ARCLG223 – Textile archaeologyEssay TwoRuiha Smalley

Egyptian, linen wrapped, mummified ibis: what an object can reveal about the society in which it was

made

Date: 05 April 2011Word count: 3615Introduction.......................................................................................3The Textile.........................................................................................4

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The Wrapping.................................................................................4Linen production.............................................................................8The Decoration...............................................................................9

The Ibis............................................................................................13Animal cults..................................................................................13Mummification..............................................................................14

Excavation.......................................................................................16Conclusion.......................................................................................19Bibliography.....................................................................................21

Introduction

The artefact chosen for consideration is an ancient Egyptian, linen wrapped, mummified ibis held at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London

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(figure 1). The object is dated to between the 30th Dynasty and Ptolemaic period (c.380 BC – 30 BC). This essay takes a broad look at the object’s chaine operatoire to reveal varied aspects of ancient Egyptian life.

Figure 1: Object UC30690 (UCL Petrie Museum 2011)

A number of steps were undertaken for us to view this fascinating item. The production of the linen and the procurement of the bird came together through mummification, wrapping and decoration to produce an object which was ceremonially buried in vast catacombs. This took place in social and religious contexts which bound the process together to help us, through excavation and examination, to understand who the ancient Egyptians were.

The following essay will describe the object and take a broad look at the processes that helped to create it.

The TextileThe Wrapping

The plain tabby linen is wrapped around the mummy in a pleated herringbone pattern along most of the body. The top end is stretched flat and at the bottom the pleats lie straight across the feet. The base (figure 2) has linen and stitching

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exposed. The linen is dusty and discoloured in some places. A water mark is evident half way up the body. Measurements for the artefact, taken by visual examination, can be seen in table 1.

Figure 2: The base (The Author 2011)

Length 40cmWidth at top 12cmWidth at base 4.5cmDepth at top 10cmDepth at base 5cmAppliqué length (inc. disc) 16cmAppliqué width 6cmWidth pleat (aver.) 0.5cmThread diameter 0.3 – 1.0mmThread count (weft/warp) 24/14Thread twist S spun

Table 1: Wrapped ibis dimensions and data

A dark strip forms the first pleat. It has been painted onto the linen with an unknown substance. This pleat is slightly damaged on the right side. A seated appliqué figure is in the middle of the object. It has a sun disc above the head (figure 3). This disc has dark residue remaining around its left edge. Some threads at the top are exposed.

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Figure 3: Sun disc (The Author 2011)

Figure 4: Appliquéd figure with painted horns (Ikram 2005, 55)

The catalogue states that signs of original cow horns can be seen. No dark residue remains is in this area. Similar objects display painted horns (figure 4) and if UC30690 had painted horns it is thought that more residue would remain, as it has on the rest of the object. There is no evidence to indicate that linen horns may have been sewn on. Evidence for original horns remains inconclusive.

The figure’s head is in profile to the right. The eye and hair stripes are defined with the dark substance. The ends of the hair appear to form a necklace. Thread sewing the arms to the wrapping is used to create arm and wrist bracelets. Fingers are defined with the dark substance. There appears to be some use of glue on the left hand. The dress is painted with the dark substance. The seat on which the figure sits, also darkened, is damaged and if the figure had legs they are missing. The figure is thought to have held a sceptre with the left hand. There is a one centimetre streak of dark residue four centimetres out from the left

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shoulder. At this point a section of a pleat has been worn indicating that another item may once have been attached here.

Some threads, across the top of the mummy, appear thicker as they go through the cloth. The thread at the base of the mummy appears to be S-spun, which would be typical of Egyptian linen (Allgrove-McDowell 2003). The thread count on the figure’s top is 24/14, although it is not possible to tell which is warp or weft. At the base the same count is seen at this point. At the top of the object there is a count of 12 per centimeter in one direction. A study by Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood (2001) on textiles from the Workman’s Village at Amarna notes a normal degree of irregularity of thread and that a variability of density of threads per centimeter was "common, to the point of being normal” (Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001, 106) in Egyptian textiles. This is evident in the ibis wrapping. The Armarna study indicated that most textiles from the site had a greater number of threads in the warp than weft and with this in mind we can say that the ibis wrapping thread count is generally 24 warp and 14 weft per centimeter.

