Life Span DevelopmentLife Span Development

Chapter 1Chapter 1

June 8, 2004June 8, 2004Class #1Class #1

Studying the Life Span: Studying the Life Span: Five CharacteristicsFive Characteristics

The study of human development is the The study of human development is the sciencescience that seeks to understand that seeks to understand• how and why all kinds of people change over how and why all kinds of people change over

timetime• how and why they remain the samehow and why they remain the same• the generalities and the specificsthe generalities and the specifics

Focus is on all kinds of peopleFocus is on all kinds of people- age, socioeconomic status, gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, gender, ethnicity,

sexuality, background, culture, and nationalitysexuality, background, culture, and nationality

Studying the Life Span: Studying the Life Span: Five Characteristics, cont.Five Characteristics, cont.

Change from conception to death—the Change from conception to death—the five characteristicsfive characteristics• A Life-Span PerspectiveA Life-Span Perspective

multidirectionalmultidirectional—nonlinear progression (1)—nonlinear progression (1) multicontextualmulticontextual—a number of contexts (2)—a number of contexts (2) multiculturalmulticultural—many cultural settings (3)—many cultural settings (3) multidisciplinarymultidisciplinary—many academic disciplines —many academic disciplines

contribute data (4)contribute data (4) plasticplasticity—change through the life span (5)ity—change through the life span (5)

Multidirectional (1)Multidirectional (1) Each aspect of life is multidirectionalEach aspect of life is multidirectional

• physical health, intellectual growth, and physical health, intellectual growth, and social interactionsocial interaction

• up, down, stable or erraticup, down, stable or erratic Dynamic SystemsDynamic Systems

• process of continual change within a person process of continual change within a person or group, in which each change is connected or group, in which each change is connected systematically to every other development systematically to every other development in each individual and every societyin each individual and every society

Growth in height and weight is not linearGrowth in height and weight is not linear Fluctuations in body weight are affected Fluctuations in body weight are affected

by many other changesby many other changes• appetite, nutrition, family, stress, exercise, appetite, nutrition, family, stress, exercise,

culture, food supply, and climateculture, food supply, and climate• historical changes can have powerful effectshistorical changes can have powerful effects

““obesity epidemic” in the U.S. todayobesity epidemic” in the U.S. today

Physical GrowthPhysical Growth

Butterfly effectButterfly effect—the idea that a small —the idea that a small action or event may set off a series of action or event may set off a series of changes culminating in a major eventchanges culminating in a major event

Opposite IdeaOpposite Idea• a large change may have little or no effecta large change may have little or no effect

Family DynamicsFamily Dynamics• influence vulnerability or resiliencyinfluence vulnerability or resiliency• strong bond with loving caregiver can strong bond with loving caregiver can

protect against adversity of many kindsprotect against adversity of many kinds

Effects, Large and SmallEffects, Large and Small

Humans develop in many contexts Humans develop in many contexts that influence developmentthat influence development• physical and familyphysical and family• focus on three facets of social contextfocus on three facets of social context

historical, socioeconomic, and culturalhistorical, socioeconomic, and cultural

Multicontextual (2)Multicontextual (2)

Three Broad Contexts Within the Social Context

Historical ContextHistorical Context

Historical context involves cohorts, Historical context involves cohorts, social constructionssocial constructions• impact of historical context varies impact of historical context varies

with agewith age

Socioeconomic includesSocioeconomic includes• socioeconomic status (ses), socioeconomic status (ses),

education, income, neighborhood, education, income, neighborhood, occupation of household headoccupation of household head

The Socioeconomic The Socioeconomic ContextContext

Families and Families and NeighborhoodsNeighborhoods

EconomicsEconomics• povertypoverty

Collective Efficacy—Collective Efficacy—neighbors that neighbors that create a functioning, informal network create a functioning, informal network of people who show concern for each of people who show concern for each other and their block other and their block

Supportive Family RelationshipsSupportive Family Relationships• quality of parentingquality of parenting• family support best predictor of health and family support best predictor of health and

happinesshappiness

Cultural—set of values, Cultural—set of values, assumptions, and customs as well assumptions, and customs as well as physical objects such as as physical objects such as clothing, housing, etc.clothing, housing, etc.• includes all decisions people makeincludes all decisions people make• is dynamic, supportiveis dynamic, supportive

The Cultural ContextThe Cultural Context

Who Sleeps with Whom?Who Sleeps with Whom?

