b. not only the grammar, the tense, the glossary, but also the culture of common law, the legal tradition of American law and the institution of it, or the spirit and essence of American law.

c. case study (case method)/ lecture method

d. legal movie/TV play appreciation: Tokyo Trial, Legally Blonde, Law and Order

• Question two:What will we learn from this course?

The content is as follow:( altogether 8 chapters)Please see your textbook. (3 parts)a. Textb. Exercises: Dictation and Discussion/Simulation/Legal

Writing, etc.c. Supplementary Reading ( not compulsory)

• Question Three: What are the difficulties in studying legal English?

A. (1) 法律英语专业术语众多，有自身独特的含义 / 且用语正式。 action: 诉讼 consideration: 对价、约因 minor ： 未成年 major ： 成年 party ： 当事人 instrument ： 法律文件 Approach the bench. ——Come over here. He is a bench. ——He has become a judge. commence ——start/begin civil death ——deprivation of political rights ( 剥夺政治权

利终身）

A.(2) 外来语较多，尤其是拉丁语和法语• alibi 不在犯罪现场• bona fide 善意• stare decisis 遵循先例• jus cogens 强行法

法语：• voir dire 诚实审查• trespass 侵害

• B. Legal System: 不了解英美法制度和背景 ,需要系统学习英美法律制度。

e.g. lawyersolicitor ( 英国初级律师 / 非出庭律师）barrister （英国高级律师 / 出庭律师）

information ( 检察官起诉书，公诉书）indictment ( 大陪审团起诉书，公诉书）complaint （民事起诉状，或刑事自诉状）

• Question Four:What are the requirements of this course?

• Preview the text which will be taught in the next class:

look up new words in dictionary listen to the reading of the text understand long sentences catch the theme of the text• Answer ten questions following the text.• Read some Chinese versions of the introduction to

American law.• Review what you have already learned in previous cl

ass and try to discuss it with your roommates.

Chinese Reference Books

• 1. 钱弘道著，《英美法讲座》，清华大学出版社， 2004 年版。

• 2. 杨桢著，《英美法入门——法学资料与研究方法》，（基础课系列），北京大学出版社， 2008 年版。

• 3. （日）望月礼二郎著，《英美法》（新版）商务印书馆， 2005 年版。

Lesson One: Legal System

• Text: Introduction to the Legal System in the United States

• Part One: Features and Characteristics

• Part Two: Common Law( 普通法） and Equity Law （衡平法）

New Words and Expression

1. maxim: 格言、主义、原则 A brief expression of a general principle E.g. A stitch in time saves nine.2. common law: 普通法3. claim: 诉求 / 诉讼请求 4. relief: 救济

5. Reports of the United States Supreme Court 美国《最高法院判例汇编》：始于 1790 年亚历山大 . 达拉斯的判例汇编，中间经过克兰奇、惠顿、彼德、霍华德、布莱克、华莱士共 7 部以人名冠名的 90 卷判例汇编。

1874 年后，判例援引一般只按《美国判例汇编》的卷号编排 .E.g. 410 U.S.113(1973) 指判决开始于《美国判例汇编》第 410 卷

第 113 页（ 1973 年）， Roe v. Wade( 关于堕胎的一个案例）

6. writ. 令状、诉讼起始令 A court's written order, in the name of a state or other compet

ent legal authority, commanding the addressee to do or refrain from doing some specified act./ a special form of action

7. ex aequo et bono: 公允和善良，按良心和公平原则8.Equity and Equity Law ： 衡平及衡平法• Some Maxims of Equity Law:

a. Equity looks to the intent rather than to the form. 衡平法注重含义，而不注重形式。

b. Equity looks on that as done which ought to be done. 衡平法将要做的事看作应做的事。

c. Equity delegates equality. 衡平法代表公平。d. Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without a remedy. 衡平法

不允许对违法行为没有补救方法。

9. Court of Chancery: 衡平法院 / 大法官法院10. injunction: 禁令、强制令11. keeper of the king’s conscience: 国王良知守护者 ( 大法官）12. division of title in the law of property: 所有权分割13. judicial acceptance: 司法接纳

14. itinerant judges of the English royal court: 英国皇家法院的巡回法官15. binding interpretation: 有约束力的解释16. specific performance: 特定履行 / 实际履行17. compensatory damages: 金钱赔偿

Lesson 2: Legal Profession• New Words and Expressions:

Background Knowledge

1.bar: a. In a courtroom, the railing that separates the front area, where court business is conducted, from the back area, which provides seats for observers

b. The whole body of lawyers

c. （ C ） American Bar Association (ABA)

