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Literacy Guidelines
A Writing Guide
for Key Stage 3
This booklet is designed to remind you of the basic
rules of grammar, punctuation and spelling. It also
offers advice about the different types of writing
you do in school.
Contents
Rules and Reminders page/s
General Rules of Writing in School 1
How to Set Out Your Work 2
Checking Your Writing in Class 3
The Key Terms of Language 4 - 11
Sentences 12 - 15
Capital Letters 16 - 17
Paragraphs 18 - 19
Punctuation 20 - 21
Writing Direct Speech 22
Common Errors 23 - 30
Writing Skills Used in School page/s
Planning and Organising 31
Explaining 32
Describing 33 - 34
Discussing 35
Reflecting and Evaluating 36
Analysing 37
Comparing 38
Writing Styles 39 - 50
Spelling 51 - 55
Reading Skills 56
Speaking and Listening in class 57
Your writing in school should be formal and polite. This means that you
must write in a style that is as accurate and correct as you can make it.
You must always remember that in school you are mainly writing for an
adult audience, so choose your words wisely.
In formal writing, you should not use apostrophes to shorten words,
such as don’t, isn’t, it’s and you’re.
Your writing should not sound like speech. Words that are commonly
used in casual speech, such as gonna, gotten, cos, ain’t and innit, have no
place in the classroom.
Slang terms, such as cool, sick, wicked and lol, should also be avoided
when writing in school. Occasionally, a task may require you to use
slang for a particular audience or purpose but informal language should
otherwise be avoided.
Sentences should not begin with connectives (joining words) such as
but, because, or and and.
Of course, there will be many occasions when teachers encourage you
to write imaginatively - do not hold back! Just remember that the
most imaginative stories are written in a style that is formal, accurate
and polite.
WRITING IN SCHOOL
1
In many subjects, the date must be written on the right hand side of
the page at the start of every new piece of work.
The title of the work must be written in the middle of the page.
If the title is too long to fit neatly alongside the date, write it on
the next line. Both the title and the date must be underlined.
Some subjects may also require you to write either Classwork or
Homework at the start of the work or in the margin.
You may sometimes be required to set out a piece of writing using
sub-headings. These must be written next to the margin and they
must be underlined.
Note: these rules do not apply in Art, where you will use a sketchbook.
HOW TO SET OUT YOUR WORK
Tables, maps and diagrams
In subjects such as Science, Maths and Geography you are required to
draw graphs, charts, tables, maps and diagrams to present information,
data and results. There are important things to remember when
presenting information in this way.
Use a sharp pencil and a ruler to draw straight lines and to
underline headings and sub-headings.
Draw in pencil but write in tables and label maps and diagrams
neatly using a pen.
Use colour where appropriate - a little colour can make maps and
diagrams clearer.
You will need:
eraser pencil sharpener
pencil compass
coloured pencils
ruler
pen
protractor
highlighter pens
2
CHECKING YOUR WRITING IN CLASS
Making corrections
You must check your writing for mistakes before your teacher sees it.
Make sure that each sentence makes sense and that you have used
punctuation correctly. Add missed paragraph breaks using a double
slash (//) and check spellings using a dictionary.
How to use a dictionary to help your spelling
Dictionaries are available in all subject areas for you to use at any
time when you are doing written work.
You should use a dictionary to check spellings that you are unsure
of when you have finished your writing.
Question
“How do I look up a word if I can’t spell it?”
Answer
Firstly, think about the sounds that make up the word.
What sound does the word start with?
Which letter or group of letters could make that sound?
This should direct you to the correct ‘letter’ section of
the dictionary (it is in alphabetical order).
What sound comes next in the word?
This will help you to search through the list of words
in that section until you find the word you need to spell.
With a little ‘trial and error’ you will find the correct word.
If you are still struggling, ask for help.
3
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
Language Term and Function Examples
Noun - the name of something
Common nouns are the names given
to general people, places or things,
e.g. boy, student, school, book.
Proper nouns are the names of
specific people, places or things,
including titles e.g. Kate, Baldock,
Liverpool F.C., Star Wars. Proper
nouns begin with capital letters.
Abstract nouns are the names of
feelings, qualities or ideas that you
cannot see, touch or hear,
e.g. love, bravery, dedication,
honesty, happiness, beauty.
(Nouns that you can see, touch or
hear are called concrete nouns.)
cup
decision
cheeseburger
job
Queen Elizabeth I
person
happiness
Mr Happy
courage
London
Pronoun - used in place of a noun
Pronouns are used to avoid
repetition and to make your writing
flow smoothly.
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me,
my, his, him, her, their, them, us,
our, this, that, herself, himself
4
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
5
Language Term and Function Examples
Noun phrase - a descriptive name
A noun phrase is a group of words
which presents a more descriptive
version of a noun.
Noun phrases can be made by
adding words to nouns to develop
their meaning or be more specific,
e.g. ‘the sandy beach’, ‘my favourite
dress’, ‘a puzzling thought’.
Use noun phrases to be more
expressive in descriptive writing.
the skilful midfielder
my birthday cake
acid rain
some of my friends
the Year 7 disco
old oak tree
Modifier - changes meaning
To modify a word means to change
or develop its meaning, often by
adding more specific detail.
Nouns are often modified
by adjectives.
Verbs are often modified
by adverbs.
‘the happy teacher’ - happy
(adjective) modifies teacher
(noun)
‘the pupil thought creatively’ -
creatively (adverb) modifies
thought (verb)
‘she arrives tomorrow’ - tomorrow
(adverb) modifies arrives (verb).
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
6
Language Term and Function Examples
Adjective - a describing word
An adjective describes a noun
or a pronoun.
Adjectives describe qualities or
characteristics such as texture,
size and colour.
They are used to give a more
detailed picture of the thing being
described.
good, jolly, fast, bright, big,
smart, incredible, beautiful,
vicious, pretty, clever, pink,
smooth, rocky, delicate, vast
The talented artist used
intricate brushwork.
When heated, the
chemicals in the
beaker became very
hot and turned blue.
Verb - a ‘doing’ word
Verbs express:
physical actions - to smile, to write
mental actions - to think, to guess
states of being - to be, to exist
Verbs can be in the present tense
or the past tense.
jump, jumping, jumped, have, had,
do, done, eat, excited, scared,
smile, smiled, smiling, wrote,
writing, dream, dreamt
(‘To be’ = am, are, was, were, is)
The athlete sprinted to the finish.
She considered the problem.
