Literacy Issues in Focus: Engagement in Reading for Young Adolescents

Literacy Issues in Focus: Engagement in Reading for Young AdolescentsAuthor(s): John T. Guthrie, Solomon Alao and Jennifer M. RinehartSource: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 40, No. 6 (Mar., 1997), pp. 438-446Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40015517 .

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Engagement in

reading for young adolescents

John T. Guthrie Solomon Alao Jennifer M. Rinehart

limmiWlMJI.lMJU From time to time, JAAL will publish articles providing perspectives on a range of literacy issues that warrant special focus. For these focus articles, we will seek the views of literacy educators and researchers who can amplify understanding and in- form practice.

One literacy issue troubling educators in middle and secondary schools is motivation to read. Illustrative of this perplexing problem is a disturb- ing trend: As children move into young adulthood, the strength of their motivation to engage in voluntary reading during their free time declines. In this article, the issue of motivation for literacy is con-

fronted with recommendations for enhancing engagement.

John Guthrie and his associates, including the coauthors of this article, work at the National Reading Research Center (NRRC), where inquiry into reading motivation is of paramount concern. NRRC has stimulated not only the investiga- tion of children's motivation to read but also the creation of instructional frameworks and programs to enhance literacy engagement. Among these frameworks is Concept-Oriented Reading Instruc- tion (CORI), an approach for en- gaging students in literacy events.

A note to motivated readers on this topic: NRRC and the Interna- tional Reading Association have

recently combined resources to publish a book that addresses the critical issue of reader motivation in children of elementary and middle school age. John Guthrie and Allan Wigfield, a psychologist at the University of Maryland who also works with NRRC, edited Reading Engagement: Motivating Readers Through Integrated Instruction.

Norman J. Unrau, Editor

®1997 International Reading Association (pp. 438 -446) 438 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 40:6 March 1 997



H A vast majority of middle school teachers and principals place motivation of students at the top of their priority list. Teachers are aware that without motivation students do not function well. The unmotivated student is inattentive, fails to complete homework, resists getting involved in reading, and develops ingenious strategies for avoiding work. An official poll of the National Reading Research Center (NRRC) confirmed the im- portance of motivation for teachers. Given a list of 99 options, teachers selected as their top priority creating interest in reading.

The crisis of student motivation for reading is re- flected in one simple fact. Students do not spend any significant portion of their free time reading. The typical middle school student reads less than 5 minutes a day for his or her own interest, while a few students (about 10%) read voluntarily for 30 minutes per day or more. Most do not spend any voluntary time reading books (National Assess- ment of Educational Progress, 1994). Without com- mitting time to reading, students cannot gain the reading skills or knowledge they need to succeed in school.

What does motivation for reading mean? How can teachers increase it? NRRC tackled these questions with a grant from the U.S. Department of Education. Our first step in approaching the area of motivation was to build the idea of engagement. Engaged readers have deep-seated motivational goals, which include being committed to the subject matter, wanting to learn the content, believing in one's own ability, and wanting to share under- standings from learning. Engaged readers possess desires to learn and use their best strategies for understanding and interpreting text to enhance that learning. In other words, they employ complex cognitive strategies to fulfill motivational goals. How does reading engagement develop, and how can it be increased in classrooms?

In this article we will review research that shows how strategies for reading are linked to motivation. We discuss how intrinsic and extrinsic motivations have different influences. Next, we report studies showing a decline in intrinsic motivation for reading among adolescent students. We explore how

motivation and engagement can be increased in classrooms through one program, Concept- Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI), developed at the NRRC. In this instructional framework, teachers emphasize seven principles for creating engag- ing classrooms, including real-world observation, conceptual themes, self-directed learning, strategy instruction, social collaboration, self-expression, and coherence in the curriculum.

Motivations link to strategies for reading Reading engagement is defined here as the motivated use of strategies for reading (Guthrie, 1996). Motivations and strategies are linked. When students are motivated for literacy activities, they employ deep processing rather than surface-level strategies for their literacy tasks (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983). Motivated students try to figure out how new information fits with what they already know; they discriminate important information from unimportant; they regulate effort, planning, and goal setting and actively monitor their comprehension (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Nolen & Haladyna, 1990). Less motivated students avoid the effort of complex thinking. They simply read the information over and over again, if they read at all.