Allgrove-McDowell (2003) notes the counts for the First Dynasty Tarkhan dress (figure 4), also held at the Petrie Museum, are 22-23 warp and 13-14 weft per centimetre. This places the ibis wrapping in the same quality range as the dress.

Figure 4: The Tarkhan dress (UCL Petrie Museum 2003)

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Figure 5: Scatterplot of thread counts per cm for the Amarna Workman’s Village textiles (Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001, 100)

Figure 5 shows the thread counts for the Armama textiles. Comparing the ibis wrapping to these textiles puts the wrapping amongst the average range of counts from Armana. This suggests that the quality of the wrapping is similar to the quality used by the non-elite in daily life. Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood discuss how counts can inform us of quality of tabby weave. Fragments from royal tombs at Amarna, probably from a royal burial, offer a benchmark for quality of ultra fine textiles with counts of 60 centimetres in one direction. They also describe very fine cloth as 50 threads per centimetre. A study by Roehrig in 1995 (Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001) defined royal linen as 46/30 yarns per centimetre. At the other end are poor quality textiles from Amarna with five counts in either direction. The ibis wrapping sits somewhere in-between so might be subjectively called fine quality. Different researchers present different opinions as to what constitutes very fine linen and this thought is echoed by Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood (2001, 99):

"It is a matter of personal judgment as to the point at which the density of yarns, in any collection, becomes so high as to attract comment on the fineness of the textile."

Linen production

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Evidence for textile production starts in the Neolithic when linen weaving became a staple industry. This is seen in a fragment of linen found in a Fayum A culture deposit dated to c.5000BC. This is coarse thread, plain weave binding and Z spun, unusual for Egypt. Wild flax is not indigenous to Egypt and was probably imported from the Levant. The earliest flax cultivation evidence comes from Kom W, a hunter gather site c.6000BC. The early development of Nile agriculture made Egypt a major concern for linen production in the ancient world. Flax was harvested at different times throughout the year. Green, young stems were used to create thread, yellow fibres produced linen and the mature, tougher fibres were used for matting and ropes. Once prepared, fibre for cloth would be woven on a loom. The earliest, represented on a pre-dynastic pottery dish, was the frameless horizontal loom, used alone until the Middle Kingdom. The New Kingdom saw the introduction, probably by the Hyksos, of the vertical framed loom. (Allgrove-McDowell 2003; Barber 1991; Hall 1986)

There is evidence for the use of other textile materials such as wool, grasses and hemp but linen was the main woven fabric and was an important social commodity, used for clothing, household textiles, wages for labour and as trade and gift tribute to palaces and temples. Mummification also required huge amounts of linen which could be provided by new cloth or worn out and repaired domestic textiles. There were four qualities of cloth which have been translated as royal linen, fine thin cloth, thin cloth and smooth or ordinary cloth. By the Ptolemaic Period flax was manufactured as a commercial concern. The smooth varieties of linen were the most commonly available while the king held a monopoly on royal linen production. Royal linen was manufactured within temple workshops and a fixed amount given to the king for export. All Egyptian temples included a weaving workshop that also made cloth for barter and trade, funerary garments and wrappings. (Allgrove-McDowell 2003; Hall 1986)

Dyed textiles were rare with most cloth being un-dyed, plain weave linen. The Tarkhan dress mentioned above is a fine example which, like the ibis wrapping, includes pleating. Pleating is often represented in tomb paintings and sculptured monuments, such as with the kilt of King Sahure from the early Fifth Dynasty, indicating that the technique developed early in Egyptian history. (Allgrove-McDowell 2003; Barber 1991)

The linen used for the ibis wrapping has been compared to other finds. It must be noted that these artefacts come from different periods of Egyptian history. The Tarkhan dress is from the First Dynasty, the Armana textiles from the 18th Dynasty and the wrapping from the 30th Dynasty–Ptolemaic period. An

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examination of the ibis mummy along with other textile finds from Egypt suggests a long history in the production of quality linen.