The experiment was a success.
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
7
Language Term and Function Examples
Adverb - used to describe
Adverbs are used to add more
detail to a verb or adjective
by indicating:
how
where
when
frequency - how often / much
They may be considered to
describe the way in which
something is done or the time
in which it happens.
Adverbial - an adverb or phrase
An adverbial is a word or phrase
that describes details such as
time, place and effect.
Adverbials are often separated
by commas.
They can be used to link ideas in
long pieces of writing, such as
essays and science experiments.
place
In the distance,...
From the outside,...
time
We waited as long as we could.
Moments later,...
The bus leaves in five minutes.
effect
Amazingly,...
As a result,...
Interestingly,...
how
quickly, well, really, happily, quite
The goalkeeper played very well.
where
here, there, nearby, everywhere
He looked up and ran back.
when
later, now, early, yesterday, soon
She answered immediately.
frequency
usually, often, sometimes, rarely
They never forget their P.E. kit.
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
8
Language Term and Function Examples
Preposition - ‘how nouns fit in’
A preposition is used with a noun to
show how the noun relates to
something else in the sentence.
Prepositions show direction and
location - where nouns are in
relation to other things,
and time - when things happen.
Prepositions are also used
with pronouns:
She laughed at him.
It is a box for biscuits.
- ‘for’ shows the relationship between biscuits and box
We met after the party.
- ‘after’ shows the relationship between party and met
Prepositions: above, about, across, against,
along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside,
between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, since, to,
toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with, within
Determiner - ‘introduces a noun’
A determiner identifies a noun as a
specific thing or a general thing.
Some examples of determiners are:
articles (e.g. the, a or an)
demonstratives (e.g. this, those)
possessives (e.g. my, your)
quantifiers (e.g. some, every).
the final design
a good result
that day
these reasons
their parents
my best performance
some people
every word
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
9
Language Term and Function Examples
Modal verbs - ‘you must learn this’
Modal verbs are used to show that
something is thought to be certain,
probable or possible.
They also express
ability and obligation.
The main modal verbs are:
will, would, can, could, may, might,
shall, should, must and ought.
They might not think so but
they will love it!
I would like some dessert, please.
They could see the sea.
You may feel a bit silly.
Year 7 can do well in their exams.
You must do your homework.
Active voice / Passive voice
In the active voice, the
subject of a sentence is the
person or thing that performs
the action of the verb.
In the passive voice the action
happens to the subject
of the sentence.
This style is sometimes used in
Science and Technology.
It can sound more formal, focusing
on the process and not the person.
Active voice sentences
The boy kicked the ball.
The school arranged a trip.
The pupils passed their exams.
Passive voice sentences
The ball was kicked by the boy.
A trip was arranged by the school.
The exams were passed by pupils.
Chemicals were mixed together.
The plastic is heated then fed
into a mould.
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
10
Language Term and Function Examples
Cohesion - ‘flow’
Your writing will sound
sophisticated if it flows together
and has ‘cohesion’.
This is when the writing has a
logical structure and makes sense
without being slowed by repetition.
Cohesive devices are words and
phrases that are used to create
the effect of cohesion.
Examples of cohesive devices:
pronouns which refer back to
earlier nouns, e.g. ‘they’
adverbials and adverbs, which
explain when, where or how
things are done. These lead
the reader through a long
description or explanation
connectives, which help to
develop full explanations and give
structure to the writing
A text has cohesion if it is clear
how its parts fit together to
present an overall meaning.
Cohesive devices help to do this.
In the example below, there are
repeated references to the same
thing, and the links between
different parts, such as time,
place and cause, are clear.
A visit has been arranged for
Year 6, to the Mountain Peaks
Field Study Centre, leaving
school at 9.30am. This is an
overnight visit. The centre has
beautiful grounds and a nature
trail. During the afternoon, the
children will follow the trail.
They are advised to wear boots
as it can get muddy.
After breakfast on the
second day, the children will
visit a national park, where they
will have the opportunity to
take photographs. The children
are expected to arrive back at
school at 5.30pm.
THE KEY TERMS OF LANGUAGE
Here are some examples of these words in sentences.
proper noun verb noun
Katie loves animals.
pronoun connective pronoun verb adjective noun
She and I felt great happiness.
pronoun adverb verb preposition noun adverb
I always walk to school enthusiastically.
noun phrase modal verb verb proper noun noun preposition
Year 7 pupils should support Liverpool F. C. pride. with
article noun verb preposition article adjective noun
A squirrel scurried across the wet grass.
article adjective noun verb preposition article noun
An interesting thing happened on the bus.
11
adverbial pronoun modal verb verb quantifier noun
After lunch, we will have another lesson.
pronoun verb preposition verb adverbial
We intend to start in half an hour.
pronoun modal verb verb noun phrase adverbial
You may wear summer uniform next week.
12
Make your writing interesting and lively by using a variety of
sentences. Use short sentences to present points and ideas in a
more punchy, direct way. Longer sentences should be used to
explain or describe things in more detail.
Different types of sentence:
1. Simple sentence
A simple sentence contains a subject (the person or thing
involved in the action) and a verb (action word). Many simple
sentences also contain an object (the person or thing receiving
the action).
A simple sentence expresses a complete thought.
The cat sat on the mat.
2. Complex sentence
A complex sentence contains more detail.
i. Add extra information between two commas:
The cat, which was feeling tired, sat on the mat.
ii. Add detail at the beginning or end, using a comma:
Feeling tired, the cat sat on the mat.
The cat sat on the mat, feeling tired.
SENTENCES
iii. Add detail starting with a subordinating connective:
The cat sat on the mat because he was tired.
The extra detail added in a complex sentence is called a
subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses do not make sense on
their own.
3. Compound sentence
A compound sentence is two simple sentences joined by a
coordinating connective: and, but, so, or, for, yet, nor.
For example, these two simple sentences can be joined:
The cat sat on the mat. It purred as it drifted off to sleep.
The cat sat on the mat and purred as it drifted off to sleep.
Developing descriptive sentences
Add detail to a sentence using adjectives and adverbs.
The lazy cat, which was feeling tired, sat on the warm, fluffy
mat and purred quietly as it drifted off to sleep.
Be more creative by changing the word order and vocabulary.
Feeling very sleepy, the lazy cat slumped gently onto the warm,
fluffy mat and purred quietly as it drifted into a deep slumber.
13
Connectives are important words because they join sentences or
parts of sentences together. Connectives help you to add detail
to sentences.
