WorldWarITheGreatWarandtheAmericanCentury

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AmericanservicemenparadethroughthestreetsofLondononAugust15,1917.

CONTENTS

Introduction:ACrisisThatRedefinedUsWarinEuropeandPeaceatHomeTheU.S.GoesInTheCostofPeaceANewAgeintheU.S.Epilogue:ACenturyLaterJustOneMore

FRONTCOVERScottishsoldiersfromthe10thBattalionleavingthesafetyoftheirtrenchtoattacktheGermanlines,onMarch24,1917.PhotographbyLt.J.W.Brooke/IWM/Getty

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LaunchedinJune1915,theUSSArizonasuper-dreadnoughtbattleshipservedasagunnerytrainerduringthewarandwouldbesunkatPearlHarboronDecember7,1941.

1914–1917

WarinEuropeandPeaceatHomeAstheworlddescendsintoconflict,theUnitedStatesstruggleswithwhethertojoinin

ROBERTHUNTCOLLECTION/MARYEVANS

CANADIANTROOPSleavetheirtrenchesandheadoverthetopattheBattleoftheSomme.The141-dayoffensivein1916failedtobreakthroughtheGermanlineandledtomorethanonemilliondeadandwoundedofall

nationalities.

AstheAustro-HungarianarchdukeFranzFerdinandandhiswife,CountessSophieChotek,strolledthroughabazaarinSarajevo,thecapitalofBosnia-Herzegovina,onJune27,1914,theypassedcarpetshopsandcoppersmiths,singingstreetclownsandcitizenswhohappilygreetedthecouple.Butasthesevisitingroyalsmadetheirwaythroughthemarket’swindingpaths,theywerenotawarethat19-year-oldGavriloPrincipstalkedthem.ThenextdaywasSt.VitusDay,theanniversaryoftheSerbs’defeatbytheTurksin

1389.ManySerbsresentedAustria-Hungary’s1908annexationofBosnia-Herzegovina,whichtheyconsideredpartofGreaterSerbia.Forthem,itwasoutrageousthattheheirtotheAustro-HungarianthronedaredcometoSarajevoona

somberdaysorichwithnationalistfeeling.Whenthecouplereturnedtothecapitalthatmorning,severalradicalsfromtherevolutionarygroupMladaBosna(YoungBosnia)—ofwhichPrincipwasamember—awaitedthem.Hopingtoassassinatethearchdukeandfreetheirland,thegroupsetoutwithbombsandsemiautomaticpistolsgiventothembytheBlackHand,asecretSerbiannationalistgroup.ThemorningwaswarminthiscitywithitsminaretsandvillasalongtheMiljacka

River.Colorfulbannersandflagshungfromhomesandshops,andSarajevanslinedthemainboulevardtowatchthesix-carprocessionandcatchaglimpseoftheproudarchdukesportingahelmetwithbrightgreenostrichfeathers.Butastheprocessionmovedalong,abomb—thrownbyoneoftheMladaBosnaconspirators—bouncedoffofFranzFerdinand’sGräfandStiftdoublephaetonandexplodedunderthefollowingvehicle.Despitetheattack,thearchdukewasdeterminedtokeeptohisscheduleand

commentedthatthemanwhohadthrownthebombwas“clearlyinsane.”Hisdriverspedofftothetownhall,andafteravisitthere,thepartyheadedtothehospitaltoseethosewoundedbytheblast.Alongtheway,thedrivertookawrongturn.Ashesloweddowntoreverse,hehappenedtostopinfrontofPrincip.Theyouthpulledoutapistol,jumpedontothecar’srunningboardandshotFranzFerdinandinthejugularandSophieintheabdomen.Withinminutes,thetwowerebothdead.Principhadnoideaoftheeventshewassettinginmotion.Whilenoclearevidence

linkedtheattacktoSerbia,theAustro-HungarianEmpiredeliveredaseriesofultimatumstopunishthatnationforwhathadhappened.AfterSerbiabalkedatoneofthem,theempiredeclaredwaronJuly28,andatangleofexistingtreatiesledtoaninternationalcataclysm.WhenAustria-HungarybombedtheSerbiancapitalofBelgrade,Serbia’sallyRussiamobilizeditstroops.Austria-HungaryanditsallyGermanysubsequentlydeclaredwaronRussia.GermanyalsodeclaredwaronFranceandinvadedBelgium,inresponsetowhichBelgium’sallyBritaindeclaredwaronGermany.Injustaweek,muchofEuropewasengulfedinwar.StruttingGerman,French,Russian,andBritishsoldiersheadedoffforwhatthey

believedwouldbeabriefrout,theirriflesadornedwithflowersfromproudsweethearts.Butbythefall,theAllies(Britain,France,Russia,andItaly)andtheCentralPowers(Germany,Austria-Hungary,theOttomanEmpire,andBulgaria)foundthemselvesinanintractablemilitarydeadlock.Troopsonthewesternfrontdug460milesoftrenches,stretchingfromtheNorthSeatoSwitzerland,transformingpastoralfarmlandsandurbancentersintoashell-pockedno-man’s-landofdeath.Meanwhile,ontheeasternfront,soldiersfoughtlargebattlesthatrangedacrossthe

Meanwhile,ontheeasternfront,soldiersfoughtlargebattlesthatrangedacrosstheland.

IntheUnitedStates,itallseemedveryfaraway.AsnewsofthefightingmadeitswayacrosstheAtlantic,manyAmericanscounted

themselvesluckythatanoceanstoodbetweenthemandtheconflict.TheChicagoHeraldnotedthat“peace-lovingcitizensofthiscountrywillnowriseupandtenderaheartyvoteofthankstoColumbusforhavingdiscoveredAmerica.”OnAugust4,PresidentWoodrowWilsondeclaredthenation’sdeterminationtoremain“impartialinthoughtaswellasinaction.”BorninVirginiaandraisedintheSouthduringtheCivilWaranditsaftermath,theprofessorturnedPresidenthadseenthedevastationofbattleandsoughttokeepAmericaneutral.Thoughthecalendarmighthaveread1914,theUnitedStateswasstillalargely19th-

centurysociety,decidedlyVictorianinnature.Womenlackedthevote,andfewwereemployedoutsidethehome.Onein10infantsdiedbeforeturningone,lessthan20percentofhomescontainedstoves,andfewhadradios.MorethanhalftheU.S.populationofnearly100millionlivedinruralareasorsmalltowns.Menofwhomthewarwouldmakeheroeslivedquietlives.HarryTrumanlivedinGrandview,Missouri,onhisfamily’s600-acrefarm,sharingaroomwithhisbrotherandthefarmhands.AyoungAlvinYorklivedinthehamletofPallMall,Tennessee,farmingalongsidetheother12membersofhisfamily.Yorklaterrecalledthat“thelogswerechinkedwithclayandsticks”inthetwo-roomcabinthatwastheirhome.Butchangewascoming,especiallythankstoindustrializationandmigration.Whiletherewereonlytwomillioncarsontheroads—oneforevery50people—in1913FordMotorsbeganitsintegratedmovingassemblyline.Progressivepoliticsnurturedlaborfederations,women’sleagues,andsocialwelfaregroups.Theerasawthestartofchild-laborregulations,thepopularelectionofsenators,environmentalpreservation,andthebirthofacentralizedbanksystem.From1865to1914,theU.S.economygrewfasterthananyotherintheworld.AndacouplebythenameofShemin,whohadfledthepogromsofRussia,settledinNewJersey,wheretheirsonWilliamwasbornandwouldgoontoplaysemiprofessionalbaseball.Jobsbeckonedintheindustrialnorth,insteelmills,factories,andrailroadsinplaces

likeCleveland,Pittsburgh,andChicago.TheagewitnessedthebeginningoftheGreatMigration,avastmovementofAfricanAmericansfleeingsouthernsharecroppingandracistJimCrowlaws.AmannamedHenryJohnsonjoinedthenorthernwave,leavingWinston-Salem,NorthCarolina,andfindingworkasaporteratUnionStationinAlbany,NewYork.“ThewarinEuropecutofftheflowofimmigrantlabortotheUnitedStates,”

ProfessorJenniferKeene,chairofthehistorydepartmentatChapmanUniversityandauthorofDoughboys,theGreatWar,andtheRemakingofAmerica,tellsLIFE.“YouhadlaboragentsgoingtotheSouthtorecruitpeopletocomeup.”WhiletheUnitedStateshadwagedwaragainstSpaininthePhilippinesin1898,it

hadsinceremainedmorefocusedonitsownhemisphere.Inthesummerof1915,HaitibecameaU.S.protectorate.Thefollowingyear,WilsonsentGeneralJohnPershingtoMexicotocapturetherevolutionaryPanchoVilla.AWestPointgraduate,theMissouri-bornPershinghadamassedanenviablemilitary

record.HehadledtheAfricanAmerican10thCavalryduringtheIndianWarcampaignsofthelate19thcentury—earningthemoniker“BlackJack”—andinthe1898BattleofSanJuanHillunderLt.ColonelTheodoreRoosevelt.Later,whenRooseveltendedupintheWhiteHouse,thePresidentsoappreciatedtheworkoftheofficerwhowassaidtobeas“coolasabowlofcrackedice”thathepromotedPershingtobrigadiergeneral.QuiteafewAmericanslivedinEuropeinAugust1914.HerbertHooverandhiswife,

Lou,hadrecentlysettledinLondon.AprosperousminingengineerfromIowa,HooverhadassistedfellowAmericansbesiegedinTientsinin1900duringChina’sBoxerRebellion.Now,ashisfellowcitizens,fleeingthepresentconflict,pouredintoEnglandfromtheContinent,hearrangedforfood,shelter,andtheevacuationof100,000.Totheexpatstrappedbythefighting,whodesperatelywantedtogethome,theshoresoftheUnitedStatesseemedanoasisofpeaceandprosperity.

