Garden City High SchoolGlobal History & Geography III

Lesson: German Unifieation

Mr. M. Stratis, Esq.

Aim: Why was German unification achieved by "blood and iron?"

1. What factors promoted the unification of the German states?

A. Common Nationality. In the late 18th century some German people began tothink: of themselves as a distinct nationality and agitated for a unified fatherland. This nationalistawakening reflected the efforts ofGerman educators, poets, writers, historians, and philosophers.

B. Napoleon's Influence. Napoleon aided German unification, althoughunintentionally. He aroused German nationalism against him, weakened Austrian authority inGermany by abolishing the Holy Roman Empire, and reduced the more than 300 German statesto less than 100.

C. Congress of Vienna. The peace conference of 1815 helped German unity,although unwittingly. It reduced the number of German states to 38 and organized them into anAustrian-dominated league of rulers, the German Confederation. The Confederation provedweak and ineffective, incapable of providing Germany with a unified government. Its failurestirred the people to seek unity by other means.

D. Zollverein. In 1819 Prussia formed a German customs union, which becameknown as the Zollverein. By the 1840sit included most German states, but not Austria. TheZollverein maintained free trade between member states, but high tariffs against nonmembers.The removal of internal tariff barriers benefited German merchants and manufacturers, andpromoted the country's economic unity.

II. What factors hindered German unification?

A. Differences Among the German People. In Prussia and other north Germanstates, the people were in the main Protestant, were interested in commerce, and were turningtoward manufacturing. In Bavaria and other south German states, the people werepredominantly Roman Catholic and were interested chiefly in agriculture. Outnumbered by theNortherners, the south Germans realized that, in a united country, they would be a minority.

B. Opposition of Austria . Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna as aninfluential central European Empire containing many different peoples. Austria's rulers ,committed to the Metternich System, feared that the growth ofnationalism, particularly in

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nearby Germany, might inspire their subject nationalities to seek independence.1. Consequently, in 1819 Mettemich induced the German Confederation to

issue the Carlsbad Decrees. Aimed at suppressing liberal and nationalist ideas in Germany,these laws provided for (1) strict supervision of universities, teachers and student organizations,and (2) censorship ofnewspapers, pamphlets and books.

2. Austria's rulers also realized that, in the event of German unification, theywould lose their influence over German affairs.

C. Opposition of the Lesser German States. The rulers and officials of thesmaller German states feared that a unified Germany might centralize governmental power,thereby ending their authority.

D. Opposition of France. French leaders feared that a unified Germany would besufficiently powerful to challenge France's leadership in Europe. Furthermore, the French feltmilitarily more secure with weak, disunited neighbors.

III. Why did the Revolution of 1848 fail to bring about unification?

A. German liberals led a series of revolts in 1848 aimed at ending autocracy, andunifying Germany. Encouraged by early successes, they convened a parliament, the FrankfurtAssembly.

B. The liberals prepared a democratic constitution, proclaimed a united Germany,and, after months of debate, offered the position of Emperor to the King of Prussia, FrederickWilliam IV. He rejected the Assembly's offer as a "crown out ofthe gutter" and also because hefeared that acceptance might lead to war with Austria. Since the liberals lacked the militarypower to enforce unification, the King's refusal spelled the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly .

C. The conservatives regained control throughout the German states, and the liberalsexperienced severe persecution. Many fled the country. A considerable number came to theUnited States, where they contributed to our growing democracy.

D. In Germany, the way was now open for the successful attempt at unity underautocratic leadership.

N. Who were the leaders ofGerman unification?

A. Otto von Bismarck, appointed chief minister ofPrussia in 1862, belonged to thedominant landowning aristocracy, the Junkers. A reactionary who despised democracy,Bismarck planned to unite Germany - not by speeches and votes as at the Frankfurt Assembly,but by "blood and iron. " Bismarck embraced the policy ofrealpolitik (right ofa nation-state to

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pursue its own advantage by any means , including war and the repudiation of treaties).

B. King William I of Prussia (1861-1888), who became Emperor of Germany in1871, fully supported Bismarck's policies. He opposed liberal ideas and supported the military..He was convinced that Prussia could establish its position of leadership in Germany by means ofa powerful military force. He appointed Bismarck prime minister to serve these ends .

C. Helmut von Moltke, Prussian general and chief of staff, contributed toBismarck's success by building a strong army and achieving impressive military victories.