There are two types of connectives:
1. A coordinating connective joins parts of a sentence that
are equally important.
The dog chased the ball and barked.
I have chips for dinner but only on a Friday.
2. A subordinating connective joins parts of a sentence and
also shows the relationship between those parts.
The sky darkened as night fell.
The boy shivered because he was cold.
CONNECTIVES
14
Subordinating connectives
because before after as although if while
unless since though when however until
Coordinating connectives
and but or so for yet nor
The examples below show how you can make your writing more
interesting by changing the way you start sentences.
This is a useful skill when writing to describe, argue, report or explain.
DESCRIPTIVE SENTENCES
Start with a
time
Before, during, earlier, later, since, meanwhile,
whenever, already, until.
Since the start of the
project, we have
discovered some
surprising results.
Start with an
adverb
Adverb: describes a verb - how something
is done.
Cautiously looking out
for traffic, the
children crossed the
road.
Start with
verb + ing
Verb: ‘action’ or ‘doing’
word.
Seeing that the
goalkeeper was out of
position, Charlie shot
from long distance.
Start with
verb + ed
Verb: ‘action’ or ‘doing’
word.
Exhausted from our
climb, we slept soundly
in our tents.
Start with a
place
On, inside, outside, throughout, near,
beyond, among, below, beneath, towards.
Throughout Europe,
people felt the impact
of the Great War .
Start with a
reservation
Although, even if,
whereas, despite, if.
Although opinions vary,
I must agree that
school uniform is
important.
15
Proper nouns always start with a capital letter - the names of
specific people, places, characters, things and organisations:
CAPITAL LETTERS
Capital letters are used to begin sentences and for
the pronoun ‘I’.
E.g. This is how I write accurately.
People
E.g. Gemma William Mo Farrah Mum / Dad *
* Mum and Dad have capitals when they are used as names, e.g.
Where are my socks, Mum? When used generally, the words do
not have capitals, e.g. I played football with my dad.
Groups of People
E.g. British Army Conservative Party Girl Guides
Characters in Books and Films
E.g. Hermione Hamlet Snow White Katniss Everdeen
Places
E.g. Baldock England Europe Trafalgar Square
Nationalities, Religions and their Believers
E.g. English American Christianity Jewish Hindus
16
Schools, Clubs, Companies, Charities, Brands
E.g. The Knights Templar School Liverpool Football Club
Tesco British Gas Google Oxfam Coca Cola
Days, Months, Religious Days (but not seasons!)
E.g. Sunday Tuesday May August Christmas Easter
Capital letters are also used to begin key words in titles:
E.g. Romeo and Juliet The Wind in the Willows
* The first word in a title always begins with a capital letter.
You should use capital letters in this way when writing titles and
headings in your school work.
E.g. The Formation of Glaciers How to Bake a Cake
17
Formal Roles and Titles
E.g. Prime Minister Queen Elizabeth Duchess of Cambridge
Use capitals to begin formal roles or titles that refer to specific
people - these are proper nouns.
E.g. The Headmaster taught us about the Queen of England.
Capital letters are not required when writing about roles or titles
in general terms - these are common nouns.
E.g. Today we learned about kings and queens.
Paragraphs break up your writing so that it is easy to read. They
can be viewed as stepping stones, leading your reader through
your writing. Each step should make a clear point and the steps
should flow together to create a clear path from beginning to
end.
To indicate a new paragraph, start a new line and leave a small
space between the margin and your writing. This is known as
indenting. When typing, you should either leave a line between
your paragraphs or indent.
You must start a new paragraph to show a change of focus in your
writing:
a new point, subject or idea
a change in time
Glaciers once covered large areas of the Earth and shaped the
landscape around them. The legacy of ancient glaciers lives on,
for example in areas such as the Lake District.
There are three processes by which glaciation affects the
landscape: erosion, transportation, and deposition...
‘...I don’ like cats, they make me sneeze. I’ll get yer an owl. All the kids want
owls, they’re dead useful, carry yer post an’ everythin’.’
Twenty minutes later, they left Eeylops Owl Emporium, which had
been dark and full of rustling and flickering, jewel-bright eyes. Harry now
carried a large cage which held a beautiful snowy owl...
PARAGRAPHS
18
a change of place
a new speaker
...she remembered the card tucked into her diary. Thank Heaven the thief
had not removed that! She hailed a cab, and gave the driver the address.
Burton Street was a shabby little place in the neighbourhood of the
British Museum. The door of number 45 was open; a painted sign proclaimed
that W. and F. Garland conducted their business there...
‘It’s on’y a mouse, George.’
‘A mouse? A live mouse?’
‘Uh-uh. Jus’ a dead mouse, George. I didn’ kill it. Honest! I found it.’
‘Give it here!’ said George.
Planning in Paragraphs
Plan each writing task as a sequence of
paragraphs - a clear line of stepping stones.
When planning, make a note of your ideas and
then organise them into paragraph groups.
Your opening paragraph should introduce your main idea in an
interesting but direct way. Your final paragraph should leave
your reader with the feeling that you have covered all the points
and ideas that you wanted to make.
19
Full stops show the ends of sentences.
Commas show pauses in sentences and separate
items in a list.
I like to eat apples, bananas, pears and grapes.
PUNCTUATION
Exclamation marks indicate strong feelings.
That is amazing!
Question marks indicate questions.
Did you enjoy the show?
Colons introduce lists.
You will need: a sleeping bag, clean socks and a packed lunch.
Use them also before an explanation or example.
When Harry discovers that he is a wizard, he feels
excited and confused: ‘Questions exploded inside
Harry’s head like fireworks...’.
Semi colons show a pause between two parts of a long sentence; they
could be separated by a full stop but the semi colon shows that they
are closely linked.
The sun warmed the grass. It was a hot day.
The sun warmed the grass; it was a hot day.
20
Apostrophes have two functions:
1. to shorten words in informal language and speech
(known as contractions)
Apostrophes replace missing letters.
E.g. is not isn’t they are they’re
it is it’s will not won’t
2. to show possession - when something belongs to somebody
The apostrophe points at the owner.
E.g. the boy’s book Mary’s house
Mrs Jones’s dog James’s bag
When something belongs to more than one person, the
apostrophe follows the plural word.
E.g. the children’s toys the girls’ money
the pupils’ essays the men’s toilet
Common errors:
Plural words do not require apostrophes.
Do not write: book’s; coffee’s; day’s etc.