2. attorney: lawyer, public attorney

3. shyster: A person (esp. a lawyer) whose business affairs are unscrupulous, deceitful or unethical ( 诉棍）

4. lawsuit: A proceeding in a court of law brought by one party against another, esp. a civil action （诉讼）

• Part One The Bar• 1. Multi-state Bar Exam: A nationally standardized part of

a state bar examination given as a multiple-choice test covering broad legal subjects, Abbr. MBE

• 2.Harlan Fiske Stone :

12th Chief Justice of the United States

In officeJuly 3, 1941 – April 22, 1946

• 3. Attorney General of the United States: 司法部长、总检察长

• 4. barrister and solicitor• Barrister: a lawyer who has been called to the bar and is

qualified to plead in the higher court• Solicitor: a lawyer who advises clients on matters of law,

draws up legal documents, prepares cases for barristers

• 5. advocacy: The act of pleading for or actively supporting a cause or proposal

• 6.inferior courts: lower courts

• Part Two Lawyers in Private Practice

1. Law practice: the practice of law

practice: the exercise of a profession

2. Partners and associates: 合伙律师与普通律师

• Part Three House Counsel

1. House counsel: or corporate counsel, in-house counsel, one or more lawyers employed by a company

2. Legal department: 法务部、法律部

• Part Four: Lawyers in Government

1.Private practice 私人从业2.The United States Department of Justice: 美国司法

部3. Federal/state prosecutors: 联 (州）邦检察官 Prosecutor: a legal officer who represents the state or

federal government in criminal proceedings, also termed public prosecutor, public commissioner

4. Congress: The legislative body of the federal government ， consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

• Capitol Hill

• White House

• Supreme Court of the United States

Lesson 3. Legal Education

• New Words and Expressions• Background KnowledgeABA: American Bar Association, established

in1878J.D. Juris Doctor( 3 years)LL.M. Master of Laws (1-2years)S.J.D. Doctor of Juridical Science(3-5years)Required Course/ Elective Course

• Text: Introduction to the Legal Education in the United States

• Accredited/ accreditation: given official approval to act

• Curriculum: A list of all the courses of study offered by a school or college. (pl) Curricula 课程

• Student body:全体学生• From mild to caustic: 从温和到刻薄的

• Case Method: 案例教学法 An inductive system of teaching law in which students study specific cases to learn general legal principles. Also termed as casebook method/ Langdell method

• Socratic Method:苏格拉底问答法 A technique of law school instruction. It takes its name from the Greek philosopher Socrates, who lived in Athens about 469-399 B.C. The law is reason free from passion.

• Lecture Method : 讲演教学法 A method of legal instruction characterized by a straightforward presentation of legal doctrine. This method predominates in civil-law countries.

• Part One Curriculum and the Case Method

• Laissez-faire capitalism: 自由主义• Modern regulatory state: 现代规制国家• Peripheral subjects: 边缘学科、次要学科• Clinical education: clinical studies 诊所教育• Interdisciplinary contexts: history, psychology,

sociology, medicine, and economics. 交叉学科背景• Lawyering: 律师之业• unemotionalism/ cynicism: 非情感主义 \犬儒主义• Reasoning: the act or process of drawing

conclusions from facts, evidence, etc. 推理

• Christopher Columbus Langdell （兰代尔）• (1826-1906), American jurist, was born in the

town of New Boston, dean of Harvard Law School

Famous for:• his introduction of Case Method into Harvard

Law School • The standard first year curriculum • The Blind Grading

• Harvard Law School Langdell Hall

• The Reading Room in the Harvard Law Library

• Harvard University Law School

• Barack Obama in 1990,when he led the Harvard Law Review,in law school, obama found political voice

• Part Two: Law School Hierarchy• New Words and Expressions

1. intensely political places: 极度政治化的地方2. at the expense of : 3. condescension / deference: 俯就 / 遵从4. tenure: the holding of an office or position 5. law faculty: all the teaching staff at a law school6. gentile: a person who does not acknowledge your

God 异教的7. prestige: high status or reputation achieved

through success, influence, wealth, etc. 8. elite law schools: top law schools

• Felix Frankfurter • Graduated from Harvard

Law school, and became the editor of Harvard Law Review

• Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court

• In office: (1939-1962)• Nominated by Franklin

Roosevelt

• US News Law School Rankings - the most well known and controversial of all national law school rankings, this report has defined what are perceived as the top law schools.

