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Literacy: A Developmental Perspective for Educators
The stages of development and components of intervention
Question #1
Timothy is in the 2nd grade. It is January. He is identified as “yellow” in DIBELS. Which statement best fits:
a.Reading fluency is 42 words per minute.b.He is unable to decode.c.Comprehension of written text is 40%.d.No way to tell from the data.e.I have no idea.f.Where are the snacks?
Question #2
Bernice is in the 7th grade. She is given grade level materials to read but it takes her a long time to read them. She then answers verbal questions on the material with 20 – 30% accuracy. What do you think is the “problem”?
a.The reading problem may be decoding but more likely it is fluency or comprehension.b.She is in the 7th grade! The problem is comprehension.c.If the problem is not comprehension then it could be vocabulary or motivation.
Question #3
Mr. Thompson is reading to his kindergarten class. The book is great; it has large words and pictures. At the end of the reading he asks students verbal questions.
a.He is working on reading comprehension.b.This is a vocabulary exercise.c.The major objective is print awareness.d.The best answer is not listed.
Basic points
• There are distinct but overlapping stages in reading development.
• Reading instruction must take into account these stages!
• Instruction must proceed hierarchically and developmentally regardless of the age of the student (even adults).
What are these stages?
Literacy Development
Saying First Word
Putting 2 Words
Together
Phono-logical
AwarenessPhonemic Awareness
Decoding (Phonics) Fluency
Compre-hension
Functionally Literate
12 months 24 months 2 – 4 years 6 years 6- 7 yearsEnd of 2nd
Grade 3rd Grade 4th to 5th grade
Words are taking the place of pictures in the mind. Thinking symbolically
Children want to express meaning using early sentences
Understands that spoken words are made up of individual sounds
Understands that letters represent sounds
The child is well on the way towards knowing the relationship between letters and sounds
Reading fluency at the start of 2nd grade is ~42 wpm. By the end of 2nd it is ~90 wpm
Student is learning comprehension strategies
The student has transitioned from “learning to read” to “reading to learn”
The Essential Components of Literacy
1. Phonological Awareness2. Decoding3. Fluency4. Comprehension5. Vocabulary
Phonological Awareness
Decoding (Phonics)
Fluency
Comprehension
Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary ------- Reading Vocabulary/Written Vocabulary
K 1st 2nd 3rd
Vocabulary Development
Birth 12 months 4-5 years
Receptive Vocabulary
Expressive Vocabulary
Reading Vocabulary
Written Vocabulary
Phonological Awareness
Phonological Awareness: Different skills are included in phonological awareness. (AKA: emergent literacy)
Phonological awareness (basic): The understanding that words are made up of different sounds. (3-4 years of age).
Phonemic awareness (a type of phonological awareness): The understanding that sounds (phonemes) link to letters (graphemes). (5 years of age)
Also included: blending, segmenting, early rhyming and others
Decoding and Encoding
Encoding: The rules that govern how graphemes are linked to create words.
Decoding: The rules that govern how words can be translated to phonemes.
Phonics: The training of encoding and decoding.
Each language has a code. English has a rather complicated code compared to many other languages (e.g., Japanese).
Fluency
Fluency: Reading speech and agility. Includes:
• Speed• Accuracy• Prosody (following the rules of intonation)
Norms: Fluency has well-established norms.
We will look at the norms more closely in a
moment.
Comprehension
Comprehension: Assigning meaning to text. It is influenced by:
• Ability to decode unknown words• Vocabulary knowledge• Background knowledge• Reading fluency• Motivation and reading self-efficacy
Questions
1. Are you working on reading comprehension in Kindergarten?
2. What happens if you provide a comprehension intervention for a student “stuck” in a decoding stage?
3. What is the point of doing a reading/literacy screening?
Norms
• Norms exist for each reading skill.
• Norms for reading show what skill is expected at what age and how adept the child should be at that age.
• Norms take into account the developmental range often in units of standard deviation.
• Here are some examples:
5th Grades Skills: Norms and Growth
Weekly Growth Rates
SKILLFall to Winter
Winter to Spring
Identify Sight Words (See to Say) 1.1 1Identify Words in a Passage (See to Say) 0.17 1.2Spelling (Hear to Write) 0.16 0.14
Norms
SKILLFall to Winter
Winter to Spring
Identify Sight Words (See to Say) 97 107.6Identify Words in a Passage (See to Say) 134.3 152Spelling (Hear to Write) 9.2 10.8All items are based on correct responses per minute.