Example from Figure 1.2 showing Example from Figure 1.2 showing configuration of sleeping configuration of sleeping arrangementsarrangements• in Western cultures, husband and wife in Western cultures, husband and wife

sleep togethersleep together• not all cultures have the same ideas not all cultures have the same ideas

about sleeping arrangementsabout sleeping arrangements

Two examples of various practices Two examples of various practices provide insights into culture—(1) provide insights into culture—(1) Too Rich to Marry? And (2) The Too Rich to Marry? And (2) The Children’s HouseChildren’s House

Multicultural (3)Multicultural (3)

Too Rich to Marry?Too Rich to Marry? Worldwide, the richer the man, the more Worldwide, the richer the man, the more

likely he is to marrylikely he is to marry Is a woman a less desirable mate if she earns Is a woman a less desirable mate if she earns

more income and therefore would be less more income and therefore would be less dependent on the male?dependent on the male?• higher income for women higher income for women

reduced marriage prospects in Japanreduced marriage prospects in Japan increased marriage prospects slightly in U.S.increased marriage prospects slightly in U.S. increased marriage prospects significantly in Swedenincreased marriage prospects significantly in Sweden findings reflective of a country’s gender equality findings reflective of a country’s gender equality

The Children’s HouseThe Children’s House

Kibbutz Sleeping ArrangementsKibbutz Sleeping Arrangements• different sleeping practices, with some different sleeping practices, with some

children sleeping in Children’s House, children sleeping in Children’s House, while others slept at homewhile others slept at home

• children who slept away ended up having children who slept away ended up having negative consequencesnegative consequences

difficulty talking about, relating to family difficulty talking about, relating to family membersmembers

Ethnicity, Race, and Ethnicity, Race, and IncomeIncome

Ethnic groupEthnic group—collection of people —collection of people who share certain attributes, who share certain attributes, almost always including ancestral almost always including ancestral heritage and often including heritage and often including national origin, religion, customs, national origin, religion, customs, and languageand language

People can belong to more than People can belong to more than one cultureone culture

Ethnicity, Race, and Income, cont.Ethnicity, Race, and Income, cont.

RaceRace—a social construction by which —a social construction by which biological traits are used to biological traits are used to differentiate people whose ancestors differentiate people whose ancestors came from various regions of the came from various regions of the worldworld• a distorted concepta distorted concept

SES variations tend to follow ethnic SES variations tend to follow ethnic variationsvariations

Ethnicity, Race, and Income, cont.Ethnicity, Race, and Income, cont.

The Person Within the SystemThe Person Within the System• divergent directions, contextual divergent directions, contextual

influences, cohort effectinfluences, cohort effect

Multidisciplinary (4)Multidisciplinary (4)

Body, Mind, and SpiritBody, Mind, and Spirit Three domainsThree domains

• biosocialbiosocial• cognitivecognitive• psychosocialpsychosocial

Williams Family Example Williams Family Example Combination of Nature vs. NurtureCombination of Nature vs. Nurture

Plasticity (5)Plasticity (5)

PlasticityPlasticity—capacity to change—capacity to change Characteristics can be molded into Characteristics can be molded into

different forms and shapes or a different forms and shapes or a durability can be maintaineddurability can be maintained

Provides hope and realismProvides hope and realism• change is possiblechange is possible• people must build on what came before people must build on what came before

(raw materials = genes, families, cultures, (raw materials = genes, families, cultures, experiences)experiences)

The Person Within the The Person Within the ContextContext

Person is guided in divergent directions by Person is guided in divergent directions by many contextual influencesmany contextual influences

No one is “average”— each person uniqueNo one is “average”— each person unique• each person has unique genes and each person has unique genes and

experiencesexperiences• Paul Baltes (Founder of lifespan Paul Baltes (Founder of lifespan

developmental study)developmental study) ““We need to keep in mind that the future is not We need to keep in mind that the future is not

something we simply enter, the future is also something we simply enter, the future is also something we help create.”something we help create.”

Developmental Study as a Developmental Study as a ScienceScience

Based on objective evidence Based on objective evidence (objective)(objective)

Laden with personal implications Laden with personal implications and applications (subjective)and applications (subjective)

Scientific methodScientific method—general way to —general way to seek evidence to answer question, seek evidence to answer question, involving four basic steps and involving four basic steps and sometimes a fifth.sometimes a fifth.1. formulate a research question1. formulate a research question

2. develop a hypothesis2. develop a hypothesis hypothesishypothesis—a specific prediction that is —a specific prediction that is

stated in such a way it can be tested and stated in such a way it can be tested and either confirmed or refutedeither confirmed or refuted

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Scientific Method, cont.Scientific Method, cont.3. test the hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis

4. draw conclusions4. draw conclusions

5. make findings available5. make findings available• replicationreplication—the repetition of a scientific study —the repetition of a scientific study

using the same procedures on another group using the same procedures on another group of participants to verify or refute the original of participants to verify or refute the original study’s conclusionstudy’s conclusion

Research MethodsResearch Methods

Four Methods of Testing Four Methods of Testing HypothesesHypotheses• observationsobservations• experimentsexperiments• surveyssurveys• case studiescase studies

ObservationObservation

Scientific observationScientific observation—observing —observing and recording (unbiased) in a and recording (unbiased) in a systematic way what people dosystematic way what people do• Limitation: it does not indicate what Limitation: it does not indicate what

causes behavior we observecauses behavior we observe

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and Causation• Naturalistic observation provides no Naturalistic observation provides no

definitive answers about causesdefinitive answers about causes • CorrelationCorrelation exists between two variables exists between two variables

if one variable is more (or less) likely to if one variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the other occursoccur when the other occurs

• correlation indicates a connection, but correlation indicates a connection, but does not specify reason (cause) for itdoes not specify reason (cause) for it

Observation, cont.Observation, cont.