V. What were the steps in German unification?

A. Creation of Prussian Military Power. In 1862 the government's request forincreased military funds was defeated in the Prussian legislature, whose liberal majority opposedmilitarism. Thereupon, Bismarck ignored.the lawmakers and, from 1862 to 1867, in violation ofthe constitution, governed virtually as a dictator. He and Moltke created a Prussian militarymachine second to none.

B. Elimination of Austrian Influence

1. The Danish War (1864). Bismarck brought about the war with Denmarkover the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia, joined by Austria, easily defeatedDenmark and compelled that country to cede Schleswig-Holstein.

2. The Austro-Prussian War (1866). Bismarck deliberately quarreled withAustria regarding the administration of the conquered provinces. Actually, Bismarck provokedwar so as to end Austrian power in Germany.

a Most of the German states supported Austria to oppose Prussiandominance. Prussia was allied with Italy, which wanted the Italian territory held by Austria.General von Moltke's armies overwhelmed Austria so quickly that the war is called the SevenWeeks' War.

b. By the treaty of peace, Austria agreed to yield Schleswig-Holsteinto Prussia, cede Venetia to Italy, and dissolve the Austrian-dominated German Confederation,thus withdrawing from German affairs. By treating Austria generously, Bismarck expected togain its friendship for the emerging German state.

C. Establishment of the North German Confederation (1867). Following theAustro-Prussian War, Bismarck annexed several north German states and compelled theremaining ones to join in a Prussian-dominated North German Confederation. Only the foursouth German states remained outside the Confederation, but they were tied to Prussia by theZollverein and a defensive military alliance.

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D. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Bismarck now desired a war withFrance, so that the south Germans, by fighting a common enemy and experiencing wartimenationalism, would voluntarily merge into a Prussian-controlled unified Germany.

1. A revolution in 1868 had deposed Queen Isabella II of Spain and theSpanish offered the throne to prince Leopold of Bohenzollern, a Catholic cousin of William 1.When France opposed a German candidate for the Spanish throne, Bismarck seized theopportunity.

2. He intensified Franco-German enmity by rewriting a vital telegram, theEms Dispatch. It was originally sent by William I to Bismarck and it described the details of hismeeting with a French ambassador. To make it appear that William had deliberately insulted theFrench envoy, Bismarck altered and released the telegraph to the press.

3. Thus provoked, Napoleon ill declared war upon Prussia, which wasjoined by the four south German states. General von Moltke's armies invaded France, destroyedthe French forces at the Battle a/Sedan, and quickly overran the country.

4. In the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace-Lorraine to Germany(these provinces, rich in coal and iron, were inhabited mostly by Frenchmen); agreed to payGermany a huge war indemnity; and until final payment, consented to German militaryoccupation.

5. By treating France harshly, Bismarck planted the seeds ofWorld War I.

E. Establishment of the German Empire (1871). During the Franco-PrussianWar, the four south German states consented to unification with Prussia.

1. In January 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck proclaimed William I, as Emperor(Kaiser) ofthe German Empire.

2. Bismarck's success - by military might and autocratic rule-established atradition that, according to many historians, greatly impeded the development of democracy inGermany.

VI. What policies did the newly unified German Empire pursue in its first years?

A. Bismarck, as chancellor (chief minister) of the empire, faced the challenge of theCatholic Church in a so-called Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) between church and state.Bismarck viewed Catholicism as an antinationalist force and was annoyed at the electoral successof the Catholic Center party. He was also worried about the 1870 proclamation by Catholicbishops in Rome declaring papal infallibility on religious matters. He responded by expelling theJesuits from Germany in 1872, and sponsoring the MayLaws which deprived Catholic bishopsofmuch of their authority. Pope Pius IX declared the laws invalid and broke ties with Germany.Bismarck backed-down for political reasons and made peace with the Catholics by repealing thelaws by 1881.

B. Bismarck engaged in a political duel with the Socialists by trying to destroy them.His policies met with temporary success but they failed in the long-run.

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Garden City High SchoolGlobal History & Geography ill

Lesson: Italian Unification

Aim: What factors brought about the unification ofItaly?

1. What factors supported Italian unification?

Mr. M. Stratis, Esq.

A.

B.

C.