Meanwhile,thetrenchesofEurope’swesternfronthadbecomelice-infestedsoresofhumanity,assaultedbyartilleryshells,machinegunfire,andpoisonedgas.LieutenantColonelWinstonChurchillofEnglandwroteinNovember1915ofthe“filthandrubbisheverywhere,gravesbuiltintothedefenses”andhow“aboutthissceneinthedazzlingmoonlighttroopsofenormousbatscreep&glide.”WhilePresidentWilsonandmostofhiscountrymenhadnodesiretobedraggedinto

suchabattle,sittingonthesidelinesproveddifficult.ManyAmericansfeltaculturalconnectiontoBritainandFrance.PeoplelikeHoover

—whohadalsobeencalledupontoassiststarvingBelgianandFrenchcitizensbyU.S.ambassadortoEnglandWalterHinesPage—engagedincharityathomeandabroad.Andatthesametime,manyAmericanswhoclaimedGermanrootsenduredharassment.ThefamilyofBaltimorebookkeeperHenryGunthercamefromGermany,andafteroneofthemwasaccusedofbeingaspy,thepolicepickedherupforquestioning.Buthelpwasn’tallamatterofcharity:Thecombatantsneededbothsuppliesand

food,andtheUnitedStates—alreadytheworld’slargestproducerofcoalandsteel—waspositionedtoprovide.Alliedagentsrushedtoitsshorestobuyrawmaterials,as

waspositionedtoprovide.Alliedagentsrushedtoitsshorestobuyrawmaterials,aswellasmeat,cotton,livestock,andgrain.Armamentmakerschurnedoutrifles,machineguns,andlightartilleryshells.SincesuppliescosttheBritish$10millionaday,Britainhadtoliquidateoverseasinvestmentsandsendgoldstateside.TheU.S.economyboomed.Exportsincreasedfrommorethan$2billionin1913to$6billionin1916,andAmerica’sindustrialcapacitysoonsurpassedBritain’s.ThoughtheUnitedKingdomcouldacquiregoodsfromabroad,theyhadinstituteda

navalblockadethatmadeitdifficultforGermanytodothesame,leadingtothestarvationdeathsof200citizensaday.Desperatetobreaktheblockade,Germanyretaliatedwithsubmarines—Unterseeboote,orU-boats—sinkingroughlytwoshipsaday.WilsonwarnedthatiftheyattackedAmericanships,theUnitedStateswouldholdGermanyto“strictaccountability.”ThenonMay7,1915,thesubmarineU-20torpedoedtheBritishoceanlinerRMS

LusitaniaoffthecoastofIreland.Ittooklessthan20minutesforthelinertogodown.LieutenantCommanderWaltherSchwiegerrecalledwatchingtheshipthroughhisperiscopeandhow“menandwomenjumpedintothewaterandtriedtoswimtoemptyoverturnedlifeboats.”Amongthenearly1,200killedbytheattackwere128Americans.Theirdeaths

galvanizedthemovementfortheUnitedStatestoabandonneutrality.Soonafterthesinking,thehawkishRoosevelt,whohadrunforPresidentagainstWilsonthreeyearsearlier,said,“Itseemsinconceivabletomethatwecanrefrainfromtakingactioninthismatter.”Inmid-August,aGermanU-boatsanktheBritishpassengershipArabic,killing44people,includingtwoAmericans.NotwishingtopulltheUnitedStatesintothewar,Germanypromisedtostopunannouncedattacksonpassengerships.AndsoAmericamaintaineditsstanceofneutralityasthewarragedon.InwesternTurkey,theAllieshadbeguntheirbadlyplannedGallipoliCampaign,

attackingtheDardanellesStrait.Theassaultwouldleadtothedeathsofmorethan110,000AlliedandTurkishtroops.InFrance,alongtheMeuseRiver,GermangeneralErichvonFalkenhaynlaunchedanassaultonthefortifiedcityofVerduninFebruaryof1916,inorderto“bleedFrancewhite”bykillingasmanysoldiersaspossible.“Whenthefirstwaveoftheassaultisdecimated,thegroundisdottedwithheapsofcorpses,butthesecondwaveisalreadypressingon,”saidoneFrenchofficerofthecarnage,whichledtothedeathsofsome300,000.Then,torelievepressureatVerdun,inJulytheBritishandFrenchlaunchedthe

SommeOffensive.Onthefirstday,19,000died.Staggeringbattlelossesappalledobservers,andduringthe1916presidential

campaign,Wilsonwonreelectionundertheslogan“Hekeptusoutofwar.”Evenso,manyAmericansbelievedthatWilsonwouldnot—andshouldnot—beableto

manyAmericansbelievedthatWilsonwouldnot—andshouldnot—beabletomaintainthattrackrecord.Advocatingpreparedness,Rooseveltandotherssoughttotrainbusinessandfinanceleadersforcombat.CharlesWhittlesey,aWallStreetlawyerfromPittsfield,Massachusetts,attendedatrainingcampinPlattsburg,NewYork,andthereandelsewherethatyear16,000peoplereceivedinstructionsinweaponryandtactics.Inaddition,someAmericansjoinedforeignarmies.AfewbecamepilotsintheFrench

AviationService.Roosevelt’ssonKermitservedwiththeBritishExpeditionaryForce.AmericanAlanSeeger,whofoughtwiththeFrenchForeignLegion,wroteoneofthewar’smostpoignantpoems,“IHaveaRendezvouswithDeath,”thehauntinglinesofwhichmakeclearthatthosewhofoughtknewwhatwasinstore:“IhavearendezvouswithDeathAtsomedisputedbarricade,WhenSpringcomesbackwithrustlingshade/Andapple-blossomsfilltheair.”Seegerwouldsoonafterdieinbattle.

Eventually,evenWilsoncouldtellheneededtoprepare.Atthetime,theUnitedStateshadonlythe19thlargestarmyintheworld,andhe

calledforitsenlargementalongwiththeconstructionof“incomparablythegreatestnavyintheworld.”InJune1916,CongresspassedtheNationalDefenseAct,andincreasedthesizeoftheArmyandtheNationalGuard.ThatAugust,Congressappropriatedfundsforathree-yearprogramtobuildbattleships.By1917,asGermanyresumedunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare,theBritish

interceptedatelegramboundtoMexicofromGermanforeignsecretaryArthurZimmermann.ItproposedthatMexicosidewithGermany,withthepromisethatitcouldregaintheTexas,NewMexico,andArizonaterritoryithadlosttotheUnitedStatesintheearly19thcentury.“Noothersinglecryptanalysishashadsuchenormousconsequences,”wroteDavid

KahninTheCodeBreakers,hisseminalworkonthehistoryofcryptology.“Neverbeforeorsincehassomuchturneduponthesolutionofasecretmessage.”Inlightofthatnews,Wilsonhadnochoice.RainfellonApril2,1917,asherodeto

theCapitol.AsmembersofCongressheldsmallAmericanflags,asomberWilsonaskedforadeclarationofwar.“Itisafearfulthingtoleadthisgreatpeacefulpeopleintowar,intothemostterrible

anddisastrousofallwars,civilizationitselfseemingtobeinthebalance,”hesaid.“Buttherightismorepreciousthanpeace.”Theaudienceroseandapplaudedandferventlywavedtheirflags.Butwhenhe

returnedtotheWhiteHouse,Wilsonsaidtohisprivatesecretary,JosephTumulty,“Thinkofwhatitwastheywereapplauding.Mymessagetodaywasamessageofdeathforouryoungmen.Howstrangeitseemstoapplaudthat.”Astheytalked,Wilsonwipedhiseyesandstartedtosob.

Astheytalked,Wilsonwipedhiseyesandstartedtosob.

MANSELL/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

ARCHDUKEFRANZFERDINANDandCountessSophieleavingthetownhallinSarajevoonJune28,1914,justminutesbeforebeingassassinatedbyGavriloPrincip.

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ASBLOODSTREAMEDontohisuniform,above,FranzFerdinand’slastwordswere,“Sophie,Sophie,don’tdie.Stayaliveforourchildren!”Principplannedtotakecyanidefollowingthemurderbutwasquicklyarrested,below.

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SÜDDEUTSCHEZEITUNG/GRANGER

GERMANTROOPSheadedtothefront.Somesoldiersdecoratedtheirweaponswithflowersaswellasoakleaves,asymboloftheirempire.

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ANOFFICERoftheScottish10thBattalionledhismenoutofatrenchandtowardtheenemyasshellsburstinthedistance,nearArras,France,onMarch24,1917.

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THEANTIQUATEDarmorandhelmetswornbytheseFrenchdragoonsin1914,above,wererelicsofanageofchivalry,whenbattlehadanairofglamour.LittleofthatcanbeseeninthisGermantrenchthesameyear,below,orinthemuddymireinYpres,Belgium,bottom.NurseandpoetMaryBordencalledthemud“thevastliquidgraveof

ourarmies.”

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ALLIEDTROOPSonthemoveinTurkey.TheyhopedtocaptureIstanbulbutinsteadenduredhugelossesatGallipoli,whereanoddbonddevelopedbetweenthecombatants,whowouldmeetbetweenshellingstotradegifts.

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AYOUNGGIRLfeedschickensonaSunValley,Montana,farmin1910.

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ASSEMBLYLINEworkersbuildingaFordModelTaroundthetimethatthewarstarted,above.AviewofWallStreetafewyearsearlier,below,withfinancierJ.P.Morgan’sofficeontherightandthesiteofWashington’s

inaugurationontheleft.

GRANGER

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THELUSITANIAdepartedNewYorkonMay1,1915,onwhatwouldbetheship’sfinalvoyage.Earlierthatyear,theGermanembassyplacedadsinpaperswarningthat“vesselsflyingtheflagofGreatBritain,oranyofherallies,

areliabletodestruction.”

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THEOIL-ENGINEROOMofaGermanU-boat,above.TheReverendWilliamFordehelpedgathertheLusitania’sdead,recalling,“Theseawasstrewnwithdeadbodiesfloatingabout.”Sixty-sixvictimsofthesinking

wereburiedinamassgrave,below.

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THEODOREROOSEVELT,hereonLongIslandin1917,calledforpreparedness,andwrote,“MyGod,whydoesn’thedosomething?”ofPresidentWilson’srefusaltodeclarewar.

