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A Review of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) Modelling in the
Development of RoHS and WEEESophie Parsons
Is a 2nd year Sustainability for Engineering and Energy Systems Engineering Doctorate student
between the National Physical Laboratory and the University of Surrey Department of Environmental Strategy. The title of her doctorate project is ‘Life Cycle Thinking for Emerging Technology’ which is
looking at the role of life cycle approaches in supporting policy making.
Presentation Overview
1. RoHS and WEEE Directives2. Introduction to LCA3. Review of life cycle literature relating to lead‐free
solders4. Conclusions
WEEE and RoHS Directives
• Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (2002/96/EC)
• Producer responsibility legislation
• Designed to:→ increase recycling rates and reuse → improve management of electronic goods at end‐of‐life
The WEEE Directive
The RoHS Directive
• Affects the whole of the production process through to importing
• Designed to reduce hazardous substances in EEE
Substance Maximum% wt allowedPb 0.10
Hg 0.10
Cr (VI) 0.10
Cd 0.01
PBB 0.10PBDE 0.10
Table 1: Maximum allowable percentages of substances regulated under RoHS
• WEEE recast achieved in 2011, final directive came into force in July this year
• Transition to open scope• Changes to collection targets
• RoHS 2 introduced in 2011 to be transposed into law by 2013• Brought in to afford greater clarity and integration with EuP and REACH
• Intended to extend scope to all EEE by 2019• Review and inclusion of further substances performed in accordance with the precautionary principle
WEEE and RoHS Directives
• Leachate tests in the environment have found levels of lead higher than EPA recommended values
• Unregulated processing of lead can cause harm to human health and the environment
• Fear over the increase in unregulated processing of electronic equipment
• Precedence set by the regulation of lead from petrol and paint
Reasoning behind the presence of lead in the RoHS directive
Global Lead Consumption
Storage batteries 87%
Electronic Solder 0.3%Ammunition 3.6%
Paints, ceramics, pigments and chemicals 3%
Misc. 6.1%
Life Cycle Assessment
Life Cycle Assessment
Goal and Scope Definition
Inventory Analysis
Impact Assessment
Interpretation
Life Cycle Assessment
• Software and databases available – SimaPro most popular• ISO Standard ISO 14040• Weighting and normalisation can vary• Different units of measurement for midpoint impacts• Not all impact assessment tools are the same
LCI Inventory
Materials extraction
Human toxicity
Respiratory effects
Ionising radiation
Ozone layer depletion
Photochemical oxidation
Aquatic toxicity
Terrestrial ecotoxicity
Aquatic acidification
Aquatic eutrophication
Terrestrial acid rain
Non‐renewable energy
Global warming
Human Health
Ecosystem Quality
Climate Change
Resources
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
•A number of different life‐cycle assessment (LCA) studies have been carried out over the past ten years•Many leachate studies on lead have been carried out• Studies performed assessing the environmental performance of alloys Sn/Ag/Cu, Sn/Ag/Bi, and Sn/Cu
Case study 1: Metal Ecology Approach
→ Each metal cycle is linked with many others→ The effect of banning particular metals for certain uses should
be considered→Models produced show that bismuth production is reliant on
the production of lead → They also show that bismuth causes issues with copper
processing
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
METAL ECOLOGY APPROACH
(Reuter and Verhoef, 2004; Reuter 2005)
→ A decrease in lead production could mean other intermediates from tin production need to be used to meet demand for bismuth
→ Silver is obtained from by‐products of gold and lead production
→ Potential growth by 140% cannot be met by gold alone→ Greater reliance on lead intermediates for silver→ Legislation should take the issues surrounding metal cycles
into account
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
(Reuter and Verhoef, 2004; Reuter 2005)
Case study 2: Midpoint LCA
→ Study conducted in 2005→ Study showed for both bar and paste solder Sn/Ag/Cu scored
higher environmental impacts for more categories than Sn/Pb solder
→ SnCu scored the lowest impacts for all the solders tested→ Lead free solder scored higher that lead solder for energy use,
landfill space, global warming, and acidification
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
US EPA STUDY
(Geibig and Socolof, 2005)
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
EPA, Solders in Electronics: A Life Cycle Assessment (2005)
Total energy use impact over the solders life cycle from cradle to grave
Case study 3: Endpoint LCA
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
Recent Study (2010)
→LIME end point impact modelling used→Indicated increase in global warming potential of 10% on the transition from lead solder to lead‐free
→Air toxicity found to decrease on the shift to lead free→Water toxicity also shown to decrease on shift to lead free →Overall, shift likely to contribute to higher environmental impacts than for lead free
(Andrae, 2010)
Other studies performed:→ 1996 study found silver conductive adhesive to be more
impacting than Sn‐Pb (Segerberg and Hedemalm)→ 2001 study found no clear environmental advantage to lead
free solders (Turbini)→ Inconclusive studies on landfill leaching → Hazard values and toxicity potentials shown to have greater
impacts for some lead‐free solders than Sn‐Pb (Socolof et al, 2003)
Life Cycle Assessment of Lead Solder versus Alternatives
Conclusions
• There is inconclusive evidence over the actual risks associated with lead leaching into the environment from landfilling of WEEE
• There is no evidence to suggest lead solder interconnectors have been a hazard to human health during their use phase
• Life cycle assessment has shown lead‐free alternatives to be as impacting as lead solders, with greater impacts seen in terms of global warming potential, ozone depletion and energy use
Is the Electronics Sector any Greener Since Lead Substitution?
Requirements for future legislation
• Regulating future substances or making additions to RoHS (as has been provided for in RoHS 2) must include life cycle elements
• Standards such as BS 8905• Issues for future regulation – LCA value uncertainty versus
requirements for a precautionary principled approach• Improved understanding of end‐of‐life issues should be
sought• Context material is used in must be a major consideration
when reviewing its potential risks
Many thanks for listening
Andrae A. (2010). Global Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Materials Shifts, Springer
Geibig J. R. and Socolof M. L. (2005). Solders in Electronics: A Life‐Cycle Assessment
Kjeldsen P., Barlaz M. A., Rooker A. P., Baun A., Ledin A. and Christensen T. H. (2002). "Present and Long‐Term Composition of MSW Landfill Leachate: A Review." Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 32(4): 297‐336
Masanet E. R. (2002). "Assessing Public Exposure to Silver‐Contaminated Groundwater from Lead‐Free Solder: An Upper Bound, Risk‐Based Approach." IEEE
Reuter M. A. (2005). Chapter 3: A description of metal cycles, The Metrics of Material and Metal Ecology, U Boin, A Schaik and E Verhoef, Elevesier
Reuter M. A. (2005). Chapter 5: Electronics Recycling: Lead‐free Solder, 16, The Metrics of Material and Metal Ecology, Developments in Mineral Processing,
Reuter M. A. and Verhoef E. (2004). "A Dynamic Model for the Assessment of the Replacement of Lead in Solder." Journal of Electronic Materials 33(12)
Segerberg T. and Hedemalm (1996). "Li fe Cycle Assessment of Tin‐Lead Solder and Silver‐Epoxy Conductive Adhesive." IEEE
Socolof M., Geibig J. and Swanson M. (2003). "Cradle to gate toxic impacts of solders: a comparison of impact assessment methods." IEEE
Turbini L. (2001). "Examining the Environmental Impact of Lead‐Free Soldering Alternatives“, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONICS PACKAGING MANUFACTURING 24(1)
Williams E. (2011). "Environmental effects of information and communication technologies." Nature 479: 354‐358
References