ItalianNationalism1. CommonItalianheritage(language, religion& culture)2. SharedRoman past (legacy ofImperial Rome)3. United by achievementsof the ItalianRenaissance4. Resented Austrian rule and wanted to unite (URisorgimento")Patriotic Societies1. Carbonari - secret society with restricted membership

a. Instigated uprisings from 1820-1831b. All uprisings were crushed by Austriansc. Carbonarisecrecyand intriguediscouragedItalians

2. Giovane Italia (Young Italy) - founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzinia. Nonsecret society opened to all Italiansb. Createddemocraticand nationalisticpropagandac. Succeededin paving the way for unification

Leadership of Kingdom ofSardinia-Piedmont1. Created by Congress ofVienna (1815)2. Ruled by the House of Savoy, a patriotic Italian family3. Had received a liberal constitutionin 1848from king Charles Albert4. Armies supported Italian uprising against Austria (1848) but were

defeated when the Pope and Naples withdrew their forces5. Won loyalty ofItalian nationalists

II. What factors were obstacles to Italian unification?

A. PoliticalDivisions1. Italy was divided into many states and provinces2. Napoleon had reduced Italian states3. Congress ofVienna restored Italy to pre-Napoleonicboundaries

a. Metternich described Italy as being a "geographical expression" andopposed Italian unification

4. Congress divided Italy as follows:a. Kingdom ofSardinia-Piedmont** (independent)

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b. Provinces ofLombardy and Venetia (annexed to Austria)c. Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and the Kingdom of

the Two Sicilies (ruled by pro-Austrian leaders)d. The Papal States (under rule of the Pope)

B. Opposition of Austria1. Discouraged and crushed nationalist uprisings in their empire2. Heavily influenced most ofthe Italian states

C. Opposition of the Papacy1. Believed that a united Italy would end the Pope's rule over the Papal

States2. Had been attacked by the nationalists in 1848 and saved only after the

intervention ofFrench troopsD. Disagreement among Italian Nationalists

1. Mazzini and Garibaldi wanted a democratic Italian republic2. Gioberti urged an Italian federation under the Pope3. Cavour worked for a liberal Italian monarchy

III. Who were the leaders ofItalian unification?

A. Giuseppe Mazzini - writer, orator and founder of "Giovane Italia "1. Worked as a journalist and was a speech writer2. His followers captured the Papal States in the Revolution of 18483. He proclaimed a Roman Republic but it wassubsequently ended by

French troops4. He fled and continued propaganda efforts in exile5. Known as the "soul ofunification"

B. Giuseppe Garibaldi - military leader and patriot1. Born in the city ofNice (now in France)2. Defended Mazzini's Roman Republic against the French3. Went into exile in North and South America4. Fought for Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria5. Led military volunteers called Red Shirts6. Conquered Kingdom ofthe Two Sicilies in 18607. Known as the "sword ofUnification"

C. Count Camillo di Cavour -liberal statesman ofSardinia-Piedmont1. Became prime minister and advocated unification2. Promoted industries and economic self-sufficiency3. Made many brilliant diplomatic moves to achieve unification4. Died in 1860 - before seeing the fulfillment ofhis dreams5. Known as the "brain ofunification "

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D. King Victor Emmanuel II - nationalistmonarchbehind unification1. Supportedfully the policies of Count Cavour2. Kept peace between strong personalities of Cavour and Garibaldi.3. Became a symbol ofunity among the Italians4. Became the first king ofa united Italy5. Known as the "crown a/unification"

IV. How did the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmontunite Italy?

A. In exchangefor French support against Austria, Cavour pledged to give Savoy andNice (Garibaldi's birthplace) to France1. French and Sardinian troops invadedand defeated Austria (1859)2. Sardinia-Piedmont receivedLombardy3. Garibaldi, enragedwiththe exchange, condemnedCavour4. Lack of cooperation between the two leaders remained a problem

B. In Parma, Modena and Tuscany, Italians overthrew their pro-Austrian leaders andunited with Sardinia-Piedmont

C. Garibaldi landed in the town ofMarsala in Sicily (1860)1. Led one thousand Red Shirts in the capture ofSicily2. Landed on the mainland and advanced to Naples3. Captured rest of Southern Italy with Neapolitan and Sicilian support4. Kingdomofthe Two Sicilies was united with Sardinia-Piedmont

D. Sardinian troops invaded and captured the Papal States (but not Rome)E. Kingdom of Italy was declared in 1861

V. What were the first successes of the new Italian state?

A. Italy joined Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and received theprovince ofVenetia for her support against Austria

B. Italy again supported Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 18701. French troops withdrew from Rome and left city open to Italian attack2. Italian army entered Rome and declared it capital ofItaly

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Garden City High SchoolGlobal Histo ry & Geography III

Mr. NI. Stratis, Esq.

Aim: Why did revolutionary and nationalistic movements develop in Russia andAustria?