UNDERWOODARCHIVES

WILSONASKEDCongressforadeclarationofwar,above.BoyScouts,below,celebratedonNewYork’sFifthAvenueaftertheUnitedStatesenteredthefight.

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1917–1918

TheU.S.GoesInThenationgearsupforbattleandhelpsendthewar

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NEWLYMINTEDAmericantroopsinChicagoheadingoffforbasictrainingin1917.

OnApril6,1917,CongressdeclaredwaronGermany,andafewdayslater,TheodoreRooseveltwenttoseePresidentWoodrowWilson.Roosevelt,aformerRoughRiderintheSpanish-AmericanWar,askedWilsonforpermissiontoraiseadivisionof“horseriflemen”sothathecouldleadtroopsinEurope.Notwantingtostrengthenanopponent(Roosevelt’s1912third-partypresidentialrunagainsthimwon27.4percentofthevote),Wilsonrefused.AclearlyperplexedRooseveltlatercommentedtoWilson’sadviserColonelEdwardHousethathedidn’tunderstandhowthePresidentcoulddenyhisrequest,whichwassimplytobe“allowedtodie.”House’sresponsewasblunt:“Oh?DidyoumakethatpointquitecleartothePresident?”ButthenewAmericanExpeditionaryForces(AEF)didneedaleader.

Theproblemwasthat“therejustwasn’tadeeppooltochoosefrom,”ProfessorMichaelNeiberg,chairofwarstudiesattheUnitedStatesArmyWarCollegeandauthorofDanceoftheFuries:EuropeandtheOutbreakofWorldWarI,tellsLIFE.NoAmericanhadcommandedonthescalethattheEuropeanwarrequired.ButJohnPershing,whoendedupwiththejob,hadasolidbackground:Hewastalented,capable,and,thoughjuniortofiveothermajorgenerals,robustatage56.SecretaryofWarNewtonBakerlikedhim,andhehadawidebreadthofexperience.“HehadbeeninprettymucheveryAmericanactionsinceaftertheCivilWar,”DoranCart,seniorcuratorattheNationalWorldWarIMuseumandMemorialtellsLIFE.Italsodidn’thurtthathisfather-in-law,SenatorFrancisWarren,servedaschairmanoftheCommitteeonMilitaryAffairs.ThelackofmilitaryleadershipwasonlyoneofthemanyareasinwhichtheUnited

Stateswas—despiteyearsofwarningthatwarwascoming—notquitereadyforthescaleofthetrialthatlayahead.Fightingmenwereneeded.Atthetime,theArmyonlyhad127,588officersandmen,

andtheNationalGuard80,446.Hundredsofthousandsmorewouldberequired.OnMay18,theSelectiveServiceActinstructedlocalboardstoregistermenforadraft.Theresponsewasquick,andmenwhosebackgroundswouldillustratethewide-

rangingbreadthofthewar’simpactansweredthecalltofight.Roosevelt’sfoursons—Archie,Kermit,Quentin,andTed—alljoined.HarryTruman,whohadservedintheNationalGuard,signedupwiththefieldartillery.Thoughunderage,WilliamShemindemandedthathisparentshelphimenlist.RecruitersattheKansasstatefairturneddown16-year-oldFrankBuckles,whothenheadedtoOklahomaCity,wherehewassoonallowedtojointheambulancecorpsafterinsistingthathisfamilyBiblebackhomecontainedproofofanearlyenoughbirthdate.HenryJohnsonbecamepartofthe15thNewYork(Colored)InfantryRegiment.CharlesWhittleseywasmadeacaptainwiththe77thDivision.HenryGuntherwasconscripted,but,accordingtohisgreat-nephewJosephLong,hehadnodesire“tobekillingGermans.”AlvinYork,anaccomplishedmarksmanwhoalsohadbeenaconscientiousobjector,concludedafterintensiveprayerthatGodwantedhimtofightevil.Fewofthenewrecruits,however,knewhowtohandleweapons.Sothedoughboys—

a19th-centurynicknameforinfantrymen—underwentbasictrainingatdozensofcamps.F.ScottFitzgerald,whohaddroppedoutofPrincetontofight,trainedatFortLeavenworthunderCaptainDwightD.Eisenhower.YorktrainedatCampGordon,Georgia,andrecalledofhisurbancomradesthattheywerehopelesslyunprepared:“Theywouldnotonlymissthetargets,theywouldalsomissthehillsonwhichthetargetswereplaced.”Alackofequipmentdidnothelp.Withoutenoughweaponrytogoaround,many

Alackofequipmentdidnothelp.Withoutenoughweaponrytogoaround,manysoldiersdrilledwithmockrifles.Andthetrainingfieldwasn’ttheonlyplaceproblemsarose.SheminrecalledthatduringhistimeatCampGreeneinCharlotte,NorthCarolina,someofhisfellowsoldiersharassedhimforbeingJewish.Themilitarywasalsostrictlysegregated,andLieutenantCharlesHoustonvividlyrecalled“thehateandscornshoweredonusNegroofficersbyourfellowAmericans.”Meanwhile,asassistantsecretaryoftheNavy,TheodoreRoosevelt’sdistantcousin

Franklinhelpedmakesurethefleetgrewfrom197shipstomorethan2,000.“They[were]creatingamodernbureaucraticarmywiththesehugedivisions,ageneralstaff,andbranchesthathandlespecialization,”JenniferKeeneofChapmanUniversitytellsLIFE.“Itisamazinghowfastithappened.”Americansocietyalsohadtoberemodeledtofittheneedsofwartime.Government

andprivateeffortswerecoordinated,amovethatwouldprovehelpfulduringtheGreatDepressionandtheSecondWorldWaraswell,andtheArmywasstreamlined.UndertheleadershipofHerbertHoover,newlyreturnedstateside,theU.S.FoodAdministrationcalledoncitizenstopreservestaples.Tocopewithashortageofworkersthatresultedfromconscriptionandadropinimmigrationbecauseofthewar,posterscalledforwomentofillthejobsthathadbeenleftempty.“ForEveryFighteraWomanWorker,”theydeclared,and“Stenographers!Washingtonneedsyou!”Inresponse,womendideverythingfromclerkinginofficestooperatingrailroadmachinery.“Therewasnotaskthatoccurred,”saysCart,“thatwomendidnottakepartin.”Composerspennedpatriotictunes,suchasGeorgeM.Cohan’s“OverThere.”

SecretaryoftheTreasuryWilliamMcAdoohadmoviestarslikeMaryPickfordandDouglasFairbankssellLibertyBondstofundthewareffort.TheDivisionofPictorialPublicityenlistedartistswhoproduced1,400illustrationsforposters,pamphlets,andbillboards.Thegroup’smostfamousimageshowedasternUncleSamimploring,“IWantYoufortheU.S.Army.”Atthesametime,thegovernmentcrushedcriticismofthewarwiththepassageoftheEspionageActandtheSeditionAct.BeforePershingheadedforEuropeonMay28,SecretaryofWarBakerofferedhima

simpledirective:“Iwillgiveyouonlytwoorders,onetogotoFranceandtheothertocomehome.Inthemeantime,yourauthorityinFrancewillbesupreme.”SoonshipsfilledwithmenstreamedacrosstheAtlantic.PoetJoyceKilmerrecalled

theprecariouscrossingandthefearofGermansubs,andhowalineofmen“aslongasthemess-line”waitedforFatherFrancisDuffytoheartheirconfessions.

Thewarthedoughboysenteredwasnotgoingwellfortheirallies.HorrifiedbythestaggeringlossofliferesultingfromtheEuropeans’strategies,andseekingtohighlightAmerica’scontributionsinanypostwarpeacenegotiations,Pershinginsistedon

America’scontributionsinanypostwarpeacenegotiations,PershinginsistedonkeepingAmericantroops“separateanddistinct.”Afterheateddiscussionswiththeothercommanders,theAEFwasgivenresponsibilityforapartofthefrontinthesouthernLorrainesector,withtheBritishonthenorthernflankdefendingtheEnglishChannelandtheFrenchinbetweenholdingParis.Bytheendoftheyear,183,000AmericanshadarrivedinEurope.WhilePershing

wantedtokeeptheforcesseparate,histroopsfirstneededtraining,andtheircommanderssetthemupwiththeirFrenchandBritishcounterpartsinordertoobtaintrench,artillery,andgasexperience.And,thoughmostofthe370,000AfricanAmericansintheAEFperformedmanuallabor,manyworkedascombatengineersandtwoblackcombatdivisionswereestablishedunderforeigncommand.“Asanarmytheywereveryinexperienced,”observesNeiberg.“Buttheywere

enthusiastic.Theywerewellfed.Andtheywerebackedbythisunbelievableindustrialpower.”Fearingtheinfluxoffreshtroops,theGermanssoughttolaunchadecisiveassaultbeforetheAmericanswerereadyforbattle.UndertheleadershipofGeneralErichLudendorff,thatassaulttooktheformofthe

SpringOffensive,amultipartattackthattookadvantageofthefactthat—afterRussiaandGermanysignedtheTreatyofBrest-LitovskonMarch3,1918—Germanycouldshiftallofitseffortstothewesternfront.OnMarch21,Ludendorffsetoffthefirstpartoftheplan:Firingmorethan9,000artilleryshellsinthefirstminute,GermantroopscrossedtheSommeRiver,separatingtheBritishandFrenchforces,taking70,000prisoners,andadvancing40milestowardAmiens.Hopingtokeepupthepressure,Ludendorffthenbeganthesecondpartofthe

offensive,whichincludedaseriesofminorraids.NearthetownofSeicheprey,southofVerdun,stormtroopersattackedat3a.m.on

April20,catchingmembersofNewEngland’s26thInfantryDivisionill-preparedfortheirfirstengagement.Hurlingartillerymixedwithgas,theGermansoverranthetrenchesandcapturedthebattalionsupplystation.Asthemenfoughtback,ChaplainWilliamFarrelltendedtothewoundedanddyinganddeliveredammotothemen.Whenagunnerwasknockedout,FarrellmannedthegunandearnedthenicknametheFightingParson.AndonMay15,intheArgonneForest,theGermanscaughtupwiththe93rdHarlem