Law School Rankings

USN ranking

Law School Educational Quality Rankings

2008 GPA 25th-75th Percentile

2008 LSAT 25th-75th Percentile

2008 Student/Faculty Ratio

1 Yale U 1 3.81-3.97 169-177 6.8

2 Harvard U 2 3.74-3.95 170-176 10.0

3 Stanford U 3 3.76-3.94 168-172 8.6

4 Columbia U 5 3.58-3.82 170-175 9.3

5 New York U 6 3.56-3.85 169-173 9.6

6 UC Berkeley 7 3.70-3.92 164-170 12.3

7 U Chicago 2 3.57-3.79 169-173 9.7

8 U Pennsylvania 11 3.46-3.88 166-171 11.6

9 U Michigan 8 3.54-3.82 166-170 12.4

10 Duke U 17 3.55-3.85 165-170 10.2

10 Northwestern U 14 3.40-3.81 166-172 9.1

10 U Virginia 10 3.56-3.89 166-171 13.5

13 Cornell U 14 3.24-3.84 166-168 9.9

14 Georgetown U 12 3.43-3.79 166-170 12.1

• Supplementary Reading

• 1.brief: a short written statement, esp. one giving facts or arguments about a law case 案情摘要

• memorandum of law: an argument by an advocate （律师） in support of his position. It is much like a brief but in less formal style 法律备忘录

• 2.Seminar: a class of advanced students with a teacher, meeting to study or talk about a subject 专题研讨课 /会

• 3. TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language IELTS: International English Language Testing System LSAT: Law School Admission Test GPA: Grade Point Average

• TV Show Appreciation• Drop Dead Diva• Place: L.A. California/ Florida• Time: 2009• Actors:• Deb: beautiful model, dead• Jane Bingum: a super busy kind lawyer, a big girl• Stacy: beautiful model too, Deb’s best friend and also Jane’s best

friend• Kim Kaswell: Jane’s coworker and also a lawyer/counselor• Teri: Jane’s private assistant and friend• Parker: the boss of this law firm• Kelvin: Parker’s old friend and his client this time• Jenny: Kelvin’s daughter

• Legal Words and Important Sentences• 1. case: lawsuit

• 2. sue: vb. e.g. I’m going to sue you.

• 3. jury selection: 挑选陪审团 jury, jurors

• 4.acceptable ： 认可，可接受的• 5.peremptory challenge: challenges which may be

made without any specific reason or cause. 无因回避 • 6.Your Honor ： 法官大人• 7.Cross Examination: also termed cross interrogation 交叉询问

• 8.Objection: a formal statement opposing something that has occurred, or is about to occur. 反对

• 9. Nothing further ：没有别的问题了• 10.Irrelevant: having no substantial relation to the action. 无关问题

• 11. withdraw: 撤回所提问题• 12. rebut witness:反驳证人• 13. expert witness: A witness qualified by knowledge,

skill, to provide a specific opinion 专家证人• 14.character witness: A witness who testifies under oath

as to the good reputation of another person. 人格名誉证人

• 15. Void: having no legal force, incapable of being ratified. 无效的

e.g. We believe this contract is void.• 16. Civil Liability: Liability imposed under the civil law

• 17. Criminal charge: 刑事指控• 18.Felony: A serious crime usu. punishable by

imprisonment for more than a year or by death. Examples include burglary, murder. etc

• 19.D.A. District Attorney 地区检察官• 20. directed verdict 直接裁决 / 指导裁决• E.g. The directed verdict is hereby issued. Case closed.• 21. opening statement /closing statement 开场陈述 /结案陈词

• 22. injunction: A court order commanding or preventing an action 禁制令

• 23. plaintiff ： The party who brings a civil suit in a court of law 原告

• 24. defense or defendant 被告

• Please pay a lot of attentions to:

• 1. the selection of the jury

• 2. the court trial

• TV Show Appreciation• Drop Dead Diva• Place: L.A. California• Cast:• Jane: a super busy kind lawyer, a big girl• Deb: beautiful model, dead• Teri: Jane’s private assistant and also friend• Stacy: beautiful model too, Deb’s best friend and

also Jane’s best friend• Fred: Jane’s private guard angel, having a crush o

n Stacy• Tony: also a lawyer, Jane’s boyfriend

• Elaine: Jane's mother• Kim: Jane’s coworker and lawyer/counselor• Parker: the boss of this law firm• Lisa Shayne & Sally Dodd: They were switched

at birth in the hospital 37 years ago.• Carla Shayne ： Lisa's mother, very poor• Mr. Dodd: Sally's father, very rich • Max Strickland: a chocolate company, the

plaintiff• Detweiller: the defendant

• Legal Words and Sentences

• 1. biological parents, biological child, biological mother

• 2. defamation:an abusive attack on a person's character or good name 诽谤 / 中伤

• 3. injuction 禁止令e.g. The injunction was granted.• 4. Nothing further. No more questions.e.g. I have nothing further. • 5. closing statement/ to close/ to close upe.g. Are you ready to close?• 6. overrule: (vb) to rule against, to reject 驳回e,g. Overruled.