1. Why did revolutionary movements develop in Russia?

A. Tsars created an autocratic system of government to rule over their people1. Promises for reforms in the reign ofAlexander I (1801-25) were not kept2. Russian officers demanded reforms and sought constitutional government

a. Impressed by reforms in Western Europeb. Joined secret societies to bring about political change

3. On death ofAlexander I, officers staged a military uprising called theDecembrist Revolt in favor ofPrince Constantine (pro-Western)a. Revolt was crushed and executed leaders were viewed as martyrsb. New tsar, Nicholas I (1825-55) became more autocratic

B. In the past, tsars depended on extreme measures to control the people1. Secret police (oprichniks) informed for tsar and punished enemies2. Imperial guard (streltsy) protected tsar as a private army3. Cruel methods ofcontrol (torture and mass executions by Cossacks) were

sponsored by the state4. Exiled political opponents to Siberia in order to silence them

C. Rigid social class distinctions dominated Russian society1. Privileged classes (nobles) - minority2. Serfs (peasants) - majority3. Alexander n (1855-81) declared Emancipation of the Serfs (1861) but

serfs were dissatisfied because:a. Nobles retained more than halfof their lands (not enough)b. Peasant community (mir), not serf, held title to land (no individual

distribution of land)c. Peasants were compelled to make very high payments for land

4. Zemstvos (locally elected assemblies) were created in order to take chargeof provincial matters, such as schools and health care (1864)a Three groups (nobles, wealthy twnspeople and peasants) voted in

zemstvo elections, with upper classes dominating assembliesb. Lower classes felt dissatisfied with these features

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II. What radical movements developed against the tsarist government?

A. Anarchists, like Mfkhail Bakunin, called for the complete destruction of thestate, the family, law, property and other institutions

B. Nihilists also rejected traditions, believing that Russia would have to destroy thetsarist autocracy and completely build a new society

C. Populists believed that the peasants would eventually lead a revolution, overthrowthe tsar and establ ish a socialist society1. Intellectuals tried to recruit peasants in their movement but often failed2. Young revolutionary killed Alexander II with a bomb in 1881

D. Tsar Alexander m (1881-94), promised to crush these radical groups andpursued absolutist autocracy1. Abol ished autonomy in schoo ls, restored censo rship of the press, and

extended power of the secret policea Established the Okhrana to monitor Russian society

2. Policy ofRussification carried out in border areas (Finland, Poland, theUkraine and Baltic regions)a. An attempt to unite the empire 's many provincesb. Became an official policy of intolerance and persecution of non­

Russian peoples3. Jews in particular bore the brunt of this policy

a They were forced to live in specific locations called the Palewithout property rights

b. They were massacred in organized attacks (pogroms) on theircommunities

III. How did Nicholas IT(1894-1917) deal with problems in Russia?

A. Empire kept in a state of permanent crisis by unrest over Russification, strikes,social and agrarian revolts , and war1. Socialist Democratic Workers Party in Minsk broken up by police (1898)2. Interior Minister Plehve eliminated all forms oflocal self-government and

penetrated Socialist Revolutionary Party with informers (1902)3. Anti-semitic pogroms continued in Moldavia (1903)

B. Foreign Minister Count Sergei Witte pressed for imperialistic expansion innorthern China and provoked Japanese in Korea (1904)1. Led to defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)2. Russians signed Treaty of Portsmouth and surrendered claims to Korea

and South Sakhalin islandC. Results ofRusso-Japanese War led to First Russian Revolution of 1905

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4.

4.

5.

1.

2.

5.

Two hundred thousand workers and other civilians led by Father Gallontried to gain support from tsar by delivering a petition in S1. PetersburgMilitary fired on this peaceful demonstration (known as the "Bloody 'Sunday Massacre" ofJan. 22, 1905) in front of the Winter PalaceStrikes and revolts broke out throughout RussiaMutinies broke out on the armored cruiser "Potemkin" in Odessa and inK ronstadtBolshevik Communist leadership in London under Len in decided on thearmed overthrow ofthe government

6. National uprisings took place in Finland and Po landTsar established a Duma (Parliament) in order to appease the people (August1905)1.2.3.

6.

October Manifesto issued a constitution worked out by WitteGeneral strike in December in Moscow was beaten down by militaryEra ofPseudo-Constitutionalism (1906-17) was a period of reactionarypolicies and police control under Prime Minister Stolypin (murdered in1911)Agrarian Reforms carried out in 1906-10 to help create agrarian class(kulaks)Second Duma of "Popular Anger" witnessed rise of Socialists ( 1907) and achange in the electoral laws (universal male suffrage)Third Duma of "Masters, Priests and Lackeys" led to new problems(1907-12)

Tsar's Court was dominated by Siberian peasant "holy man" Gregory Rasputin(1872-1916 [murdered]) who reputedly performed miracles with his healingpowers over the tsarevich (crown prince) Alexis and his mother, the tsarevnaAlexandra

D.

