Linguistic Theory

Linguistic TheoryLinguistic Theory

Lecture 1Lecture 1

Introduction:Introduction:

Linguistic Theory and TheoriesLinguistic Theory and Theories

Course OutlineCourse Outline

• Concentrating mainly on syntaxConcentrating mainly on syntax– But some of the discussion will be of But some of the discussion will be of

relevance to other areas of linguisticsrelevance to other areas of linguistics

• We will look at phenomena and theories We will look at phenomena and theories which were designed to themwhich were designed to them

Course OutlineCourse Outline

• The order of presentation will be The order of presentation will be historically oriented:historically oriented:– To understand current ideas, we need to To understand current ideas, we need to

know where they came fromknow where they came from

• You will not end up an expert in any You will not end up an expert in any particular theory – but you will know particular theory – but you will know something about all of themsomething about all of them

Why do we need theory?Why do we need theory?

• Can’t we just observe language and Can’t we just observe language and describe it without bothering with difficult describe it without bothering with difficult things like theories?things like theories?

• No matter what you do, there will always No matter what you do, there will always be a theory behind itbe a theory behind it– The human mind always operates with some The human mind always operates with some

notion of the way the universe works notion of the way the universe works • this may not always be correct and it can be this may not always be correct and it can be

modifiedmodified

– The human mind finds it easier to understand The human mind finds it easier to understand things if we break it down into smaller piecesthings if we break it down into smaller pieces• But before we know something, how do we know But before we know something, how do we know

where to place the divisions?where to place the divisions?

• We don’t – we just guessWe don’t – we just guess

• Guess = theoryGuess = theory

• We don’t have direct access to what we We don’t have direct access to what we are studyingare studying– Most theories of linguistics take a cognitive Most theories of linguistics take a cognitive

perspective:perspective:• Language exists in people’s headsLanguage exists in people’s heads

• Language is ‘rules’ that we know: competenceLanguage is ‘rules’ that we know: competence

– Linguistic knowledge is inaccessible to Linguistic knowledge is inaccessible to introspection and unobservable directly in introspection and unobservable directly in othersothers

– So how do we study stuff that we cannot So how do we study stuff that we cannot observe?observe?

• Language is a ‘black box’ puzzle:Language is a ‘black box’ puzzle:– You can observe what goes in and out of the You can observe what goes in and out of the

box, but you can’t observe what goes on box, but you can’t observe what goes on inside which changes the input to the outputinside which changes the input to the output

– By studying the input and output we can By studying the input and output we can imagine what must be going on insideimagine what must be going on inside

– Imagined processes = theoryImagined processes = theory

A selective History of Linguistic A selective History of Linguistic TheoryTheory

• American structuralism (C1900 – 1960)American structuralism (C1900 – 1960)

• Transformational Grammar (1957 – 1964)Transformational Grammar (1957 – 1964)

• Standard Generative Theory (1964 – 1980)Standard Generative Theory (1964 – 1980)

• Government and Binding TheoryGovernment and Binding TheoryGeneralised Phrase Structure GrammarGeneralised Phrase Structure GrammarLexical Functional Grammar (1980 – present)Lexical Functional Grammar (1980 – present)

• Minmalist ProgrammeMinmalist ProgrammeOptimality Theory (1993 – present)Optimality Theory (1993 – present)

American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism

• Two characteristics:Two characteristics:– Very impressed by Behaviourism/EmpiricismVery impressed by Behaviourism/Empiricism– Studied Native American LanguagesStudied Native American Languages

BehaviourismBehaviourism

• Strong empiricist view:Strong empiricist view:– All knowledge comes from experienceAll knowledge comes from experience

• Therefore:Therefore:– Human behaviour is learned from the environmentHuman behaviour is learned from the environment– We can only study what we can observeWe can only study what we can observe

• We cannot observe the mind, so we must assume that it We cannot observe the mind, so we must assume that it does not existdoes not exist

• We can observe the environment and behaviour, so let’s We can observe the environment and behaviour, so let’s assume this is all that existsassume this is all that exists

• Behaviourism was the only school of psychology Behaviourism was the only school of psychology to define away its subject matterto define away its subject matter

Structuralists and Empiricism Structuralists and Empiricism

• We can only study what we can observeWe can only study what we can observe• We can observe soundWe can observe sound

– So we can study phoneticsSo we can study phonetics• If we assume that phonology is based on If we assume that phonology is based on

phonetics, we can study phonology toophonetics, we can study phonology too• If we assume that morphology is based on If we assume that morphology is based on

phonology, we can study morphologyphonology, we can study morphology• If we assume that syntax is based on morphology, If we assume that syntax is based on morphology,

we can study syntaxwe can study syntax• We can’t study semantics – leave that to We can’t study semantics – leave that to

philosophersphilosophers

• Therefore:Therefore:– The unit of phonology (phoneme) is a The unit of phonology (phoneme) is a

collection of phones (observable) and collection of phones (observable) and distinguished in terms of the distribution of distinguished in terms of the distribution of phonesphones

– The unit of morphology (morpheme) is a The unit of morphology (morpheme) is a combination of phonemes and distinguished combination of phonemes and distinguished in terms of distributionin terms of distribution

– The unit of syntax (word) is a combination of The unit of syntax (word) is a combination of morphemes, distinguished by distributionmorphemes, distinguished by distribution

Strucuralists and Native Strucuralists and Native AmericansAmericans

• There were not many native Americans left There were not many native Americans left by 1900 and their languages were by 1900 and their languages were disappearing fastdisappearing fast