Verbs ending in ‘s’ do not require apostrophes.
Do not write: see’s; need’s; buy’s etc.
PUNCTUATION - APOSTROPHES
21
WRITING DIRECT SPEECH
22
Use speech marks around direct speech.
Use punctuation before the closing speech marks.
e.g. “Good morning.” or “Good morning,” said the teacher.
If the punctuation does not belong to the speech, it goes outside
the speech marks.
e.g. Did you hear him say, “I’ll be back soon”?
Use a comma before speech marks in a sentence.
e.g. James said, “Let’s play football.”
Use a capital letter to start speech unless the speech is
continued in the same sentence.
e.g. The teacher said, “Good morning.”
“Hello,” said the teacher, “how are you?”
a lot / as well / thank you
These are written as two words - they should not be written alot,
aswell or thankyou.
its / it’s
its meaning ‘belonging to it’ has no apostrophe (this breaks
the apostrophe rule)
e.g. The dog chased its ball.
it’s with an apostrophe means ‘it is’ (it helps to always read it
to yourself that way)
e.g. It’s a lovely day.
Use it is in your writing in school unless there is a reason to use
the informal version - it’s.
bought / brought
buy in the past tense is bought (‘b’ sounds)
e.g. I am going to buy some sweets. I bought some sweets.
bring in the past tense is brought (‘br’ sounds)
e.g. You may bring sweets. I brought some jelly beans.
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
23
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
there / their / they’re
there = a place (like ‘where’ and ‘here’)
their = relates or belongs to ‘them’
they’re = a shortened version of ‘they are’ (used in speech)
your / you’re
your = belonging to you
you’re = ‘you are’ abbreviated (in informal language/speech)
wear / where / were
you wear clothes
where refers to a place (it has ‘here’ in it - like ‘there’!)
were = ‘are’ in the past tense.
Many people use ‘could of’ - this is incorrect.
This is because ‘could of’ is often mistaken for ‘could have’ as it
sounds like ‘could’ve’.
The same mistake is made with ‘should have’ - people incorrectly
use ‘should of’.
24
Two, too or to?
The word two refers to the number 2.
The word too should be used to mean:
too much:
= Your hair is too long.
= That is too expensive.
in addition or as well:
= I’d like that one too, please.
= We laughed and the teacher chuckled too.
These meanings relate to something extra, so always remember
the extra ‘o’.
On all other occasions, you should use the word to.
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
Tenses
Most writing in school is in the past tense
I walked to school smiling, it was a sunny day.
You may wish to use the present tense
I am walking to school smiling, it is a sunny day.
Stick to one or the other!
25
advise / advice
advise = verb (an action / something you do)
advice = noun (a thing)
e.g. I advise you to follow my advice.
The same is true of practise / practice.
Practise = verb (something you do)
Practice = noun (a thing)
e.g. ‘I practise my skills at football practice.’
Practice is often used incorrectly
- ‘I need to practice my skills’ is wrong!
‘I need to practise my skills’ is correct - use ‘s’ as it is a verb -
something you do.
affect / effect
affect = verb (an action)
The loud music affected my concentration.
effect = noun (a thing)
The effect of the loud music was disturbing.
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
26
Who, Which or That
Use who when writing about people.
Joe is the boy who ate the chocolates. The man who sold the chocolates is called Bob.
Use which when writing about animals or things.
The chocolates, which were delicious, had soft centres. Joe bought the chocolates, which had soft centres.
It is acceptable to use the word that to refer to people or
things though it is often better to use who or which.
Joe gave Sarah some of the chocolates that he had bought. Joe gave Sarah some of the chocolates which he had bought.
Do not use ampersands / ‘and’ signs - ‘&’
Ampersands are used in a variety of situations:
business names, e.g. Johnson & Johnson
film titles, e.g. Fast & Furious, Batman & Robin
in specific names for things, e.g. R & B (music)
You must not use ampersands in the place of the word ‘and’ in
your writing in school unless you are making rough notes.
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
27
Who’s and Whose
Who’s is a shortened version of ‘who is’. It should only be used in
informal language and speech.
Whose refers to belonging, e.g. Whose chocolates are these?
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
28
lose / loose
‘You might lose a shoe if your lace is loose.’
Lots of people write ‘loose’ when they mean ‘lose’ - take care!
whether / weather
‘Whether or not we go depends on the weather.’
lie / lay
Do not use lay when you should use lie.
To lie means to recline or rest in a flat position.
E.g. I need to lie down on my bed.
To lay means to place something down - the past tense is laid.
E.g. Lay the mat by the door. The hen laid an egg.
I am going to lay down.
I am laying on my bed.
I am going to have a ‘lay in’.
I am going to lie down.
I am lying on my bed.
I am going to have a ‘lie in’.
Try hard to avoid these common errors but
don’t be afraid to make mistakes (we all do).
When you need help...
ask a teacher!
Fewer and Less
Use few and fewer to describe things you can count individually.
Use less to describe things that cannot be counted.
E.g. Australia scored fewer runs than England in the first
innings and so have less chance of winning the match.
To develop a healthy lifestyle the children promised to do
more exercise and eat less chocolate.
There are fewer students in school today.
This rule is followed correctly in this extract from a review of
the McLaren P1 sports car:
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID
29
‘... the body is made from just five
panels, which means less glue and
fewer bolts are needed to hold it
all together.’
When talking, avoid double negatives
I haven’t done nothing.
It ain’t no good.
It doesn’t make no sense.
I don’t want to go nowhere.
I can’t see nothing.
I haven’t done anything.
It is no good.
It doesn’t make sense.
It makes no sense.
I don’t want to go anywhere.
I can see nothing.
I can’t see anything.
COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID WHEN SPEAKING
Choose the correct verb form
Look what I done.
We was going to...
Look what I did.
We were going to...
I was going to...
Do not use slang in a formal situation (such as in class)
30
When you write a long piece of writing such as a report, a
description or an essay, you must plan your ideas first.
This means:
gathering ideas to write about
developing detail to make your writing interesting
organising your thoughts into an effective order or sequence to
make them easy to follow.
When you plan, focus on the important features of your writing task.
What do you know about the subject or topic? How can you
develop your ideas by linking them to other points?
Do you have to write in a particular style or remember to use any
subject specific words?
PLANNING & ORGANISING
The most popular ways to plan are:
Spider diagram List of bullet points
Organising and sequencing
Number your points and ideas to organise your writing into a logical
sequence or flow.