Hellfighters,oneoftheblackAEFdivisions.HenryJohnsonandNeedhamRoberts,onsentryduty,heardtheclickingofwirecuttersbeforetheysawtheadvancingtroops.Despitebeingshotinthehead,Johnsonkeptfiringhisrifle.Whenitjammed,heuseditasaclub.AndwhentheGermanstriedtocaptureawoundedRoberts,Johnsonpulledouthisboloknife,recallinglater,“Eachslashmeantsomething,believeme.”He

succeededinkillingfourandwoundingupto20othersdespitebeingshotandcut21times.LudendorffthenlaunchedthethirdpartoftheoffensiveonMay27,whenhistroops

quicklyoverranFrenchandBritishforces,pushingthembacktotheRiverMarne.Itwasatthistimethatthedoughboyssetoffontheirfirstassault.Theirmission:

captureCantigny,afarmingcrossroadssurroundedbychalkcliffs20milessoutheastofAmiens,whichwouldbeanadvantageousdefensiveobservationalposition.AstheAmericansdugatrenchline,theyenduredbombardmentsbygasshells.“For16hoursIworkedwithmygasmaskon,”recalledSergeantHowardCooper,“andmanaftermankeptfallingtotheground.”Butthen,onMay28,afterasustainedAlliedbarrageandthelaunchingofsmokeand

gasshells,theAmericansswarmedthroughthemorningfog.AssistedbyFrenchartillery,flamethrowers,aircover,andtanks,doughboysofthe28thInfantryRegimentsecuredthevillagewithin35minutes,clearingoutcellarsandtrencheswithflamethrowers.“Theairwasfulloftrees,stones,timber,equipment,bodies,everythingyoucanimagine,”rememberedSergeantDanEdwardsofthe3rdMachineGunBattalion.AftertheFrenchwithdrewtheirequipment,theAmericansenduredthreedaysof

Germancounterattacks,sustaining1,067casualties.“Holdingthevillageagainstsevencounterattacksduringthenextthreedays,”wroteAlbanButler,“wasafargreatertaskthanitscapture.”MorethanonemillionAmericansservedinFrance,gettingatasteofwhattheAllies

andtheCentralPowershadenduredforyears:wounds,death,bloatedcorpses,andstagnantpoolsofpoisonedwater.“Therewasneverashortageofblown-upbodiesthatneededtoberushedtothenearestmedicalcare”recalledBuckles.Thedeathsonlyincreasedwiththearrivalofavirulentformofthefluthatsweptthroughthelines.Throughout,thenascentAmericanairforceofferedreconnaissanceandairsupport.

QuentinRooseveltflewaNieuport28,proudlywritinghomeinearlyJulythathedownedhisfirstenemy,causinghisfathertoexalt,“Thelastofthelion’sbroodhasbeenblooded!”YetafewdayslatertheGermansshotdownQuentin’splane.RealizingthattheAmericanwasthesonoftheformerPresident,theGermansburiedhimandfashionedacrossfromabrokenpropeller.ThedeathofhisfavoritesondevastatedRoosevelt,whowrote,“Itisinfinitelysadtohaveaboydieinhisgoldenyouth.”But,evenasthelossesmounted,thetidewasstartingtoturn.AmericanandFrenchforceshadpushedtheGermansback.AftertheGermans

movedintoBelleauWood,asmall,forestedplateau,theAlliestriedtocaptureitonJune2.Facedwithheavyresistance,theFrenchretreated,andoneoftheirofficerswarnedtheMarinestodothesame,leadingCaptainLloydWilliamstodeclare,

warnedtheMarinestodothesame,leadingCaptainLloydWilliamstodeclare,“Retreat,hell!Wejustgothere.”ThemenadvancedintoBelleauWood,andthere,inthedenseforest,theywould

battleforthreegruesomeweeks.“Dayandnight...menfoughtinitscorpse-chokedthickets,killingwithbayonetsandbombsandmachinegun,”recalledCaptainJohnThomasonJr.ThefightwasthedeadliesttheMarineshadfoughtuptothatpoint,buttheyprovedsofiercethattheGermansdubbedthemTeufelshunde,“DevilDogs.”ByJune26,theMarinescapturedtheforest,aswellasthevillagesofVauxandBouresches.TheyhadstoppedtheGermanadvancetoParis.“IfthoseinfrontofusarefairspecimensoftheaverageAmericantroops,”wrote

GermancorporalEarlRecklinghausen,“andthereareasmanyastheysaythereare,thengoodbyeforus.”

Noteveryonewhocontributedtothewareffortdidsobyfighting.ActorBusterKeatondidcryptology.F.ScottFitzgerald’sPrincetonclassmateEdmundWilsonworkedatahospitalcomplexinnortheasternFrance,wherehecaredforgasvictimsandtriedtopreventsuicides.ErnestHemingwayfoundaspotwiththeRedCrossinItaly.“Thentherewasaflash,aswhenablast-furnacedoorisswungopen,”helaterrecalledofamomentwhenamortarshellexplodednearhim,“andaroarthatstartedwhiteandwentred.”Thoughseverelywounded,hecarriedasoldiertosafety.Adeeplayerofsupportfacilitiesbehindthelineskeptthemensupplied.Inthisback

area,theYMCAranR&Rcentersand“huts”forreligiousandrecreationalservices.VolunteersfromsuchgroupsastheJewishWelfareBoardhandedoutcookies,coffee,andlemondropsandshowedfilms.Awayfromthefront,thedoughboyscouldtrytoforgetthewar,withPrivateHarryWilliamswritinghow“inthetownahouseissetasideforthementoread,writeandplayandeverythingquiteuptodateandattractive.”Thousandsofentertainersperformedintheseareastokeepupmorale,themostpopularbeingElsieJanis,the“SweetheartoftheAEF.”Sixteenthousandfivehundredwomenworkednearthefront.“Mostofthepositions

thatthewomenwerefillingwereskilledpositions,”saysKeenetoLIFE.“Theywereworkingastelephoneoperators,clerks,andnurses.EventhoseworkingfortheYMCA—thosewomenwereoftenprofessionalsocialworkers.”Thesewerehardassignments.ChicagoheiressMaryBordenranaFrenchmobile

hospitalatYpres,Belgium,andattheSomme.NurseHelenFairchildwasstationedinFlanders,andwrote,“Weallliveintentsandwadethroughmudtoandfromtheoperatingroom,wherewestandinmudhigherthanourankles.”DespitesetbacksfacingtheGermanforces,Ludendorffhopedtokeepuptheoffensive,settingofftheSecondBattleoftheMarneonJuly15withtheaimoftakingthecityofReimsinChampagne,withitsrailandroadjunction.

ReimsinChampagne,withitsrailandroadjunction.ButmomentumwasonthesideoftheAllies.TheFrenchknewofLudendorff’splans

and,astheGermanadvancequicklyfaltered,theycounterattackedonJuly18withtheAisne-MarneCampaign.AmericansservedasthemainforceoftheoffensivearoundChâteau-Thierry,andsome310,000Yanksmadegoodprogress.ByearlyAugust,WilliamShemin’sregimentfounditselfneartheVesleRiverandthe

townofBazoches.There,Germanmachinegunsrakedalargefield.WhenhisfriendJamesPritchardwasshotintherightarm,Shemin“sprangfromhispositioninhisplatoontrench,”wroteCaptainRupertPurdon,and“dashedoutacrosstheopeninfullsightoftheGermans.”Pritchard“couldseethemachinegunbulletsaroundhimkickingupthedirt,”hissonJimtellsLIFE.“ThenextthingheknowsthereisBill.Billdraggedhimbackintothetrenches,andthenBillwentoutandpulledtwoothersbackunderthiswitheringmachinegunfire.”Whentheirofficerswerelost,Shemintookcommand,andduringlullswentoutto

saveadditionalwounded.AboutthetimethemenreachedBazoches,abulletdeflectedoffofShemin’shelmetbuckleandhithiminthehead,knockinghimunconscious.Continuingtheirpush,theAmericanssetofftotakethe200-square-mileareaknown

astheSt.Mihielsalient,a16-mile-deeptriangularGerman-heldregionthatbulgedintotheAlliedside.Itwasalandofrollinghillsfullofdeepwoods,raillines,andfortresslikeGermandefenses.Pershingarrangedamassiveassaultwith665,000Alliedsoldiers,267FrenchRenault

lighttanks,3,000guns,and1,481airplanesinordertopushthebulgein.Settingoffat1a.m.onSeptember12,1918,themensloggedintherainpastbarbedwireastheyskirtedboobytraps.Bytheendofthefirstdaytheyhadcapturedthousandsofprisonersandguns.Afterafewdaystheyclearedthesalient,andintheprocessforcedtheGermansback.ProudthatU.S.troopsprovedtheAEFequaltootherforces,WilsoncabledPershing:

“Theboyshavedonewhatweexpectedofthem,anddoneitthewaywemostadmire.”