The Decoration

Figure 6: The appliqué (The Author 2011)

Redford (2002, 346) states that “the presence of symbolic aspects must be addressed in any thorough analysis of Egyptian artistic…work”. The appliquéd decoration (figure 6) on the object thus leads us to explore ancient Egyptian religion. The identity of the figure is uncertain but has been suggested as being representative of the goddess Hathor, Sekhmet or Isis.

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Figure 7: Hathor (BBC 2011a)

Hathor (figure 7) was a popular, important cow goddess that existed from prehistoric times. She was associated with love, sex and fertility. She appears in medical texts and prayers related to childbirth and pregnancy, and as a funerary goddess was associated with rebirth. She appeared in three forms:

a female figure wearing a sun disc with uraeus, a spitting cobra used as a symbol of divine authority, between tall cow horns and a menat necklace of strings of beads and a heavy pendant at the back

as a cow with a menat necklace and a sun disc between her horns as a female face from the front with the ears of a cow

(Redford 2002; Tyldesley 2010)

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Figure 8: Sekhmet (Wikimedia Commons 2010)

As mother to Horus, Hathor became mother to the pharaohs and in this regard she played a major role in the Sed-festival symbolizing the re-birth of the king. In some cases she is seen as the wife of Horus and here she has healing powers. Hathor could also be the wife, daughter or mother of Re and as the Eye of Re she becomes his agent. In the myth ‘The destruction of mankind’ Re has grown old, and the people are dissatisfied and plot against him. Re releases the Eye of Re to punish his subjects. In this form Hathor becomes Sekhmet (figure 8), the vengeful Eye of Re. After seeing the destruction Sekhmet reins down on the people, Re changes his mind and floods the land with beer coloured like blood. Sekhmet drinks the beer and becomes drunk and harmless. It is due to this myth that Hathor becomes a goddess of inebriation with her Festival of Drunkenness involving music, dance and happiness to pacify the goddess. The sistrum rattle, used in music rituals also became associated with Hathor. This myth displays Hathor’s aggressive persona as Sekhmet, the lioness of disease. She is the wife of Ptah and a goddess of the Memphis triad. She is a destructive female power that protects the pharaoh. She can cure the ills that she brings and her priests are healers. She is often depicted as a lion headed woman with a sun disc and uraeus. (Redford 2002; Tyldesley 2010)

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Figure 9: Isis, in early and later representations (Lightworkers 2009; Encyclopedia Mythica 1997)

Isis (figure 9) is originally seen as the mother of Horus and later becomes the sister and wife of Osiris. Her name is represented by the sign for the throne indicating her association with the king. She is the mother and protector of kings. Like Hathor, she is a goddess of love but presents love in a more socially acceptable form with motherhood as the focus. Isis has strong healing powers and can bring Osiris back from the dead and so gains a place in funerary ceremonies in halting the putrefaction of the body. Isis eventually absorbed the attributes of a number of other goddesses, including Hathor, to become Egypt's most worshiped female deity. She initially was represented as a woman wearing a throne crown, the sign of the ankh and a papyrus staff. Later she became associated with the sistrum and menat and wore a sun disc with cow horns, as does Hathor. Isis and Hathor then became almost identical in appearance. (Redford 2002; Tyldesley 2010)

This brief introduction highlights the overlapping nature of Isis, Hathor and Sekhmet. Egyptian mythology was complex and to the modern mind can appear contradictory and confusing. Gods could change their character and appearance over time and thus allow multiple interpretations of their myths. With this in mind it does not seem so important that we know exactly which goddess is being evoked on the artefact under consideration. Without intending to, the artefact, due to its physical condition, leads the modern researcher to directly confront the intricacies of ancient Egyptian beliefs.