Use time connectives such as:
Firstly Next Then After that
Meanwhile Eventually Later Finally
31
A successful explanation allows the reader to understand an issue,
process or idea. Writing to explain means stating clearly:
why or how something happened
why or how you felt a particular way
A clear explanation requires lots of detail. Try to sound like you are
knowledgeable and ‘in charge’ - use technical or subject specific
language where appropriate but make sure that meanings are clear.
EXPLAINING
Useful words to explain why and how:
...because... ...as... ...so... Consequently,...
Therefore... Since... Due to... As a result...
Useful phrases:
This happened because... I felt a little happier after...
As a result of this... This was due to... For example...
What this meant was... As a consequence of this...
In addition to... This is shown by... Firstly... / Finally...
E.g. In History, you may be required to explain the causes of the
First World War.
E.g. In Science, you may be asked to explain the process of
photosynthesis.
E.g. In English, you may be asked to explain how a writer’s use of
language creates a particular effect.
32
We experience the world through our senses, so to describe something
well you must put into words everything that your senses experience in
that situation - what you see, hear, smell, touch or taste.
When you write to describe, you must focus on the important features
of the thing you are describing. Personal description should also
include comments about your feelings and emotions.
Tips:
1. Use language (describing words) to be specific.
For example, consider the different meanings created by the following
adjectives that describe the temperature:
By choosing different words, you can create different effects. You
must always try to choose words that allow your reader to imagine
exactly what you are aiming to describe.
DESCRIBING
warm stifling
balmy scorching
toasty blistering
E.g. In Geography, you may be required to describe the appearance
of and conditions within a rainforest.
E.g. In Science, you may be asked to describe what happens in a
chemical reaction.
E.g. In History, you may be asked to describe what life was like in
19th Century Britain.
33
2. Be more creative by using images to describe things.
Similes
A simile is an image that is used to describe something by comparing it
to something else using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’.
This is useful in descriptive writing because it allows you to focus on an
important feature of the thing you are describing.
For example:
If you want to describe the night sky focusing on how
beautiful it looks to you, you might say that the moon and
stars sparkle like diamonds.
It wouldn’t actually be true but the image chosen would help the reader
to see what you want them to see.
Metaphors
A metaphor is an image that describes something as something else.
The image chosen focuses the reader on a particular feature of the
thing being described.
For example:
If you want to make it clear that you have a
busy evening of exhausting school work ahead,
you might say that you face a mountain of
homework.
It wouldn’t actually be true, you would be using an image to express how
much you have to do. The ‘mountain’ metaphor would also suggest how
you feel at facing so much work!
DESCRIBING
34
The aim of a discussion is to help your reader to understand different
points of view by exploring all sides of a subject or issue.
A discussion should give a balanced view, weighing up positives and
negatives or considering different opinions in a fair and equal way.
The points you make in a discussion should be considered thoroughly
and explained clearly. Where possible you should expand your points by
linking them to other ideas which develop your point of view.
Although a discussion may include your personal opinions, it should be
written in a formal style.
DISCUSSING
E.g. In PSHCEE, you may be required to explore the different views
people have about how to cope with bullying.
E.g. In R.E., you may be asked to discuss different religious beliefs.
E.g. In History, you may be asked to discuss the positive and
negative impact of the Industrial Revolution.
Useful words and phrases to present a discussion:
On the one hand... On the other hand...
It could be said that... However, it could also be said that...
One point of view is that... Alternatively...
There is some evidence that... Equally, evidence suggests that...
Some people feel strongly that... Despite this...
Whereas many people believe... Others believe that...
It could be argued that... Research shows...
35
To reflect on and evaluate something means to think carefully about its
effectiveness before picking out constructive points about its positive
and negative features.
The purpose of writing to reflect and evaluate is to help you to learn
from a particular process or experience.
Through reflection, you should be able to make sense of what you did
and why, and perhaps help yourself to do it better next time.
REFLECTING & EVALUATING
E.g. In D&T, you might reflect on a practical project by thinking
about the process you have been through to create a product.
You could then evaluate the process by considering its strengths
and weaknesses before thinking about what you would do
differently next time.
E.g. In Science, you might reflect on an experiment you have
performed and evaluate what you learned from it.
E.g. In P.E. or Drama, you might reflect on your performance and
evaluate what you can improve and how.
When reflecting you should consider questions such as:
what were the important steps necessary for the success of the
project, process or performance?
what actually happened at each stage?
what skills were you required to demonstrate?
When evaluating you should consider questions such as:
how successful was each stage in the process or performance?
what skills did you demonstrate successfully and what do you
need to improve?
36
Writing to analyse means that, like a detective, you must
examine something closely and explain in detail what you
discover.
When you write to analyse you must show that
your understanding of something is clear.
Your writing must include lots of references to the details of
what you are analysing. When analysing a text, you should
include quotations (words and phrases from the text) to
support the points you are making about it.
ANALYSING
E.g. In English, you may be required to analyse an author’s
presentation of a particular character.
To do this well, you would have to think about how the author
has used language to describe the character. When writing
about this, you should include quotations from the text and
examine what the words and images tell the reader.
E.g. In Science, you may be required to analyse a set of data
produced by a research project or experiment. When writing
about this, you should comment on specific details from the data
and explain what they show.
When writing to analyse:
spend time gathering evidence.
investigate the evidence by considering what it shows.
come up with a list of key points.
explain what you have found and use evidence to support each
point.
37
In many subjects you will be required to analyse more than one thing
and then compare them. Your teachers will help you to examine the
specific features of each thing before asking you to compare them
with each other.
COMPARING
E.g. In Music, you might compare two pieces of music.
E.g. In Art, you might compare paintings by different artists.
E.g. In P.E., you might compare the body positions and techniques of
athletes.
E.g. In Technology, you might compare two designs when planning a
project.
Useful words and phrases when comparing:
38
Whereas...
By contrast,
Compared to...
However,
On the other hand,
Similarly,
Although...
In the same way...
In addition,
Equally,
In comparison with...
This is shown by...
Alternatively,
Contrastingly,
Specifically,
In particular,
As a whole,
In conclusion,
When comparing, try to describe things in as
much detail as possible and use technical
terms from the subject where appropriate.
Writing in the First Person, Second Person and Third Person
An important feature of the writing you do around the school is
whether it is written in the first person, second person or the third
person. In all subjects, most tasks require you to write in the third
person, but it is important to know the differences between them.