Asthepushprogressed,theAmericansfinallyapproachedtheprotectiveHindenburgLine,aseriesoftrenchesthatservedasGermany’slastlineofdefense.Tobreakthrough,they’dneedtoquietlyshifttheirpositionandweapons—amovethatwouldrequiremassiveandprecisecoordinationthelikesofwhichhadneverbeforebeenfacedbytheAEF.Overatwo-weekperiod,600,000Americanand220,000FrenchandItaliantroopshadtobeshifted,thementrudginginthedarkalongmuddyroads.PrivateFloydRickettsinCaptainHarryTruman’sbatteryrecalledhow“wewouldsleepinthedaytimeinthicketsorinthewoodsandthentakeoffatduskandmarchallnight.”Thismoment,saysDoranCartoftheNationalWorldWarIMuseumandMemorial,

Thismoment,saysDoranCartoftheNationalWorldWarIMuseumandMemorial,canbeseenasthebirthofa“complete”Americanarmy.“Thelogisticsonthatwereastounding,”hesays,“thenumberoftroopsthathadtobemoved,theincredibleamountofequipmentthathadtobemoved.”TheAmericanbombardmentstartedonSeptember26.Theinitialbarrageprovedso

intensethatTrumanlaterrecalledthattheheatoffthegunswasenoughto“boilwetgunnysacksweputonthemtokeepthemcool.”At5:30a.m.thedoughboyswerecommandedtoattackandheadedoutalongthe20-milefront,withtheMeuseRiverontheireast,rollingfarmlandinthemiddle,andthethickArgonneForestonthewest.Thefight—whichwouldcontinueuntiltheveryendofthewar—wouldcometobe

knownastheMeuse-ArgonneOffensive.Hopingtoseetheapproachingforces,theGermansshotoffsignalflares—butfog

obscuredthemenasdidasmokebarrage,withCaptainWalterKerr-Rainsfordrecallinghowheadvanced“adriftinablindworldofwhitenessandnoise,gropingoversomethinglikethesurfaceofthemoon.”AsGermanartilleryshellsstruck,RayJohnsonwatchedinhorrorasfellowsoldiers“wouldstagger,reel,andcrumpleinaheap;struckbyaflyingbitofshrapnelorashellfragment.”Woundedmenyelledoutforhelp,butmanycouldnotbereached.“Thisissimplyalivingdeath,”SergeantEdwardDavieswouldlaterwrite.“Hellcanholdnoterrorsformeafterthis.”Bytheendofthefirstday,troopshadarrivedatMontfaucon,southofVerdun.Acold

rainfell,turningthegroundintoaswamp.AstheAmericansclearedouttheGermansoldiersfromthevillage,theyfoughthandtohand.“Thehardestfightofallseemedtobecenteredinthegrave-yard,”recalledMajorCharlesDuPuy,“whereeachmausoleumcontaineditsmachinegunandcrew.”TheMeuse-ArgonneOffensivewasfullofsuchdifficultfights.Forexample,the

doughboysmovedsofastthatCaptainWhittleseyandhis554mensoonfoundthemselvessurroundedbytheenemy.Trappedforfivedaysinaravine,themendugdefensiveburrowsandenduredmachinegunfire,high-trajectorytrenchmortars,andgrenadeassaults.Anyonewhotriedtogetwaterfromanearbycreekbecameatarget.Lowonfood,medicine,andammo,theywereaccidentlyhitbybarragesofAmericanartilleryfire.DesperatelypreparingCherAmi,hislastcarrierpigeon,Whittleseyattachedamessagecapsulewiththenote“Ourartilleryisdroppingabarragedirectlyonus.Forheaven’ssakestopit.”EventhoughtheGermansshotCherAmithroughthebreastandleg,hemanagedtodeliverthenote.WhenWhittlesey’smenwererescued,only194ofwhatbecameknownastheLostBattalionwereabletowalkoutontheirown.AndonOctober8,machinegunnersslowedtheadvanceofthe82ndInfantry

DivisionnearChatel-Chéhéry.Ofthatday,CorporalAlvinYorkrecalledhowthosewithhimfell“likethelonggrassbeforethemowingmachineathome.”Yorkandothers

withhimfell“likethelonggrassbeforethemowingmachineathome.”Yorkandotherscrawledthroughtheovergrowth,crossedaridgeandmadetheirwaybehindtheenemy’slinewheretheycapturedsomeGermans.Butanothermachinegunnersawthem.Yorktookcover,andwhenagroupofGermanschargedwiththeirbayonets,theTennesseanpulledouthis.45andshotthemall.Aftertakingoutthemachinegunner,York“gothold”ofaGermanmajor,and“toldhimifhedidn’tmakethemstopfiringIwouldtakehisheadnext...Soheblowedhiswhistleandtheycamedownoutofthetrenchandthroweddowntheirgunsandequipment.”Astheyclimbedout,onelobbedagrenadeatYork“butitmissedmeandwoundedoneoftheprisoners.”Yorkshothimtoo.Withonlyahalfdozenothermen,YorkfollowedtheGermanofficerdowntheline,capturingfourofficersand128men.Artillery-damagedroadsweremadeevenmoreimpassablebythemud.Supplieswere

stuck,sosomementookwhattheycould—foodandammoalike—fromdeadcomradesandGermans.About325Americansdiedeachday,inthis,thebloodiestbattleinAmericanhistory.ButtheGermansjustcouldnotwithstandthedeadlydoughboyonslaught.Asthe

Germanarmycollapsed,itsHighSeasFleetmutinied.Then,onNovember9,facedwithdefeat,KaiserWilhelmIIabdicated.Soonthewarringsidessetanarmistice.Itwouldbeginat11a.m.onNovember11.Thatmorning,nearChaumont-Devant-Damvillers,theGerman-AmericanHenry

Gunther,worriedthathiscommandersviewedhimasaGermansympathizer,apparentlysetouttoproveotherwise.HerantowardtheenemyevenastheGermansyelledinbrokenEnglishthatthewarwasover.ButGuntherkeptfiring,sotheGermansshothiminthehead.Dyingaminutebeforethewar’send,hebecamethelastAmericantoperishinbattle.Afterfourhellishyears,peacehadfinallyarrived.Americanshadhelpedbringitabout,largelyduetothesheermassofsoldiersand

firepowertheyprovided.In200daysoffighting,morethanonemillionAmericanssawaction,capturing63,000oftheenemy.Afterthecombatantsputdowntheirarms,anecstaticPershingpraisedhismen—who,hesaid,“havemadepossiblethisgloriousresult.”

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U.S.GENERALJohn“BlackJack”PershingstrodeoffthesteamerBalticafterlandinginFrancetoprepareforthearrivalofhisdoughboys.

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SECRETARYOFWARNewtonBaker(above)madethefirstpickforthedraft.Alackofweaponsatthestartmeantmockriflesfortraining(below).Formanyinductees,themedicalexamstheyreceived(bottom)weretheir

firstever.

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CARLTHONER/NATIONALARCHIVES/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

MOMENTSAFTERFirstLadyEdithWilson(accompaniedbythePresident)christenedtheSSQuistconck,above,itsetoffforservice.AfactoryinPhiladelphia,below,mademetalhelmetsforthedoughboys.

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AMERICANWOMEN,likethesetraininginanordnanceshopinNicetown,Pennsylvania,keptfactorieshumming.

WARDEPARTMENT/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

THEWARwouldcostAmerica$32billion.ActorslikeCharlieChaplinandDouglasFairbanks(hoistingChaplin),above,andElsieFerguson,below,center,raisedmoneyforLibertyBonds.

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AMERICANTROOPSweregreetedjoyfullyastheyparadedthroughthestreetsofLondonbeforeheadingtothebattlefieldsofFrance.

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ATTHETHIRDBattleofYpresin1917,Britishstretcher-bearerscarriedawoundedsoldieroutthroughthemud.

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ABritishsoldieraccompaniedFrenchsoldiersblindedbygasduringtheSecondBattleoftheMarne.

IMPERIALWARMUSEUM

BRITISHPILOTSandotherstargetedenemiesatthestartofthewarbysimplydroppingbombs.Soonthedevelopmentofbombsightsimprovedaccuracy.

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GERMANSOLDIERSinVillers-BretonneuxadvancingduringOperationMichael,thefirstphaseoftheSpringOffensive.GeneralErichLudendorffsoughttoendthewarbeforetheAmericansgeareduptofight.

IMPERIALWARMUSEUM

LIFEINthetrenches,likethisoneoccupiedbyBritishsoldiersinMametzWoodsintheSomme,wasrifewithlice,rats,filth,anddeath.

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MEMBERSOFtheU.S.23rdInfantryexchangedfirewithGermansduringtheMeuse-ArgonneOffensive.Thebattle’sheavytollencouragedGermanytosueforpeace.

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ASTHEAMERICANSadvanced,theyfounddrinks,cigars,andotherobjectsleftbytheretreatingenemy,above.Withwar,camedeathandtheneedforburials,below.

MANSELL/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

GRANGER

THEARMYsetuptemporaryhospitals,likethisoneinadamagedchurchinNeuvilly-en-Argonne,France.TheodoreRoosevelt’sdaughterEthelandherhusband,Dr.RichardDerby,workedattheAmericanAmbulance

HospitalinParis.

1918–1921

TheCostofPeaceWiththeWartoEndAllWarsover,thevictorssowtheseedsofafutureconflict

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FOURYEARSofwardevastatedmuchofEurope,leavingvillages—liketheoccupiedtownofPeronne,France—destroyed.

FromwherehestoodatthemomenttheArmisticebegan,HarryTrumancouldseeaGermanmachinegunner.At11a.m.,themantookoffhishelmet,bowed,andwalkedaway.Trumanwrotethat“agreatcheeraroseallalongtheline.”Whenhetriedtogotobedthatnight,“membersoftheFrenchBatteryinsistedonmarchingaroundmycotandshakinghands.They’dshout‘ViveleCapitaineAméricain!VivelePrésidentWilson!’”CelebrationsbrokeoutinParis,London,andNewYork,andinsmalltownsacross

EuropeandAmerica.Thepeoplejubilantlydancedandwept.TheNewYorkTimesreportedthatinLondon,“everywherethesoldierreigned,andtheAmericanboysinkhakiwerehavingthetimeoftheirlives.”Yetwhilemanycelebrated,othersexperiencedanuttersenseofloss.Accordingtothe