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The IbisAnimal cults

An examination of the place of the ibis in ancient Egyptian life also leads to religion. Ibises were seen as the personification of the god Thoth (figure 10), the god of learning and wisdom and scribe to the gods. He was known as the lunar deity and could also be seen in the baboon. (Tyldesley 2010)

Figure 10: Thoth (BBC 2011b)

Animals had a cultic role in Egyptian society and were worshiped as the god's manifestation. Their cults held a number of functions including dream interpretation, telling of oracles and the curing of ailments. A Late Egyptian papyrus indicates that all animals of a specific colour would be attributed to a certain god and that the god could transform themselves into the animal’s shape. For this transformation to occur at a local level special, sacred animals were required as hosts. With ibises, living birds would be chosen, according to their markings, from legally protected flocks at a local body of water. The birds would be kept somewhat tame through feeding and care. Birds could also be breed in a temple area called the ibiotropheion and were incorporated into religious displays in a number of ways:

ibises would announce the coronation of the king when released into the air

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individuals birds would appear in temple processions as symbols of the visible power of Thoth

during festivals the god would appear at the temple in the form of a walking ibis on a standard pole along with other animal gods

living birds and baboons would be shown on feast days in the 'window of appearance' near the temple

(Ikram 2004; Ikram 2005)

Mummification

The relationship between animals and humans went beyond life into death. Animals would be mummified to allow for eternal life. Pets could be buried in their owner’s tombs and sacred animals in their own tombs. Inscribed stelae from Saqqara indicate that the mummification process for animals closely followed that of humans. Many animals were mummified including shrews, falcons, crocodiles, cats, fish, dogs, snakes and monkeys. (David 2000; Ikram 2004; Ikram 2005)

There were four types of mummified animal (Ikram 2004; Ikram 2005): Victual – this unusual genre consists of poultry or joints of meat

mummified and put in tomb to provide food for humans in the afterlife Pets - these could be working animals or pampered ones. Some had

elaborate burials and their own offerings such as favourite food and belongings

Sacred – these animals were worshipped during their life and mummified upon death to great ceremony. It was believed that the spirit of the god would enter the body of an animal with special markings and on that animal's death would move to another with special markings. Such animals commanded the same respects as Pharaohs and included the Sobek crocodile at Kom Ombo and the Apis Bull at Saqqara

Votive – these animals were dedicated as mummified offerings at shrines. Pilgrims could purchase a mummy and say a prayer as they offered it to their god. Votive animals were often bred in captivity and killed for the temple. Some votive mummies appear to be fake and contain nothing or only bones or feathers of the animal. Perhaps it was believed that the part represented the whole or priests duped pilgrims into buying fakes or turnover became so high they could no longer supply the whole animal. After purchase, mummies would be kept in storage until brought out at festival time and taken, by procession, for burial en masse. Millions of animals have been found in such catacombs. Four million ibises were buried in the Saqqara ibiotapheion (resting place of the ibis) alone

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The mummified ibis UC30690 would have been a votive offering, probably mummified within a temple precinct. A workshop for the mummification of ibises was discovered at Tuna el-Gebel were various methods had been employed. The body was desiccated to draw out the fluids and once dry it was covered inside and out with oils or resin, then wrapped in linen bandages (figure 11). Another method was the immersion of live birds in vats of melted resin or bitumen. Some ibis remains suggest the birds may have been strangled first then immersed in or painted with these substances before being wrapped. This explains some of the poor preservation of bird mummies. (De Moor 2008; Ikram 2005)

Figure 11: Mummified ibis from Abydos (Whittemore 1914, 248)

X-rays show that some bird mummies were injected with terebinth resin, causing the body to dissolve leaving only the bones which were then wrapped in linen. Groups of these were put in pottery vessels and sealed. In the Late and Ptolemaic-Roman periods, when veneration of the ibis was at its peak, mummification was not as carefully performed. Shortcuts may have been due to economics or an increase in the number of animals to be mummified. Birds have a variety of positions in burial. Ibises tend to be sitting with their heads twisted down onto the belly or twisted and pushed onto their back. Wrappings, until Ptolemaic-Roman times were simple but then developed into bi-coloured coffering in square or lozenge patterns (figure 12) or pleats in herringbone patterns. Like UC30690, they could be enhanced with appliquéd images of gods, animals or animal features. (Ikram 2005)

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Figure 12: Mummified ibis elaborately wrapped with rectangular coffered brown and beige bandages (Ikram 2005, 43)

Excavation

Mummy UC30690 was excavated at Saqqara. This is the location of the first pyramid and the burial place of the pyramid’s architect Imhotep. He was a popular figure who was deified two thousand years after his death as a god of medicine. He came to acquire the attributes of Thoth and the title “First Chief One of the Ibis”. Saqqara was to become the focus of the cult of Imhotep. (Emery 1965; Ikram 2005; Ray 1978)