Writing in the first person means writing about yourself, in your
own voice or in role, using the pronouns ‘I’, ’me’, ‘we’, ’us’ etc.
You would use the first person when writing letters, diaries and
reports or recounts about things you have done.
Writing in the second person means using the pronouns ‘you’ and
‘your’, as the writing is addressed directly to the reader.
You would use the second person when writing information texts
such as instruction leaflets or guide books, advertisements and
blogs.
Writing in the third person means writing about other people,
using the pronouns ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘they’, ‘them’ etc.
You would use the third person when writing about other people
such as historical figures or characters in books.
WRITING STYLES ACROSS THE SCHOOL
39
As you experience different subjects, you will find that you are
required to write in slightly different styles.
The following pages offer general advice about the most common types
of writing that you do in school, such as answering questions to show
your understanding.
It is important to learn the specific writing requirements of each
subject. You may be required to know how to spell important words in a
subject, or how to set out your writing in a particular way.
WRITING IN ROLE
In some subjects you may be required to write in role, which means
writing in the first person (‘I...’) but not as yourself.
Your aim when writing in role is to show how well you understand a
person or character by writing in their voice to explain their thoughts,
feelings and actions. You must show that you can empathise with the
person, which means that you imagine what it is like to be them to show
your understanding of their feelings in a particular situation.
Examples of writing in role are: diary entries, letters, speeches and
eye-witness accounts. When writing in role, keep general comments to
a minimum and think about the important issues faced by the person or
character. Examples of tasks set in school are:
Consider:
how they are influenced by the time and place in which they live
their relationships with others
their personal ambitions
their position in society (person)
their role in the book or play (character)
how their thoughts and feelings may be mixed or changeable.
in History you might show your knowledge by writing in the role
of an important historical figure, or perhaps a young person
living at a particular time.
in Drama you might write in the role of a character in a play to
investigate their feelings.
in French, German or Spanish you might write in the role and
language of a person from another country.
40
In class, you answer questions to show your understanding. When you
write your answers, they must be clear and to the point.
When you write answers to questions in class, you are generally
required to write full sentences. It is a common mistake for students
to write incomplete sentences when answering questions, often by
starting answers with ‘Because’.
To avoid this, it is a good idea to use the wording of the question to
build a full answer. For example:
ANSWERING QUESTIONS
History
Question: Where did the Great Fire of London start?
Answer: The Great Fire of London started in a bakery in Pudding Lane. Common mistake: In a bakery in Pudding Lane. (The detail is correct here but the answer is written in an incomplete
sentence.)
Science
Question: What is the name of the liquid rock that flows from a volcano?
Answer: The liquid rock that flows from a volcano is called lava. Common mistake: It is called lava. (This is an incomplete sentence that does not make a complete point.)
Geography
Question: Why do rivers flood?
Answer: Rivers flood for reasons such as heavy rainfall, melting snow and the shape of the surrounding landscape. Common mistake: Because of heavy rainfall, melting snow and the shape of the surrounding landscape. (This incomplete sentence does not make sense.)
41
Writing a summary means reducing a longer text or discussion to its
most important points. This is a useful skill both in class and when you
study at home.
In class, you will be expected to be able to summarise ideas that you
have discussed in groups . You may also be required to write a summary
of information you are studying from a text book or the Internet,
focusing on the important details.
At home, you will be required to complete research tasks to develop
your learning. As in school, it is not expected that you simply ‘cut and
paste’ information you find in books or on the Internet. This would not
be a learning experience! Rather, you must read the information you
find carefully to select the most important details, which you should
then write out in your own words.
Writing summaries is also a very useful way to revise - this means
preparing for exams by studying the important points about what you
have learned.
SUMMARY AND RESEARCH
Writing a summary
Read your source material several times and work out what
the writer wishes to convey to the reader. Jot down the key
points as a brief plan.
Write about each point in your own words to show that you
have thought carefully about what you have read and that you
understand it. Try not to use too many exact words and
phrases from the original text.
Group similar points and ideas together into paragraphs.
Write in a style that is direct and to the point. Stick to key
points; avoid using unnecessary descriptive language such as
adjectives and adverbs.
42
You may be required to write in the style of a
newspaper or magazine article in various subjects
to show your understanding of things that you have
studied.
Newspaper and magazine articles present information and ideas about a
topic by focusing on the following important questions:
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
WRITING A NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE
Features of newspaper and magazine articles
Headlines are used to catch the reader's attention - they may use
language features such as rhyme, alliteration and puns.
The first paragraph presents the main point of the story by
describing who was involved and what happened.
The following paragraphs add detail - where, when, why and how.
The paragraphs in these articles are generally short and punchy,
giving information in a clear and concise way.
There are references to what people said, either using direct
speech (the actual words spoken - use speech marks) or reported
speech (a summary of what was said - no speech marks).
These articles are written in the past tense because they refer to
events and ideas which have already taken place.
You may be required to present your article in the style of a
newspaper or magazine, using headlines, subheadings, pictures and
even columns of text.
43
WRITING A FORMAL LETTER
Writing a formal letter
These are the conventions or ‘rules’ regarding the layout of a formal
letter.
The Knights Templar School
Park Street
Baldock
Hertfordshire
SG7 6DZ
Mars Chocolate UK Ltd
Dundee Road
Slough
SL1 4JX
1st September 2014
Dear Sir or Madam,
I am writing to apply for work experience at Mars Chocolate UK. I
am currently studying for A levels in Business, Economics and Maths,
and I plan to apply for Business degree courses at university.
It is my ambition to work for a successful business so I would very
much appreciate the chance to experience all aspects of what makes
Mars Chocolate UK a market leader.
Yours faithfully,
Alice Smith
Your address should go on the
top right hand side of the page.
The address you are
writing to goes here.
Use ‘Sir or Madam’
if you do not know
the name of the
person.
Date
The opening
paragraph
should explain
your reason for
writing. Write in a style
that is formal
and polite.
When typing, leave a space to sign
your letter. Type or write your
name neatly beneath your signature.
Use ‘Yours faithfully’ if you have not
addressed the person by name. If you
have used a name, write ‘Yours sincerely’.
In our modern world of instant messaging and text language, there is
still a place for formal letter writing skills. There are many occasions
when you may be required to write a formal letter, such as applying for
a job or arranging work experience.
As you get older, you may need to write a formal letter to a bank or
a business to request information or even make a complaint!
It is therefore important to learn some general rules.