AmericandiplomatandhistorianGeorgeKennan,WorldWarIwasthe“greatseminalcatastrophe”ofthe20thcentury.InNovemberof1918,muchofEuropelayinshambles.Fourempireshadvanished,communismwasontherise,andtheseedsof

shambles.Fourempireshadvanished,communismwasontherise,andtheseedsofWorldWarIIhadbeensown.Thewarhadbroughtaboutthemechanizationofbattle,withtanksandpoisonedgasreplacingcavalrytroopsandcarrierpigeons.While116,516Americansdied—53,402incombatand63,114mostlyfromtheflu—and200,600werewounded,theUnitedStates’lossespaledincomparisontothoseofothersocieties.Russialost1.7millionpeople,Germany1.6million,France1.4million,andBritain658,000.Alongwiththewardead,influenzakilled50millionpeoplearoundtheworld.AnAustriancorporalnamedAdolfHitlerwasrecoveringinamilitaryhospitalfrom

woundshereceivedinFlanderswhenthelocalpastorcameintoannouncethenewsofthewar’send.“Afeelingofprofounddismayfellonthepeopleinthatassembly,andIdonotthinktherewasasingleeyethatwithhelditstears,”HitlerwouldrecalllaterinMeinKampf,ruinghow“allhadbeeninvain.”TheWartoEndAllWarstransformedtheUnitedStates.ThecountrythathadforsolongbeenabletopainttheAtlanticandPacificasisolatingbufferswasnowthepreeminentworldpower.Itstriumphanttroopswereheroes.AlvinYork—whomGeneralPershingcalled“the

greatestciviliansoldier”ofWorldWarI—becamethemosthighlydecoratedAmericanservicemanofthewar,receivingaMedalofHonor,amongseveralothers.CharlesWhittleseywaspromotedtoLt.ColonelandalsoawardedtheMedalofHonor.WilliamShemin,TeddyRooseveltJr.,FatherFrancisDuffy,andFatherWilliamFarrelleachreceivedtheDistinguishedServiceCross.ErnestHemingwaybecameoneofthefirstAmericansgiventheItalianSilverMedalofValor.HenryJohnsonandMaryBordenreceivedtheCroixdeGuerre.TheFrenchgaveonetothepigeonCherAmi,too.Johnson’s369threturnedtoAmericaasahighlydecoratedunit.When3,000ofits

membersmarchedalongNewYork’sFifthAvenueinFebruary,theNewYorkTribunereportedhowthecrowdscheeredwhentheysawJohnsonintheleadCadillac,joyfullyhailinghimas“BlackDeath.”InSeptemberthecitythrewatickertapeparadeforPershing,whowasmadeGeneraloftheArmies,becomingtheonlyactivedutyofficertoholdtherankofsix-stargeneral.Some240,700AmericantroopsremainedinEurope.InGermany,Austria,and

Hungary—wherearmieswerevanquished,millionsofcitizensweredisplaced,andtheciviliangovernmentsinsomelandswerenolongerviable—theAlliessetuptheArmyofOccupation.SheminspenttimeinVallendarandBrück,Germany.FrankBuckles’sunitescortedGermanprisonershomewardbytrain.EdmundWilson,asanewspapercensor,enjoyedthecompanyoflocalsinTrier,Germany,writing,“Iusedtogooutthereintheeveningsandwewouldhaveparties...inalittlecafé.”

TohelpEuropecontendwithstarvationconditions,HerbertHooverheadedtheEuropeanReliefandRehabilitationAdministration,channeling34milliontonsoffood,clothing,andsuppliestopeoplein20nations.WhenacriticcomplainedthattheaidhelpedtheRussianBolsheviks,Hooverresponded,“Twentymillionpeoplearestarving.Whatevertheirpolitics,theyshallbefed!”Thehonoreddeadneededtoberemembered.Manysupportedtheideaof

nonrepatriationofbodies,agreeingwithTheodoreRooseveltthat“wherethetreefallsthereletitlie.”In1919,Roosevelt’swife,Edith,traveledtoFrancetoarrangeforafountaininmemoryoftheirsonQuentin.ButPresidentWilsonandCongressdecidedtoofferfamiliesachoicewhethertheirdeceasedlovedoneswouldstayoverseasorbebroughthome.Soonshipsladenwiththousandsofcoffinsstartedtoarrive—HenryGunther’sbodywasreturnedtoBaltimore—andCongressestablishedtheAmericanBattleMonumentsCommissiontobuildandmaintaineightforeignburialgrounds.Tohonorthosewhoseidentitieswerenotknown,thegovernmentdedicatedtheTomboftheUnknownsinArlingtonNationalCemetery,withWhittleseyactingasapallbearerattheinterment.Startingin1929,CongressfundedGoldStarpilgrimagessomothersandwidowscouldvisitoverseasgraves.InKansasCity,nearPershing’sMissourihometown,citizensraisedmoneyfortheLibertyMemorialTower.Atits1921dedication,PershingwasjoinedbyEuropeanmilitaryleadersandacrowdof100,000.TheAmericanLegionhonorguardincludedHarryTruman.Theadulationofanationdidnotinsulatetheheroesfromsuffering.Johnson’s

woundspreventedhimfromworking.Whenhediedin1929,hewasburiedinArlingtonNationalCemetery.ThoughWhittleseyvisitedthewoundedandfamiliesofthedeadtooffercomfort,hecouldnotdispelhisownsadness.InNovember1921,hebookedpassageontheSSToloatoHavanaandispresumedtohavejumpedoverboard.AndthewarthatkilledQuentinRooseveltarguablykilledTheodoreRoosevelttoo,whosaidthatsincetheboy’sdeath“theworldseemstohaveshutdownuponme.”AftertheformerPresidentdiedin1919,hissonArchietelegraphedhissiblings:“Theoldlionisdead.”

Butevenasthearmisticewascelebrated,peacestillhadnotbeenproclaimed.ToWilson,thewarexposedthefoolishnessofmilitaryandpeacealliances.HehadalreadytoldCongressabouthisvisionforthefuture,wheninJanuaryof1918hehadoutlinedhishopesforpeace.HisFourteenPointsplancalledforfreetrade,freedomoftheseas,andanendtosecrettreaties.Mostimportant,thePresidentproposedcreatingaLeagueofNations,whichwouldguarantee“thepoliticalindependenceandterritorialintegrity[of]greatandsmallstatesalike.”Andso,believingintheUnitedStates’divinedestiny,hesoughttomakehisdreamof

aharmoniouspostwarageareality.HesailedforEuropetoattendtheParisPeaceConference.AshistrainnearedParis,citizenskneltbythetrackstopray.Whenhearrivedinthecapital,Parisiansthrewflowersinhispathandcheered:“ViveWilson!ViveWilson!”ThepeaceconferencebeganonJanuary18,1919.Adifferenceofopinionwasquickly

clearamongtheparticipants:ThoughtheUnitedStateswantedtoleaveGermanyinviableeconomicshape,manyothernationssetouttopunishtheirformeradversary.IntheresultingTreatyofVersailles,thelattercamphadtheirway.ThetermsofthepeaceevisceratedGermany,strippeditofterritory,demilitarizedtheRhineland,andlimiteditsarmyto100,000soldiers.Sincethevictorsbelievedthatasettlementrequiredmonetarycompensation,article231’s“WarGuilt”clausemadeGermanyresponsiblefor“allthelossanddamage”ofthewaranddemandedcrushingreparations.DespiteresentingtheWarGuiltclause,theGermanshadlittlechoicebuttosignthe

treatyonJune28.Exactlyfiveyears—fiveverylongyears—hadpassedsincetheassassinationofArchdukeFranzFerdinand.Withthekaisergone,thenewWeimarRepublicruledGermany.Manyformer

soldiersnotabletoreturntotheirpreviouslivesjoinedparamilitarysocieties,opposingtheliberalismofthenewgovernment.AtameetingoftheGermanWorkers’PartyonSeptember12,1919,someonehandedapromilitary,anti-Semitic,nationalistpamphlettoayoungAdolfHitler,whowasworkingincounterintelligenceforthearmy.Hitlerwasattractedbywhatheread,andhesoonjoinedtheparty,recallingthatmomentasthepointfromwhich“therewasandcouldbenoturningback.”ThefollowingFebruarythegroupchangeditsnametotheNationalSocialist(Nazi)GermanWorkers’Party.Meanwhile,whilethetreatynolongercontainedmostofWilson’sFourteenPoints,it

didincludehisCovenantfortheLeagueofNations.Therevolutionaryorganizationcalledonmemberstorespecttheterritoriesofothernationsandpenalizedthosestartingawar.WhenWilsonreturnedtoWashingtoninJuly,hepresentedthetreatytotheSenateforitsapprovalandeventualU.S.ratification.Therewasintenseoppositiontotheagreement.Themostferventcriticwas

MassachusettssenatorHenryCabotLodge,whoopposeditscallforcollectivesecurity,whichhefeltwouldinfringeonAmericansovereignty.AndwhileLodgesoughttomodifythedocument,Wilson—whoreceivedtheNobelPeacePrizeforhisroleinfoundingtheLeagueofNations—foughtallchanges.Hopingtoraisebipartisansupport,Wilsonandhiswife,Edith,headedoffinthe

Mayflower,apresidentialcarsetatthebackofaPennsylvaniaRailroadtrain.Thenearly10,000-milejourneybarnstormedthroughsuchcitiesasColumbus,Ohio;Omaha;

Spokane,Washington;andSanFrancisco.Alongtheway,hundredsofthousandsflockedtoseehim,withWilsontellingacrowdof20,000inSt.Louis,“IcamebackfromParisbringingoneofthegreatestdocumentsofhumanhistory.”Thetraintrip,however,provedexhaustingforthePresident.Hehadhadaseriesofminorstrokesovertheyears,andduringthe22daysstumpingforhistreatyheenduredheadachessoseverethattheynearlyblindedhim.WhenhereturnedtotheWhiteHousehesufferedamassivestrokethatparalyzedhisleftside.Tooweaktofight,Wilsonstillrefusedtocompromiseontreatyamendments.The

SenaterejectedthetreatyonNovember19.ThefollowingMarch,thechamberdefeatedanewversion.Itwasn’tuntilAugustof1921thattheTreatyofBerlinofficiallyendedthewarbetweentheUnitedStatesandGermany.BythenWarrenG.HardingoccupiedtheOvalOffice,andthenationsoughttoputthewarfirmlyinthepast.

USARMYSIGNALCORPS/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

THEARMISTICEARRIVEDatthe11thhourofthe11thdayofthe11thmonth.AfterayearandahalfofU.S.involvement,soldierscelebratedtheend.

GRANGER

INNEWYORKCITY,onArmisticeDay,above,Americanswelcomedpeace.OnFifthAvenue,below,AfricanAmericanscheeredthereturnofthe369thInfantry,alongwithoneofitsheroes,HenryJohnson.