CorrelationsCorrelations

FeaturesFeatures• Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly

one variable is related to anotherone variable is related to another StrengthsStrengths

• Allows researcher to better formulate their Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore furtherfurther

Weaknesses Weaknesses • Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in

a second)a second)

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and Causation

Experiment—Experiment—investigation designed to investigation designed to untangle cause from effectuntangle cause from effect• independent variableindependent variable—imposed treatment or special —imposed treatment or special

conditioncondition• dependent variabledependent variable—specific behavior being studied—specific behavior being studied• experimental groupexperimental group—participants who are given —participants who are given

particular treatmentparticular treatment• comparison (control) groupcomparison (control) group—participants who are —participants who are

not given special treatment but are similar to not given special treatment but are similar to experimental group in other relevant waysexperimental group in other relevant ways

The ExperimentThe Experiment

How to Conduct an ExperimentHow to Conduct an Experiment

SurveysSurveys

FeaturesFeatures• Standard set of questions asked of a large Standard set of questions asked of a large

number of participantsnumber of participants

StrengthsStrengths• Gather large amounts of descriptive data Gather large amounts of descriptive data

relatively quickly and inexpensivelyrelatively quickly and inexpensively WeaknessesWeaknesses

• Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and response biases can distort resultsresponse biases can distort results

Case StudiesCase Studies

FeaturesFeatures• Intensive examination of the behavior and Intensive examination of the behavior and

mental processes associated with a specific mental processes associated with a specific person or situationperson or situation

StrengthsStrengths• Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new,

complex, or rare phenomenoncomplex, or rare phenomenon WeaknessesWeaknesses

• May not provide representative picture of May not provide representative picture of phenomenaphenomena

Developmental research must be Developmental research must be able to deal with changes that able to deal with changes that continue over timecontinue over time• research design allows researchers to research design allows researchers to

include time, or age, as a factorinclude time, or age, as a factor• three basic designs:three basic designs:

cross-sectional, longitudinal, cross-cross-sectional, longitudinal, cross-sequentialsequential

Studying Changes over Studying Changes over TimeTime

Cross-sectional research-Cross-sectional research-research research that studies groups differing in that studies groups differing in age but sharing other important age but sharing other important characteristics (education, SES, characteristics (education, SES, ethnicity)ethnicity)

Cross-sectional ResearchCross-sectional Research

Longitudinal researchLongitudinal research—research —research that studies individuals over a long that studies individuals over a long period; valuable developmental period; valuable developmental information from longitudinal information from longitudinal studies includesstudies includes• adjustment to divorceadjustment to divorce• role of fathers in child developmentrole of fathers in child development• prevention of teenage delinquencyprevention of teenage delinquency

Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research

Cross-sequential research—Cross-sequential research—research that studies several research that studies several groups of people of different ages, groups of people of different ages, then follows those groups then follows those groups longitudinallylongitudinally

Cross-Sequential ResearchCross-Sequential Research

Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential Research: Which is Best?

Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential Research: Which is Best?, cont.

The Ecological-Systems The Ecological-Systems Approach: A SynthesisApproach: A Synthesis

Ecological-systems approachEcological-systems approach——research that takes into consideration research that takes into consideration the relationship between the the relationship between the individual and the environmentindividual and the environment• Uri BronfrenbrennerUri Bronfrenbrenner

Ethics and ScienceEthics and Science

General principles of code of ethicsGeneral principles of code of ethics• never harm participants either never harm participants either

physically or psychologicallyphysically or psychologically• explain purposes and procedures of explain purposes and procedures of

studystudy• secure informed consentsecure informed consent• keep data on participants privatekeep data on participants private• allow participants to stop at any timeallow participants to stop at any time

Are scientists studying issues that Are scientists studying issues that are crucial to human development?are crucial to human development?• human sexual urges and actions to human sexual urges and actions to

prevent STDs, pregnancy, and sexual prevent STDs, pregnancy, and sexual abuse and to cure infertilityabuse and to cure infertility

• stress, poverty, and prejudicestress, poverty, and prejudice• children’s angerchildren’s anger• retirementretirement

What Should We Study?What Should We Study?