44
WRITING IN SCIENCE
Writing up experiments in Science
When you write up an experiment or research project
in Science you are required to write in different ways
in order to describe, explain and reflect on the
process. The writing you do in Science depends on
the type of work you are doing but it generally
includes comments in the following areas.
Aim / Prediction
In the ‘aim’ you present the reason for the experiment.
You must describe clearly what you want to test, prove, learn or
discover? Often, an experiment starts with a question that you hope
to be able to answer in the conclusion after you have analysed the
results.
Method
The ‘method’ should describe exactly what happens in the experiment.
It is a bit like a recipe, as it describes each step of the experiment
and includes specific details about what it involves.
Results
When you have observed or measured the results you must present
them in an appropriate way, such as on a table or a chart.
Conclusion
Conclusions may be drawn from the pattern of your results or directly
from what you have measured or observed during the experiment.
45
To help your writing in Science, you will be given writing frames
featuring important spellings and common phrases.
You will also be reminded of the rules of scientific writing such as
always including details about where you found any scientific
information that you refer to in your work, such as particular books or
web pages (quote your sources).
WRITING IN SCIENCE
46
Writing a Method
A method explains exactly how an experiment
is carried out. It should therefore present a
clear sequence of the steps required.
You must write in a voice that is formal and
impersonal, stating precisely what happens at each stage. It is not
appropriate to write about yourself and what you did personally - do
not use ‘I’ or ‘we’ in your writing.
To write a method follow the advice below:
Write in the present tense (see present tense verbs below), as if
writing a list of instructions or a recipe.
Use lots of imperative verbs (’action’ words that tell you to do
something). These are particularly useful for starting sentences:
Take... Put... Pour... Tip... Heat... Stir... Observe...
Use precise language. You must explain exactly how something
was done. Avoid using general statements such as ‘We added some liquid and heated the mixture for a while.’
Use specific language. When writing about measurements you
must refer to the units involved (these may be abbreviated, e.g.
centimetres - cm, millilitres - ml).
Use scientific language and technical terms where appropriate.
The Science department will provide you with lists of key words
and phrases to use in your writing.
Depending on the investigation you are carrying out you may be
required to include an apparatus diagram, safety precautions or
write about variables. These can generally be written or laid out
in a similar way every time so you should listen to your science
teacher as to the best way to do these sections.
Writing up Results
Your results are a description of what you observed during the
experiment. To gather results you must make a note of all relevant
changes and measurements that you observe during an experiment.
You must then formally present the information you have gathered.
If you are presenting your results in writing, your description of your
observations must be specific and detailed. Always include specific
measurements and the units in which they were measured, e.g. cm, ml.
As they are your results, you may also use the first person to write in a
personal style, e.g. ‘We found that...’.
If the data you have collected is in the form of numbers, you may be
required to draw a table, chart or graph to record the results.
You must always choose the right sort of graph that shows the
information you wish to present in the best way, such as a bar chart, a
histogram or a pie chart. Your teacher will give you specific advice
about how to do this, but there are some general guidelines below.
WRITING IN SCIENCE
47
How to Draw a Graph
1. Draw a horizontal (x) axis and a
vertical (y) axis. Create a scale on
each axis by writing the units
(numbers or categories) that you
wish to present along the appropriate
line.
2. Label each axis with the information that is being presented, e.g.
miles per hour, number of students, height above sea level. Where
necessary, add units to each axis label, e.g. mph, metres.
4. Plot the data that you wish to show on the graph.
5. Add a title to the graph and underline it.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Apple Banana Orange Strawberry Pear
Nu
mb
er
of
stu
de
nts
Fruit
Students' Favourite Fruity
x
WRITING IN SCIENCE
48
Writing a Conclusion
Writing a conclusion is the proper way to tell people the meaning of
your results. The points you make in your conclusion must always be
based on evidence found in the results of your experiment.
Unlike the method, it is appropriate to comment on your personal
thoughts in your conclusion using the first person, e.g. ‘Having observed these results, I conclude that...’.
To write a conclusion, follow the advice below:
1.
Describe
your
results
Look carefully over your
graph, table of results or
written observations.
What patterns do you
notice in the results?
Do you notice anything
extreme or unexpected?
Use adjectives that
compare (they often end
‘...er’ or ‘...est’).
E.g. longer, shorter, heavier, greater, hotter, brightest, fastest, slowest. E.g. The brighter the light, the faster the plant photosynthesis.
2.
Explain
your
results
Refer to scientific
knowledge and use
scientific language to
explain your ideas about how
and why you got your
results.
Use phrases such as:
As I predicted... This is because... The reason for this is...
3.
Make a
concluding
comment
Answer the question that
you asked in the ‘Aim’ of the
experiment.
Was your prediction
correct?
Use phrases such as:
To conclude… I conclude that… Overall my experiment shows that… This means that…
49
WRITING IN A DIFFERENT LANGUAGE
Writing in French, German and Spanish
Learning a new language will help you to gain a better understanding of
your own.
Many of the strategies you use to help you to understand and write a
text in English will also help you to do so in a foreign language. Getting
to grips with the grammatical terms (noun, adjective, adverb, etc.) will
be especially helpful along your language learning journey.
There are three areas we consider carefully when marking written
work: communication (content/ideas), quality of language (the range/
variety of vocabulary and structure) and accuracy.
When you write in a foreign language, it is important to ask yourself
the following questions:
1. Communication
Have I included everything?
If there is a checklist, use this to make sure you have covered the
criteria. If not, have a look at a similar text in your textbook. This will
give you ideas.
2. Quality of language
Have I used a variety of...?
A - Adjectives
V - Vocabulary
O - Opinions and justifications
C - Connectives
A - Adverbs
D - Descriptions
O - Original ideas
And finally, remember:
We learn from the mistakes we make. Always look back at marked
work, do your corrections and think about how you can make your next
piece of writing even better.
If you can do this, your writing skills will go from strength to strength!
WRITING IN A DIFFERENT LANGUAGE
3. Accuracy of language
Is my spelling accurate?
Make sure you have the end of unit summary of your
text book open as you write. Check as you go and copy
carefully. Don’t rush! When you have finished, go back
and check through again.
Look out for tricky words and concentrate on these.
Think about the sound and spelling patterns you have
learned in class. Don’t forget accents and symbols,
these are important, too!
Have I used the dictionary properly?
Usually, the language you need will be on the end of unit summary
pages. Occasionally, you will need to look up the odd word.
Rule number one: don’t use Google translate! It is rarely correct and
your teacher will spot it a mile off!