NATIONALARCHIVES

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INEUROPE,foodwasscarce.Germanchildrenlineduponthestreetforaid.

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Frenchorphansintraditionalcostumeatafund-raiserinNewYorkCity’sCentralPark,circa1919.

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ALLIEDOFFICERSwatchedthenegotiationsattheParisPeaceConference,above.FrenchpremierGeorgesClemenceau,PresidentWoodrowWilson,andBritishprimeministerDavidLloydGeorge,below,afterthesigning.

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WILSONRETURNEDhometoseeksupportforthepeacetreatyandtheLeagueofNations.

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THETREATYofVersaillescalledforthescrappingofGermany’sweaponsofwar,above.Topayreparations,theWeimargovernmentprintedmoney,sparkinghyperinflationandcausingsometousetheworthlessnotesforfuel,

below.

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1921–1929

ANewAgeintheU.S.Americaemergesfromthewarasthepreeminentpowerinaquicklychangingworld

MARCWANAMAKER/BISONARCHIVES

ANELECTRICNEWERA,witharenaissanceintheartsandscience,broughtwithitlavishmovieopenings,likethisoneforTheHollywoodRevueof1929.

Americanswanteda“returntonormalcy,”andin1920alandslideelectionvictoryforRepublicanWarrenG.HardingandhisVicePresident,CalvinCoolidge,seemedtoindicatethatthepeoplebelievedsuchareturnmeantrepudiationofWoodrowWilson’sprogressivismandthebroadexpansionofgovernmentpowersthathadbeenrequiredduringthewar.UnliketheDemocratWilson,Hardinghadahands-off,laissez-faireapproachtotheexecutiveoffice.Headvocatedforminimalregulation,andduringhisadministrationCongresscutthefederalbudgetbynearlyhalf.WhenHardingdiedin1923,Coolidgecontinuedwhathispredecessorhadstarted.But,asAmericansembracedashiftbackintoisolationism,thenation’snewfinancial

But,asAmericansembracedashiftbackintoisolationism,thenation’snewfinancialandmilitarymightforcedittoshoulderanincreasedburdenininternationalaffairs,eventhoughtheSenatehadnotapprovedU.S.participationintheLeagueofNations.TheUnitedStateswasnowEurope’slargestcreditor,withBritainowingtheUnitedStates$4.5billion.Franceowed$3.5billionandItaly$1.8billion.In1921,theUnitedStateshostedtheWashingtonNavalConferencetodiscussnavaldisarmament,resultinginthefirsteffectivearmscontrolagreements.AndSecretaryofStateFrankB.KelloggworkedwiththeLeagueofNationstocreatethe1928Kellogg-BriandPact,whichsetouttoabolishwar.Withitsnewroleinworldpolitics,theUnitedStateshadanimmenseamountofwork

todo.Turmoilreignedthroughouttheworld.ThespreadofBolshevisminRussiabroughtaboutthecreationoftheSovietUnion.TheriseoffascisminItalysawBenitoMussolini’selevationtoprimeminister.WidespreadinstabilitysparkedaseriesofGermancoupattempts,includingonethatgotAdolfHitlerthrowninprison,wheretheNazileaderstartedtowriteMeinKampf.SincetheWeimargovernmentcouldnotpaytheonerous$33billioninreparationsdemandedbytheTreatyofVersailles,itbeganprintingmoney,settingoffhyperinflation,withGermancurrencyrisingfrom64.8markstothedollarinJanuary1920to4.2trillionmarkstothedollarinNovember1923.Alongwithinflationcamemassiveunemployment.ToresolveGermany’sfinancialmess,U.S.BureauoftheBudgetdirectorCharles

Dawesfoundwaystostabilizethemark,balancethatnation’sbudget,andsoonafterrestructurepaymentsofreparations.StabilitystartedtoreturntoGermany,settingofftheGoldeneZwanziger,theGolden’20s,markedbyagrowingeconomy,increasedindustrialproduction,andculturalflowering.

TomanyAmericans,thepostwarsituationdidbearatleastonedistinctsimilaritytothewaythingshadbeenbefore1917:Europestillseemedveryfaraway,andsodiditsproblems.Americanwarheroeswentbacktowork.FrankBucklesattendedbusinessschooland

workedfortheWhiteStarshippingline.HarryTrumanopenedahaberdashery,thefailureofwhichpromptedhimtogetintopolitics.WilliamSheminearnedadegreeinforestryand,withhisfather,boughtfiveacresinthenorthernBronx,wheretheybrokethegroundwithmulesandstartedafloralandlandscapecompany.FatherFrancisDuffybecamepastoroftheHolyCrossChurchinNewYork’stheaterdistrict.AlvinYorkfarmed,operatedageneralstoreandagristmill,andusedhiscelebritytobringbettereducationalopportunitiestoTennessee,establishingtheAlvinC.YorkInstitute.Migrationtourbancenterscontinued,andinJanuary1921thecensusreportedthat,

forthefirsttime,morepeopleintheUnitedStateslivedincitiesandcommunitiesofmorethan2,500peoplethanlivedinthecountry.Thegrowingeconomyaccountedfor

morethan2,500peoplethanlivedinthecountry.Thegrowingeconomyaccountedformuchofthechange,withthestockmarketincreasing219percentbetween1922and1929.Blue-collarworkershadshorterworkweeks,evenaslaborcostsdeclinedbecauseoftechnologicaladvances.Theerabecameknownasatimeforescapism,what“Stardust”composerHoagy

Carmichaelcalled“abangofbadbooze,flapperswithbarelegs,jangledmorals,andwildweekends.”Moreleisuretimeandmoremoneymeantmorespendingonnonessentialslike

radios,entertainment,movies,dancehalls,andamusementparks.Massproductionofwell-madeyetinexpensiveproductsmadeithardertodistinguishclassandblurredthelinesthathadkeptsocietystratified.“Iusedtobeabletotellsomethingaboutthebackgroundofagirlapplyingforajobasastenographerbyherclothes”commentedaMuncie,Indiana,businessman,“buttodayIoftenhavetowaittillshespeaks,showsagoldtooth,orotherwisegivesmeasecondclue.”Automanufacturingboomed,alongwithrelatedindustrieslikesteel,plateglass,

vulcanizedrubber,andgas.Bytheendofthedecadetherewere26millioncarsontheroads.Withthegrowthofhighwaysystemscamehotels,servicestations,androadsiderestaurants.Aeronauticaladvancementspropelledtheairlineindustry.By1920coast-to-coastairmailservicehadbegunbetweenNewYorkandSanFrancisco,andin1927CharlesLindberghpilotedtheSpiritofSt.LouisonthefirstnonstopsoloflightacrosstheAtlantic.Thenumberoftelephonelinesdoubledfrom10.5millionin1915to20millionin

1930.Indoorplumbingcametomanynewareas,asdidelectrification,whichreachedonesixthofAmericanhomesin1912andnearlytwothirdsbytheendofthedecade.Withelectricity,peopleboughtrefrigerators,freezers,andwashingmachines.Pittsburgh’sKDKAreceivedthecountry’sfirstradiostationlicenseonOctober27,1920.Soon,hundredsofnewstationstooktotheairwaves.Apoliticalpowershiftbeganaswomengainednewstature,manycomingbackfrom

thewarwithusefulworkskills.Thesuffragemovement,whichhadbeengrowingbeforethewar,finallygainedwomentherighttovotewiththe1920passageofthe19thAmendmenttotheConstitution.Bythestartofthe1920s,aquartertoathirdofurbanworkingwomenlivedbythemselves.ManyofthemembracedalifestylebestdescribedbyF.ScottFitzgerald’swife,Zelda,inher“EulogyontheFlapper”:“Sheflirtedbecauseitwasfuntoflirtandworeaone-piecebathingsuitbecauseshehadagoodfigure,shecoveredherfacewithpowderandpaintbecauseshedidn’tneeditandsherefusedtobeboredchieflybecauseshewasn’tboring.”Growingliberalism,however,unleashedabacklash.Manyfearedchange.Asians,communists,Jews,andCatholicswereallthefocusofprejudice.Congresspassedthe

communists,Jews,andCatholicswereallthefocusofprejudice.CongresspassedtherestrictiveImmigrationActof1924,andtheerawitnessedthereemergenceoftheKuKluxKlan.By1925,thewhite-nationalistgroupseemedmainstream,sponsoringbaseballteams,holdingfestivals,andclaimingsomefivemillionadherents.ThatAugust,25,000members,dressedintheirwhite-hoodedregalia,proudlymarcheddownWashington’sPennsylvaniaAvenue.WiththeGreatMigrationandadvancesforAfricanAmericanscameincreasedracial

violence.Returningsoldiersenduredwidespreadmistreatment,causingcivilrightsleaderW.E.B.DuBoistodenouncethebetrayingofthosewhohad“foughtgladlyandtothelastdropofbloodforAmerica.”Lynchingsofblacksrosefrom36ayearwhentheUnitedStatesenteredthewarto60in1918and76in1919.Duringthesummerof1919,raceriotsbrokeoutindozensofcities.Andtheperceptionofungodlyhedonismspreadingacrossthelandprovokeda

countermovement.Liquorwasseenasthecauseofmuchoftheevilinsociety,andthelongstandingeffort

tobanit—whichhadbeenacceleratedbythewartimeneedtoconservegrain—claimedvictorywiththe1919ratificationofthe18thAmendment,outlawingthesaleofalcohol.ManypraisedthearrivalofProhibitionin1920andexpectedtheimminenttransformationofcivilization.“Thereignoftearsisover.Theslumswillsoononlybeamemory,”proclaimedtheReverendBillySunday.“Wewillturnourprisonsintofactoriesandourjailsintostorehousesandcorncribs.Menwillwalkuprightnow,womenwillsmileandchildrenwilllaugh.Hellwillbeforeverforrent.”ButdryingAmericaoutwasnotsoeasy.Peoplewantingadrinkcouldsimplyvisita

speakeasy.Ithasbeenestimatedthat100,000illegalbarscouldbefoundinNewYorkCityin1925.Enforcementprovedlimited,withonly1,500agentsnationally,just30perstate.Prohibitionnurturedthegrowthoforganizedcrime,withgangsterslikethedapperlydressedAlCaponejustifyinghisactivitiesbyproclaiming,“I’mjustabusinessman,givingthepublicwhattheywant.”Othersexpressedtheirresistancetothenewerabyfightingchangethatopposedthe

teachingsoftheBible.InMarch1925,theTennesseelegislaturebannedtheteachingof“anytheorythatdeniesthestoryoftheDivineCreation.”WhenthenewlyformedAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionrecruitedDayton,Tennessee,scienceteacherJohnScopestoteachthetopic,hewasfiredfordisobeyingstatelaw.TheACLUthenhiredattorneyClarenceDarrowtodefendhimincourtduringthe“ScopesMonkeyTrial,”whiletheWorldChristianFundamentalistAssociationtappedWilson’sformersecretaryofstateWilliamJenningsBryantoleadtheprosecution.ThoughScopeslostandhadtopaya$100fine,theridiculingofBryan’sfundamentalistbeliefsduringthetrialwasseenasavictoryforreason.