• There was therefore and urgent need to There was therefore and urgent need to record their grammarsrecord their grammars

• American languages were very different from American languages were very different from Indo-European languages and it was thought Indo-European languages and it was thought that classical linguistic concepts did not applythat classical linguistic concepts did not apply

• So what was needed was a set of ‘field So what was needed was a set of ‘field tools’ that could be applied to any tools’ that could be applied to any language which would accurately yield language which would accurately yield grammarsgrammars

• As all linguistic units were identified by As all linguistic units were identified by distribution patterns, distribution was the distribution patterns, distribution was the most important ‘discovery procedures’ to most important ‘discovery procedures’ to produce a grammarproduce a grammar

Generative LinguisticsGenerative Linguistics

• 1952 Chomsky started to develop another 1952 Chomsky started to develop another view of languageview of language

• 1957 published first book – very influential1957 published first book – very influential– But didn’t openly criticise StructuralismBut didn’t openly criticise Structuralism

• 1959 published a critical paper of 1959 published a critical paper of BehaviourismBehaviourism– Caused the collapse of BehaviourismCaused the collapse of Behaviourism– Structuralism soon followedStructuralism soon followed

Basic IdeasBasic Ideas

• Rationalist approachRationalist approach– The mind exists and can be studiedThe mind exists and can be studied– Some knowledge comes from the mind itselfSome knowledge comes from the mind itself

• Discovery procedures are foolish and Discovery procedures are foolish and limitinglimiting– You get your data from wherever you can find You get your data from wherever you can find

it (not limited to observable data – i.e. Intuition it (not limited to observable data – i.e. Intuition also acceptable)also acceptable)

• The notion of structure staysThe notion of structure stays– Words group into phrasesWords group into phrases– Phrases group into sentencesPhrases group into sentences

• New type of rule for producing structureNew type of rule for producing structure– S S NP VP NP VP

• A set of such rules makes a Phrase A set of such rules makes a Phrase Structure GrammarStructure Grammar– Grammar is a set of rules that are part of the Grammar is a set of rules that are part of the

mindmind

• But phrase structure rules are not enough But phrase structure rules are not enough to describe human languagesto describe human languages– Discontinuous constituentsDiscontinuous constituents

• [A man with blue eyes] walked into a shop[A man with blue eyes] walked into a shop

• [A man] walked into a shop [with blue eyes][A man] walked into a shop [with blue eyes]

• To describe this phenomena we need To describe this phenomena we need transformationstransformations– Rules which alter structures to form other Rules which alter structures to form other

structures (e.g. By moving things about)structures (e.g. By moving things about)

Generative grammar and Generative grammar and language acquisitionlanguage acquisition

• From a rationalist perspective, knowledge From a rationalist perspective, knowledge of language could be innateof language could be innate

• But clearly this is not totally true as there is But clearly this is not totally true as there is more than one languagemore than one language

• Chomsky supposed that some aspects of Chomsky supposed that some aspects of language are innate but some are learnedlanguage are innate but some are learned

• Language learning must be easyLanguage learning must be easy– Children do it in about 5 years with no formal Children do it in about 5 years with no formal

instructioninstruction

• But transformational grammars which are But transformational grammars which are capable of describing even basic linguistic capable of describing even basic linguistic facts were very complicatedfacts were very complicated

• How can we square these facts?How can we square these facts?

Developments of the 1970sDevelopments of the 1970s

• The way to account for language The way to account for language acquisition is to assume that grammars acquisition is to assume that grammars are limitedare limited– You can’t just suppose any kind of ruleYou can’t just suppose any kind of rule

• Therefore the focus was not on what we Therefore the focus was not on what we can do with transformation, but what we can do with transformation, but what we can’tcan’t– ConstraintsConstraints


• Principles and ParametersPrinciples and Parameters– PrinciplePrinciple

• UniversalUniversal

• InvariantInvariant

• InnateInnate

– ParameterParameter• A limited number of choicesA limited number of choices

• Needs linguistic data to setNeeds linguistic data to set

• ModularityModularity– Principles and parameters seemed to group Principles and parameters seemed to group

into a small number of components, each of into a small number of components, each of which addresses specific linguistic which addresses specific linguistic phenomenaphenomena

– Thus the grammatical system was seen as Thus the grammatical system was seen as constructed from a set of simple modules constructed from a set of simple modules which interact in complex wayswhich interact in complex ways

– Thus the grammar is simple, but capable of Thus the grammar is simple, but capable of providing complex analysesproviding complex analyses


• CompetitionCompetition– non-absolute grammaticalitynon-absolute grammaticality– Grammaticality based on the ‘best’ of several Grammaticality based on the ‘best’ of several

optionsoptions– E.g. E.g.

• It is better to not move than to moveIt is better to not move than to move

• It is better to move short distances than long onesIt is better to move short distances than long ones

• What does the grammar manipulate?What does the grammar manipulate?– From structuralism we have always assumed From structuralism we have always assumed

that words are the basis of syntaxthat words are the basis of syntax– But transformational analyses started to But transformational analyses started to

discover that units smaller than words discover that units smaller than words undergo syntactic processes:undergo syntactic processes:• He He isis always sad always sad• He always phoneHe always phoness his mother his mother

– Some have suggested that this leads to a Some have suggested that this leads to a theory where syntax always manipulates theory where syntax always manipulates items smaller than the word and that words items smaller than the word and that words are constructed by syntaxare constructed by syntax

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Linguistic Theory