• 7.recess : a brief break in judicial proceedings 休庭e.g. The court granted a 15-minute recess so the attorn

ey and plaintiff could confer.

• 8.statute of limitation 诉讼时效e,g. The statute of limitation has been expired.

• 9. under oath: 发过誓言的e.g. You are under oath,Ms. Shayne.

10. examine : (vb) to question thoroughly and closely 审问 /盘问

e.g. We have the right to examine her.

11. plaintiff's witness list 原告的证人名单

Lesson 4 Judicial System• Background KnowledgeA. Federal System: • District Courts• Courts of Appeals• The Supreme CourtSpecial Courts: The Court of Claims/The Customs Court/The Court

of Customs and Patent Appeals

B. State System:• Trial Court / Circuit Court • Appellate Court / Court of Appeals• Supreme CourtSpecial Courts: Probate Court/ Juvenile Court/ Court of Domestic

Relations/ Small Claims Court

• Text Overview of the Judicial System in the United States• Part One: Courts• Key Words and Expressions:• District of Columbia: Washington D.C. 华盛顿特区• Two-tiered system and three-tiered model/system:• Nebraska: a state of western U.S. 内布拉斯加州 • Litigant: a party to a lawsuit, including plaintiff, defendant,

appellant, appellee 诉讼当事人• to plead: to advocate a case in a court 向法庭陈述• Caseload: the number of cases constituting the work of a

lawyer• Appeal: (n) e.g. The case is on appeal.

(v) e.g. Petitioner appeals the conviction.

• Circuit: a judicial division of theU.S. 巡回审判• Panel: a set of judges selected from a complete court to

decide a specific case; esp. a group of three judges designated to sit for an appellate court. 合议庭

• Discretionary: Using the ability to act or decide according to one’s own judgment 裁量权

• Capital punishment: the punishment of death for a crime, also termed death penalty

• Writ of certiorari: a common law writ issued by a superior court to one of inferior jurisdiction demanding the record of a particular case 调卷令

• ad hoc: ( Latin), for this particular purpose 个案的 ----An ad hoc basis : on the basis of specific case

• Map of the United States

Federal Judicial Circuits

• Circuit (Seat) Included Districts• 1st Circuit

(Boston) Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Puerto Rico • 2nd Circuit

(New York) Connecticut, New York, Vermont • 3rd Circuit

(Philadelphia) Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virgin Islands • 4th Circuit

(Richmond) Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia • 5th Circuit • (New Orleans) Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas • 6th Circuit

(Cincinnati) Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee • 7th Circuit

(Chicago) Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin • 8th Circuit

(St. Louis) Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota

• 9th Circuit(San Francisco) Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands

• 10th Circuit(Denver) Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, Wyoming

• 11th Circuit • (Atlanta) Alabama, Florida, Georgia • D.C. Circuit

(Washington) District of Columbia• Federal Circuit

(Washington) [All districts]

The Supreme Court of the U.S.

美国联邦最高法院的职能：• 1. 审理联邦上诉法院的上诉案件• 2. 审理各州最高法院的上诉案件（若涉及联邦法律

的问题）• 3. 审理宪法规定其可以直接审理的一审案件（数量

较少）e.g.如因河流改道引起的土地归属纠纷（最高法院庭审的音频训练）

各州对“三审终审制”的态度：1. 在某些种类的案件中规定“三审终审”： California2. 在州法律中明确规定适用“三审终审”： New York

• Part Two Judges• New Words and Expression:• 1. on the bench• 2. tenure: period of holding a job 任期• 3.special nominating board ： 特别提名委员会• 4.popular vote/popular election ： 普选• 5.confirmation by the Senate/ Senate confirmation ： • 6.governor: 州长• 7. ABA’s Code of Judicial Conduct ：美国律师协会《法官

行为准则》• 8.gross misconduct: is where you can be dismissed

straight away because it is serious enough and possibly criminal.

• e.g. being drunk on duty/fighting/ harassing people (sexual harassment)/ stealing

• 9. Justice of the Peace / Magistrate 治安法官 / 司法官

A donkey and an elephant are the symbols of the US

Democratic and Republican parties.

