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The Information Processing ApproachThe Information Processing ApproachThe information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking.The Mechanisms of ChangeEncoding The process by which information gets into memory.Automaticity The ability to process information with little or no effort.Strategy Construction Creation of a new procedure for processing information.Metacognition Cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing.

Attention Attention is the focusing of mental resources.Types of AllocationSelective Attention is focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.Divided Attention involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.Sustained Attention is the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time. Sustained attention is also called vigilance.Executive Attention involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.MemoryMemory is the retention of information over time, which involves encoding, storage, and retrieval.Processes of EncodingRehearsalDeep ProcessingElaborationConstructing ImagesOrganizationRehearsalThe conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time it stays in memory.Levels of Processing TheoryThe theory that processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.ElaborationThe extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding.Constructing ImagesWhen we construct an image of something, we are elaborating the information.OrganizationIf students organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits.Chunking is a beneficial organizational memory strategy that involves grouping, or packing information into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units.StorageAfter children encode information, they need to retain, or store, the information.The three types of memory which correspond to different time frames are:Sensory MemoryShort-Term MemoryLong-Term MemorySensory MemoryMemory that holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant.Short-Term MemoryA limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained at least 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer.Long-Term MemoryA type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion.Types of Long-Term MemoryDeclarative Memory The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.Nondeclarative Memory Procedural knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations. Nondeclarative memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts.Types of Declarative MemoryEpisodic Memory The retention of information about the where and when of lifes happenings. Semantic Memory An individuals general knowledge about the world, independent of the individuals identity with the past.Representing Information in MemorySchema Fuzzy TraceSchema TheoriesTheories based on the premise that when we construct information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind.Fuzzy Trace Theory Fuzzy trace theory states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace, which consists of precise details and (2) fuzzy trace, or gist. RetrievalWhen we retrieve something from our mental data bank, we search our store of memory to find the retrieval information. Just as with encoding, this search can be automatic or it can require effort.Serial Position EffectThe principle that recall is better for items at the beginning and the end of a list than for items in the middle.Encoding Specificity PrincipleThe principle that associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues.ForgettingCue-dependent forgetting Retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues.Interference theory The theory that we forget not because we actually lose memories from storage but because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember.Decay theory The theory that new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical memory trace, which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting.

ExpertiseAn expert is the opposite of a novice. Experts demonstrate especially impressive memory in the areas of their expertise. One reason that children remember less than adults is that they are far less expert in most areas.Acquiring ExpertisePractice and motivationTalent

Expertise and TeachingPedagogical Content KnowledgeTechnology, Expertise, and Teaching