In 1964-65 W.B. Emery began excavations at Saqqara with the hope of finding the tomb of Imhotep. The area included tombs of the Third Dynasty along with pottery fragments from the much later Ptolemaic-Roman periods. To Emery this suggested a place of pilgrimage. Initially a large tomb was uncovered, the top of which had been used for bull burials in later times. The main burial shaft (figure 13) revealed one bull burial and, beneath that, layers of ibis mummies in lidded jars:

“From their general appearance all products of the same factory” (Emery 1965, 4)

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Figure 13: Emery’s initial excavations at Saqqara. (Emery 1965, 5)

More than 500 jars were examined, with some having demotic text on the inner lids. Many were decorated with appliquéd designs (figure 14) including Thoth, Imhotep, baboons and ibises. Hundreds of mummies were uncovered in adjoining areas and more tombs were revealed, suggesting an area comprised of streets of funerary monuments from the Old Kingdom. The area had been levelled in the Ptolemaic period and spaces between monuments filled with rubble to form a large, flat area where layers of broken ibis mummies were placed. With them were votive pottery, incense burners, faience amulets and wooden deities of Isis, Osiris and Hathor. The south burial shaft included galleries filled with thousands of ibis jars. Side galleries had been packed with ibis then sealed off with mud and gypsum plaster (figure 15). (Emery 1965)

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Figure 14: Appliquéd decorations (Emery 1965, Plate V)

Figure 15: South Ibis Galley. (Nicholson 1994, Plate II)

In 1965-66 ibis jars in other galleries were revealed stacked in original positions and more than a hundred varieties of wrapping decorations were noted. The ibis hypogeum was much larger than originally thought but excavation was discontinued due to the unstable structure of the galleries. Later excavations uncovered:

temple documents, written on linen or demotic ostraca

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administrative and domestic buildings and furnishings votive objects of bronze, wood and stone a burial installation for the Mother Cow of the Apis Bull the remains of a small Christian monastic settlement above the site of a

previous temple dedicated to Isis galleries of falcon mummies which, like the ibis, were beautifully wrapped

and placed in pottery jars and separate baboon galleries a stela written in black ink, showing ibis and falcon on opposite sides of a

table. The confirmed date of 89BC provided written evidence that the cult of Imhotep was associated with ibises and falcons

(Emery 1966; Emery 1967; Emery 1969; Emery 1971; Martin 1973; Ray 2005)

Emery’s excavations prompted study into the animal cults of the Late and Ptolemaic-Roman periods, revealing that the mummified ibis, along with other animals, had a place within a complex system of religion and belief that spanned thousands of years. The ibis UC30690 was one, of millions, of essential elements in the rituals and practices that accompanied those beliefs in later times.

Conclusion

A broad look at the chaine operatoire for the linen wrapped, mummified ibis UC30690, has brought together a number of aspects of ancient Egyptian society, including:

the linen industry and the role of textiles in religious practices the role of animals in ancient life the process of mummification an introduction to the complexities of ancient Egyptian mythology how religious beliefs were expressed in practice

This essay has shown that an examination of one object can reveal a great deal about the culture and time in which it was made. The issues explored in this essay are presented as introductory and there is room for detailed study on all the aspects discussed. There are also a number of further questions that could be explored and some suggestions follow:

what is the dark substance painted on as appliqué decoration? is the glue that is visible on the appliqué ancient or modern? is the bird inside complete or partial? [The Petrie Museum has performed

x-rays but the results are, as yet, unseen.] what comparative examples exist for pleating and appliqué techniques in

ancient Egyptian textiles?

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is it possible to quantify linen quality in alignment with the Egyptian categories of royal linen, fine thin cloth, thin cloth and ordinary cloth?

what can the documental evidence from Saqqara tell us about those who lived on site and the pilgrims who travelled there to make dedications?

how do the ibis mummies and galleries at Saqqara compare to ibis finds at other sites?

at Saqqara it appears that the animal galleries were specifically created around older, pre-existing structures. Why?

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