E.

( A

N. How did the growth of nationalism affect the Austrian Empire?

A .

B.

C.

Austrian minorities felt Mettemich's policies had to be stopped1. Austrian empire was multiethnic, with more than twelve different national

groups2. Nationalist groups demanded freedom ofthe press and speech, peasant

relieffrom feudal dues, and representative governmentAustrian liberals wanted more political involvement in government1. Revolutions of 1848 swept through the empire and middle class moderates

and radical workers protested against Metternich2. Metternich fled Vienna in disguise into lifelong exileDisagreements between moderates and workers weakened the revolutionarymovement, and the government crushed the revolt by October 1848

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D. Emperor Franz Ferdinand resigned his throne to his eighteen year old nephew,Franz Joseph (1848-1915)1. Franz-Joseph moved quickly to restore conservative order and outdo his

predecessor's liberal concessions (revolutionary assembly and newconstitution)

2. He played off one nationalist group against the other in order to withstandrevolutionary change

V. What events triggered a change in the imperial attitude?

A. Austrian defeat at the hands of strong Prussian and Italian neighbors1. Italian Unification (1859-71): loss ofLombardy and influence over minor

Italian states2. Austro-Prussian War (1866): loss ofVenetia and influence over German

states of the German ConfederationB. Demands for political independence made by the Magyars (Hungarians)

1. Austrian weakness led to negotiations for Hungarian freedom2. The Ausgleich [Compromise] restored Hungarian independence and

divided the Austrian Empire into a dual monarchya Franz Joseph remained ruler ofboth the Austrian and Hungarian

monarchies (Emperor ofAustria and King ofHungary)3. Two states had common ministries offoreign affairs, war and finance4. Each had own constitution, prime minister and parliament5. System of committees handled matters ofmutual concern

C. Territories ofBohemia and Moravia also became the empire's leading industrialcenters and caused more rapid urbanization in those areas

D. Other groups, however, remained discontented (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs,Slovenes and Croats) and wanted political freedom

VI. How did problems in the Balkans become a powder keg ofexplosive conflicts?

A. Turkish attacks on Slavs in the Balkans led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78)1. Russians defeated Turks and forced them to sign Treaty of San Stefano

(creating a Greater Bulgaria),2. Austrians and British denounced it as being too harsh and demanded new

treaty with the threat of war; the Russians agreedB. Congress of Berlin (1878) - By this new treaty agreement, Turkey:

1. Gave Bosnia & Herzegovina (Slavic lands) to Austria2. Gave Greek island ofCyprus to Great Britain3. Gave independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania4. Granted autonomy to Bulgaria

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(c::--"\ )

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

5. Gave Moldavia and Bessarabia to RussiaWeakening ofthe "sick man ofEurope, "as the Ottoman Empire was called, ledto a new Balkan reality with new states waiting to carve up territories1. Pan-slavism - Russian support for Orthodox Christian Slavic nations2. Bulgarian Nationalism - visions of "Greater Bulgaria " (San Stefano)3. Greek Nationalism - return to "Great Idea " (restore Byzantine Empire)4. Serb Nationalism - reclaiming Bosnia & Herzegovina from Austria5. Austrian Territorial Ambitions - expanding influence into Balkans6. Ottoman Attempts to Recover Lost TerritoriesStates ofGreece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Rumania prepared for waragainst the Ottoman Turks by signing mili tary pactsThe First Balkan War (1912-13)1. Kingdoms ofSerbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria declared war against

Turks and defeated them on all fronts in quick campaigns2. At peace treaty conference, European powers' (Austria andItaly) did not

want the Serbs to claim lands near Adriatic Sea; they forced Serbia torecognize the new nation ofAlbania.

3. Bulgaria did not agree with the territorial gains made by Serbs and Greeks,and secretly planned a renewal of war.

4. Turks lost all European territories (except Constantinople)The Second Balkan War (1913)1. Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia2. Greece, Serbia, Turks and Rumania joined up and quickly triumphed over

the Bulgarians3. Turks regained some land around Constantinople4. Greeks and Serbs were the big winnersPost-Balkan Wars Political Situation1. Bulgaria established ties with Germany against Balkan enemies2. Serbia embraced Russia as its great guarantor against Austria3. Ottoman Empire established ties with Germany4. Greece made effort to have good ties- with Germany and Russia

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