ThereseemedtobenostoppingthechangesinAmericansociety.NewculturalinnovationswereledbysuchartistsaspainterGeorgiaO’Keeffe,architectFrankLloydWright,entertainerJosephineBaker,comediananddirectorBusterKeaton,dancerIsadoraDuncan,photographerJamesVanDerZee,poetEdnaSt.VincentMillay,playwrightEugeneO’Neill,andactressLillianGish.Avibrantexpatcommunitysprangupoverseas.ZeldaandF.ScottFitzgeraldmoved

toFrancein1924,wherehefinishedwritingTheGreatGatsby.ErnestHemingwayhadreturnedtoEuropeafewyearsearlier,coveringeventssuchasthewarbetweenGreeceandTurkeyfortheTorontoStar.In1925,hegottoknowtheFitzgeraldsandalso,aroundthattime,EzraPound,JohnDosPassos,HartCrane,andGertrudeStein.ItwasSteinwhodubbedthegrouptheLostGeneration,fortheirfeelingsofalienationanddisillusionmentwithpostwarAmerica—issuesHemingwayexploredinhisfirstnovel,TheSunAlsoRises.AndinthefaceofcontinuingdiscriminationintheSouth,AfricanAmericanskepton

flockingnorth.Veteranstookleadershiprollsinthepostwarcivilrightsmovement.CharlesHouston

becamethefirstblackmantoedittheHarvardLawReview.HewentontocreatethestrategytheNAACPwouldusetofightsegregationineducation.Atthesametime,artistsandperformersinNewYorkCityusheredintheHarlemRenaissance.ColemanHawkinsarrivedfromKansasCityandLouisArmstrongfromNewOrleansviaChicago,andtheyplayedwithFletcherHenderson’sband.DukeEllingtonandhisorchestrastartedanacclaimedrunattheCottonClub.LangstonHugheswrotehisTheWearyBlues,withsuchpoemsas“DreamVariations”and“TheNegroSpeaksofRivers.”AndClaudeMcKay’sHometoHarlembecamethefirstbest-sellingnovelbyanAfricanAmerican.Broadwayhadanexplosionoftalent.In1921IrvingBerlinbeganperforminghis

MusicBoxRevues.Theyear1924sawthepremierofGeorgeGershwin’sLady,BeGood!withsiblingstarsFredandAdeleAstaire.OpeninginDecember1925,theMarxBrothersstarredinthestageproductionofTheCocoanuts,andin1929LouisArmstrongmadehisBroadwaydebutinFatsWallerandHarryBrooks’sHotChocolatesreviewwiththehit“Ain’tMisbehavin.’”Astheaterboomed,Hollywoodcementeditselfasthecenteroffilm,featuringstars

likeMaryPickfordandTomMix.KeatonfoundedtheBusterKeatonStudiosandwentontoturnouthismasterpiece,TheGeneral.Bythemid1920s,50millionpeopleaweekwenttothemovies.Toattractaudiences,theaterownersbuiltfantasyhouses,grandcentersofescapismdolledupasMoorish,Egyptian,andFrenchRenaissancearchitecturalwonders.Intheworldofsports,fansflockedtobaseballgames,tennis

matches,andfootballgamesandsawsuchstarsasBabeRuth,HelenWills,andRedGrange.

Theboomdidnotlast.RightafterHerbertHooverassumedthepresidencyin1929,theGreatDepressionupendedAmerica’sJazzAge.By1933,unemploymenthit25percent.VersionsofmanyofthegovernmentprogramsstartedunderWilson,aswellasrevolutionarynewoneschampionedbyFranklinRooseveltafterhearrivedattheWhiteHousein1933,helpedtheUnitedStatesthroughthosetryingyears.ButtherewasjustnorecapturingtheunprecedentedatmosphereoftheexuberantyearsthatfollowedWorldWarI.JusttwoyearsintotheDepression,Fitzgeraldmarveledatthechangesthathehad

seenduringthepreviousdecade.HecommentedinhisEchoesoftheJazzAgethat“thepresentwriter,”in1931,“alreadylooksbacktoitwithnostalgia.Itborehimup,flatteredhimandgavehimmoremoneythanhehaddreamedof,simplyfortellingpeoplethathefeltastheydid,thatsomethinghadtobedonewithallthenervousenergystoredupandunexpendedintheWar.”AsFitzgeraldalsosaid,“Itwasanageofmiracles,itwasanageofart,itwasanageof

excess,anditwasanageofsatire.”AnditwastheagethatsawthefirstblossomingoftheAmericanCentury.

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WITHMOREspendingmoneyandshorterworkinghours,Americanscouldbuynewcars.AtFordMotorsinDearborn,Michigan,automobilesrolledofftheassemblyline.

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SUFFRAGISTALICEPAULandsupporterscelebratedtheAugust1920ratificationofthe19thAmendment,whichgavewomentherighttovote.

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WITHPROHIBITION,officials,liketheseinNewYork,destroyedillegalalcohol.Bootleggingwasbigbusiness,leadingtogangwarfare.

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RivalsofChicagogangsterAlCaponeweregunneddownintheSaintValentine’sDayMassacreinFebruary1929.

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ABACKLASHagainstsocialfreedomsbroughtabouttheScopesMonkeyTrialinDayton,Tennessee,whereattorneyClarenceDarrow,above,arguedagainstalawforbiddingtheteachingofevolution.Thetrialspawneda

circus-fairquality,withboothssetupoutsidethecourthouse,below.

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CHANGESTOimmigrationlaws—fueledbyracistattitudes—barredAsiansfromenteringAmerica,andmillionsjoinedtheKuKluxKlan.

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AKlaninitiationceremony.

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THEGREATMIGRATIONbroughtaboutaculturalrenaissanceandthesuccessofsuchensemblesasKingOliver’sCreoleJazzBand,withLouisArmstrong,hereplayingarareslidetrumpet,frontcenter.

BETTMANN/GETTY

CHARLESLINDBERGHbecamethefirstpersontomakeanonstopsoloflightacrosstheAtlantic.“LuckyLindy”inspiredcountlessothersduringanagewhenanythingseemedpossible.

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AMERICANCHILDRENatParis’sArcdeTriomphein1929.SomeAmericans,disillusionedwiththeUnitedStates,flockedtoEuropeafterthewar.

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TheBeaumont-HamelNewfoundlandMemorialattheSommebattlefield.

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FRANKBUCKLES,thelastdoughboy,athomeinCharlesTown,WestVirginia,in2007,fouryearsbeforehisdeathatage110.

JustOneMore

U.S.ARMYSIGNALCORPS/THEPICTURECOLLECTION,INC.

FRENCHCHILDRENmarveledatanAmericanammunition-supplytrainandthedoughboyscomingtotheaidoftheircountry.

WorldWarIWRITERDanielS.Levy

EDITORLilyRothmanDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYChristinaLiebermanCREATIVEDIRECTORAnkeStohlmann/Li’lRobinCOPYCHIEFParlanMcGaw

COPYEDITORJoelVanLiewPICTUREEDITORSKatherineBourbeau,RachelHatchWRITER-REPORTERAmyLennardGoehnerPHOTOASSISTANTAlessandraBiancoDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYEMERITABarbaraBakerBurrowsTIMEINC.BOOKS

PUBLISHERMargotSchupf

ASSOCIATEPUBLISHERAllisonDevlinVICEPRESIDENT,FINANCETerriLombardiVICEPRESIDENT,MARKETINGJeremyBiloonEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR,MARKETINGSERVICESCarolPittardDIRECTOR,BRANDMARKETINGJeanKennedySALESDIRECTORChristiCrowleyASSISTANTGENERALCOUNSELAndrewGoldbergASSISTANTDIRECTOR,PRODUCTIONSusanChodakiewiczSENIORMANAGER,CATEGORYMARKETINGBryanChristianBRANDMANAGERKatherineBarnetASSOCIATEPREPRESSMANAGERAlexVoznesenskiyASSOCIATEMANAGERFORPROJECTMANAGEMENTANDPRODUCTIONAnnaRiegoEDITORIALDIRECTORKostyaKennedyCREATIVEDIRECTORGaryStewartDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYChristinaLiebermanEDITORIALOPERATIONSDIRECTORJamieRothMajorSENIOREDITORAlyssaSmith

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TIMEINC.PREMEDIARichardK.Prue(Director),RichardShaffer(Production),KeithAurelio,KevinHart,RosalieKhan,PatriciaKoh,MarcoLau,BrianMai,RudiPapiri,ClaraRenauroSPECIALTHANKSBradBeatson,MelissaFrankenberry,KristinaJutzi,SimonKeeble,SeniquaKoger,KateRoncinske,KristenZwickerCopyright©2017TimeInc.BooksPublishedbyLIFEBOOKS,animprintofTimeInc.Books225LibertyStreet•NewYork,NY10281Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanyelectronicormechanicalmeans,includinginformationstorageandretrievalsystems,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewer,whomayquotebriefpassagesinareview.

eISBN:978-1-68330-789-1Vol.17,No.6•March17,2017

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