Rule number two: think about what kind of word you want to look up.
If you want the word for ‘book’, are you looking for the noun ‘the
book’ (‘le livre’, in French) or the verb ‘to book’ (a hotel, for instance)
‘réserver’. If it is the verb, remember that it will be in its infinitive
form (to ...) in the dictionary and you will need to change it to match
the person you are writing about.
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To improve your spelling:
1. Learn the words that you commonly spell incorrectly.
2. Refer to subject specific spellings on displays and in text books.
3. Learn some helpful spelling rules and read widely.
SPELLING
Common mistakes
because - ‘big elephants can’t always use small exits’
beginning - double ‘n’ in the middle
business - there is a ‘bus in’ this word
could; would; should - ‘o u lucky duck’ = ‘ould’
definitely - contains the word ‘finite’
desert = place / dessert = pudding (double helpings of ‘s’ for dessert)
does - not ‘dose’
embarrassed / embarrassing - double ‘r’ and double ‘s’
excited / exciting - has ‘exc’
necessary - ‘never eat cakes eat salad sandwiches and remain young’
queue - ’u’ and ‘e’ queue patiently.
responsible - ‘ible’ not ‘able’
rhythm - ‘rhythm has your two hips moving’
sentence - contains ‘ten’
separate - contains ‘a rat’
surprise - has an ‘r’ - ‘surprise’
thought; bought; fought - ‘o u great hairy twit’ = ‘ought’
Eric hated small exits!
51
To learn spelling strategies it is helpful to know that:
vowels are the letters A (a), E (e), I (i), O (o), U (u).
a consonant is any letter that is not a vowel.
HELPFUL SPELLING RULES
‘-full’ endings drop the second ‘l’
careful useful wonderful faithful skilful powerful mouthful spoonful
‘-fully’ endings use double ‘l’
carefully usefully skilfully powerfully
thoughtfully faithfully blissfully boastfully
Notice the sounds that build up words - long words are often
made up of smaller words put together:
e.g. downstairs = down / stairs.
Also: inside = in/side; handwriting = hand/writing;
careless = care/less; inform = in/form;
understand = under/stand.
Look for sound patterns in the words you find difficult, such as
‘business’ = ‘bus - in - ess’ and ‘sentence’ = ‘sen - ten - ce’.
52
HELPFUL SPELLING RULES
Drop ‘e’ before ‘ing’
save - saving taste - tasting
believe - believing chase - chasing
slice - slicing argue - arguing
calculate - calculating respire - respiring
53
‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’
‘i’ before ‘e’
piece believe chief thief priest
achieve friend fried
Exceptions to this rule include:
eight weight height weird seize
except after ‘c’
receive ceiling conceive deceitful deceive perceive
Exceptions to this rule include:
ancient science conscience species sufficient
HELPFUL SPELLING RULES
Use a double consonant after a short vowel sound
In words of more than one syllable, you often need to double the
consonant after a short vowel (that’s the ‘a’ in dad; ‘e’ in beg; ‘i’ in
dig; ‘o’ in hop; ‘u’ in pup).
daddy begging hopping puppy digging
beginning happening suddenly settled
Making words plural (more than one)
For most nouns (things), add ‘s’ to make them plural.
toy - toys message - messages book - books pie - pies
For words ending with a vowel + y, just add ‘s’.
day - days monkey - monkeys boy - boys guy - guys
For words ending with a consonant + y, the ‘y’ becomes ‘ies’.
baby - babies fly - flies celebrity - celebrities
For words ending with ‘s’, ‘ch’, ‘sh’, ‘x’, add ‘es’.
bus - buses lunch - lunches
bush - bushes box - boxes
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HELPFUL SPELLING RULES
More plurals
For words ending in ‘o’, add either ‘s’ or ‘es’.
(There are not many of these, so just learn the most common.)
‘s’ endings
radio - radios ratio - ratios flamingo - flamingos
zoo - zoos photo - photos shampoo - shampoos
‘es’ endings
potato - potatoes volcano - volcanoes
hero - heroes tomato - tomatoes
For words ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’, add ‘ves’.
‘f’ endings
shelf - shelves thief - thieves loaf - loaves
‘fe’ endings
life - lives knife - knives wife - wives
Exceptions to this rule: roofs, chiefs, beliefs, chefs, cliffs.
55
In school, you will often demonstrate your reading skills through
writing tasks. These tasks test your understanding in different ways.
1. Find details to answer questions - information retrieval
This means being able to find (or retrieve) specific details in texts to
answer questions.
2. Come to your own conclusions - inference
This means being able to work out your own ideas and opinions about
something you have read based on details that you find in the text.
In all subjects you are required to work with texts by reading them
several times to understand what they say or analyse how they have
been written. These tasks require different types of reading called
close reading, skim reading and scanning.
Close reading means reading something thoroughly at a steady pace
so that the meaning is clear.
Skim reading means reading quickly to follow the main ideas of a
text without focusing on specific details. It is also used to
understand the structure of a text - how it begins and ends etc.
Scanning means searching for key words or specific details in a
text. In most cases, you scan a text when you know what you are
looking for and are concentrating on finding a particular answer.
To be a good reader, you must be able to concentrate. This takes
practice. To help with this, we expect you to read widely at home.
As well as story books, you should read non-fiction texts such as
newspapers, magazines, biographies, diaries, information books and
online texts.
READING SKILLS
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Speaking and listening are important elements of learning in school.
To speak confidently in lots of different subjects, you need to be able
to adapt the way you speak to different situations.
Show that you are a good listener by concentrating on what is being
said by others and respond appropriately when it is your turn to speak.
The most common speaking and listening tasks are:
SPEAKING AND LISTENING IN CLASS
Presentation
This usually involves giving a short speech on your own or in a group.
You may have to report back about something that you have discussed
or speak formally about a topic that you have prepared in advance.
When presenting, be clear and concise. Use positive body language
such as eye contact and smiling to keep your audience interested.
Discussion
When discussing or debating a topic in class, always try to join in by
making points of your own and commenting constructively and politely
on the comments of others.
In group discussions:
make your own opinions clear
let others present their ideas without interruption
try to draw other people into the conversation
ask open and probing questions to understand the views of others
Role-play
Role-play tasks help you to analyse and understand different people,
situations and points of view. In these tasks, you work in a group to act
out imaginary situations by playing the roles of other people. You do
not speak as yourself; you must think and speak as your character.
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NOTES
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PERSONAL SPELLING LIST
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