Fluency: Hasbrouck and Tindal Norms
Grade PercentileRate (CWPM)Time Growth
Where would a 7th grader be at the 50th percentile in
the Spring?
Why Norms?
• Norms reflect normal development.• The curriculum should be based on norms.• Norms provide a measure of status and growth.
• Establish interventions based on norms.• Determine effectiveness of instruction.
Questions: 1.If a child is one standard deviation behind at the
start of 4th grade and she makes a year’s growth, what will her status be at the end of the school year?
2.How much growth is needed in one year to close this gap?
Growth Patterns
Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness
Note the steep growth curve
especially through age 9
years.
3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge
Skill
Typical Child Development
Current (National) Status for Children 1 Year Below Age Level
Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness
3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge
Skill
>1 year below
Typical Child Development
NAEP•34% below basic at 4th grade•32% below basic at 8th grade•78% graduation rate
Cohort of poor performers
Student C
Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness
3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge
Skill
>1 year below
Typical Child Development
Student C
What can we say about Student C?
1. Growth trajectory is steeper than normal.
2. Gap is closed by 50%.
3. It will take two years to close gap.
Student C: What it takes!
Kindergarten 1st Grade
Step 1: Screen
Step 2: Intervene
Step 3: Progress Monitor
Step 4: Modify Plan as Needed
Keys to Success:
•Screen early•Link data to development•Identify proven intervention(s)•Progress monitor frequently
Let’s Reflect
• 28% of American students enter school more than 1 year below age level.
• Skills (e.g., literacy, numeracy, behavior) are developmental in nature
• Curriculum not in line with development is a problem! (NAEP scores)
• Interventions must be linked to skill developmental level and be effective.
Interventions: Are they any good?
Student C: - 1 SD
Question: In units of standard deviation, how much gain does this student need to be at average by the end of the year?
Effect Size: A measure of effectiveness in units of SD.
Example: Read 180
Researched through http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Topic.aspx?sid=8(Search for “What Works Clearinghouse”)
Analysis:Effect Size and Percentile GainsFluency Comprehension0.0* .4 (average 4%ile points)
Questions:1.Would you use Read 180 for fluency intervention?2.How long would it take a student to close a gap?
Key Points on Interventions
• Research-based vs. Proven Practices: • The mandate is to use research-based practices.
• Research-based means that there exists some evidence that the practice has worked.
• Effect Size: • Look for a reported effect size or percentile growth before investing (funds or energy).
• Effect size = .4 or greater, Percentile = 7 points or greater
Use the right medicine!
Progress-Monitoring: Example
9/1 9/10 9/17 9/24 10/2 10/10
Reading Fluency: 3rd grade
71
42
65
Questions:
What is the Aim Line?
Did the intervention work?
Would you continue with the intervention?
Ultimate goal for this student, re: 3rd grade?
Let’s review two slides!
The Essential Components of Literacy1. Phonological Awareness2. Decoding3. Fluency4. Comprehension5. Vocabulary
Phonological Awareness
Decoding (Phonics)
Fluency
Comprehension
Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary ------- Reading Vocabulary/Written Vocabulary
K 1st 2nd 3rd
Summary Points
• Interventions:• Effect size• Progress monitored• Linked to developmental stage
• School needs:• Knowledge about skill development• Deliberate plan to use interventions (PEP as documentation)
• Schedule to support interventions
Just to whet your appetite!
Go to: www.alamancesertoma.com on the School Materials page for this PowerPoint and associated materials.
Middle School Issues
• Curricular Expectation: Students know how to read.
• The curriculum does not include teaching students to read.
• Most middle school teachers do not understand reading development.
• The schedule may not be set up to provide interventions AND who would do it?
• OPTIONS:1. Do nothing2. Create a plan for meeting the needs
What is involved in MS?
• Training on literacy and literacy interventions
• Screening tool • Identify student’s specific needs• Create a plan for meeting those needs
1. 7% decoding2. 72% fluency3. 11% comprehension4. 1% other