• Some Famous Justices of the United States Supreme Court

• 1. Oliver. W. Holmes, 霍姆斯 (1902-1932) Republican 奉行社会达尔文主义和实用主义 e.g. Buck v. Bell 《普通法》

• 2. Harlan F. Stone ，斯通 （ 1925-1941 ） Republican

• 3. Benjamin N. Cardozo 卡多佐（ 1932-1938 ） Democrat《司法过程的性质》，《法律与科学》

• 4.Earl Warren 沃伦 (1953-1969) Republican

Lesson 5 Constitution• Background Knowledge• 1. Articles of Confederation

and Perpetual Union: 联邦条例commonly referred to as Articles of Confederation

• Created ： Novemeber15,1777• Ratified ： January ， 1781• Author ： Continental

Congress• Purpose ： the first

Constitution for the United States, later replaced by the creation of the current United States Constitution in 1789

• 2.Continental Congress 大陆会议• It was a convention

of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution.

• The Congress met from 1774 to 1789.

• 3.Constitution of the United States

• passed by continental congress in 1789

• Altogether 7 Articles, nearly 8000 words

4. United States of Bill of Rights

《人权法案》• Created ： 1789

• Ratified ： December ， 1791

• Author ： James Madison

• Purpose: to set limits on what the government can and can not do in regards to personal liberties

• James Madison

• First author of

Bill of Rights

• Text ： Brief Introduction to the Constitution of the United States

• 1. constitution: the fundamental and organic law of a nation that establishes the institutions and organizations of government, defines the scope of individual civil rights and civil liabilities. 宪法

• 2. doctrine of constitutional supremacy 宪法至上原则• 3. public scrutiny: close examination by the public 公共

审查• 4. ballot box: a box into which ballot papers are dropped

after voting 投票箱• 5. malfeasance: a wrongful/unlawful act; esp.

wrongdoing or misconduct by a public official 渎职罪

• 6.treason: the offense of attempting to overthrow the government of the state to which one owes allegiance（忠诚） , either by making war against the state or by materially supporting its enemies. 叛国罪

• 7.bribery: the corrupt payment, receipt, or solicitation(恳求） of a private favor for official action. Bribery is a felony in most jurisdictions. 行贿 /受贿

• 8. misdemeanor: a crime less serious than a felony and is usu. punishable by fine, penalty, forfeiture （没收） or confinement in a place other than prison.

Also termed minor crime 轻罪

• 9. impeachment: a proceeding brought against a federal government official. Congress’s authority to remove a federal official stems from art. , §4Ⅱ of the constitution, which authorizes the removal of an official for “ Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.” 弹劾

• 10. conviction: the act or process of judicially finding someone guilty of a crime. Cf. convict, convicted 定罪、判罪

• 11. constitutionality: the quality or state of being constitutional 合宪性

• 12. separation of powers: the division of governmental authority into three branches of government--legislative, executive, and judicial—each with specified duties on which neither of the other branches can encroach; the constitutional doctrine of checks and balances by which the people are protected against tyranny. Cf. division of powers 三权分立 / 制衡

• The legislature makes; the executive executes, and the judiciary construes the law.

• 13.judicial review: a court’s power to review the actions of other branches of government; esp., the courts’ power to invalidate legislative and executive actions as being unconstitutional. 司法审查

• 14. acid test: a rigorous or crucial appraisal 严格的标准 /严峻的考验

• Dictation• 1.real property 财产法• 2.Attorney General of the United States 美国司法部长• 3.jurisdiction 管辖权 /裁量权• 4.civil procedure 民事程序• 5.trial court/ district court 初审法院 /地区法院

• 1. 案例教学法 case method• 2. 刑法 criminal law• 3. 美国律师协会 American Bar Association （ ABA ）• 4. 最高法院主审法官 Chief Justice• 5. 最高法院 Supreme Court

Constitution of the United States of

American • Preamble• We the people of the United States, in order to form a

more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility （平静） , provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity (后世） , do ordain （命令） and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

• Article I• Section 1.• All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested

in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

• Article II• Section 1. • The executive power shall be vested in a President of

the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows:….

• Article III• Section 1. • The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested

in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

Amendments to the Constitution

• Amendment I (1791)

• Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

• Amendment II (1791)

• A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

• Amendment III (1791)

• No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

• Amendment IV (1791)

• The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

• Amendment V (1791)• No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise

infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

• Amendment VI (1791)• In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a

speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

• Amendment VII (1791)• In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall

exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

• Amendment VIII (1791)• Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,

nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. • Amendment IX (1791)• The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not

be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. • Amendment X (1791)• The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution,

nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.