The picture is complicated by the fact that there are at least two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. The deep processing strategies needed for learning depend heavily on intrinsic motivation (Guthrie et al., 1996). In a review of motivation lit- erature, Pintrich and Schrauben (1992) documented high correlations between intrinsic motivations and strategy use. Intrinsic motivations, including interest in content, wanting to learn for its own sake, and feeling immersed in literacy tasks (Reed & Schallert, 1993) are associated with more frequent use of strategies for reading. In contrast, extrinsic motivations consist of competition, avoidance of negative evaluation, and the desire to obtain rewards, grades, and social approval. These extrinsic motivations lead to reading avoidance and the use of weak strategies (Meece et al., 1988; Nolen, 1988; Nolen & Haladyna, 1990; Pintrich, Roeser, & DeGroot, 1994).

Engagement in reading for young adolescents 439



Decline in intrinsic motivations for reading Many studies in the last 2 decades indicate that motivation for literacy and other academic subjects declines at middle grade levels (Anderman & Young, 1994; Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Harter, Whitesell, & Kowlaski, 1992; Wigfield, 1994). In ad- dition, declines in intrinsic motivation are accom- panied by increases in extrinsic motivation (Gottfried, 1985; Haladyna & Shaughnessy, 1982; Harter etal., 1992).

One explanation for this decline in motivation is that competence beliefs and expectancy for success decline across elementary school years into middle school (see Eccles & Midgley, 1989, and Stipek & Maclver, 1989, for reviews). Wigfield et al. (1992) and Marsh (1989) found that children's competence beliefs for literacy and other academic activities de- clined across the elementary school years. These declines continued into middle school (Harter et al., 1992). Expectancy for success also decreases during the elementary school years. Several studies have shown that young children's expectancies for success are quite optimistic, regardless of prior experiences (Dweck & Elliot, 1983).

However, across the elementary school years, children's competence beliefs and expectancies for success are more closely related to their previous per- formances. Following success, their competence beliefs and expectancies increase. Following failure at a task, their competence beliefs decrease (Parsons & Ruble, 1977; Stipek, 1984). Thus, as children get older their competence beliefs and expectancies for success tend to become more sensi- tive to success and failure experiences. These beliefs also tend to become more accurate reflections of performance (Wigfield, 1994). When competence beliefs and expectancies for success decrease, students' intrinsic motivation and engagement in literacy activities also decrease (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). In sum, less successful students lose their intrinsic motivations for reading due to their eroding sense of competence.

School factors related to motivation A second explanation for declines in motivation is contextual. In comparison with elementary schools,

the middle school environment makes evaluation more salient. Competition among students is more likely, thus lowering most students' intrinsic motivation and literacy engagement levels. In contrast to elementary schools, middle schools are typical- ly large, presenting children with a broader social comparison network and thereby making it more difficult for students to find their own niches (Harter et al., 1992). An increase in ability-focused instructional practices also occurs in middle school classrooms, in which teachers tend to emphasize the excellence of high-achieving students, rather than emphasizing the performance of all students, on reading tasks. Whereas young adolescents need ego support, their classrooms are often ego threat- ening (Eccles & Midgley, 1989). These threats con- tribute to negative self-evaluations and decreases in literacy engagement.

In view of these challenges to young adolescents, teachers should place a high priority on motivation when planning instruction. It's especially important to create contexts where students feel confident in their abilities and personally invested in the content. Helping students build a sense of self-effica- cy and a commitment to academic learning is a goal that is being addressed by researchers as well as teachers. One recent inquiry into this issue was un- dertaken by the NRRC. Collaborating with a group of teachers, faculty and students at the NRRC have developed a classroom context aimed at increasing reading engagement.

Classroom contexts that increase reading engagement Themes in the CORI context. Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) is an instructional framework developed by the NRRC to increase motivation, thereby increasing strategy use and engagement. This motivating instructional context was first imple- mented in fifth-grade classrooms in Maryland, USA. CORI has since expanded to middle school classrooms in Omaha, Nebraska, and high schools in Georgia. In all sites teachers have used CORI for low-achieving students. Seven themes define this instructional context including: real-world observation, conceptual theory, strategy instruction, self-

440 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 40:6 March 1 997



Figure 1 Literacy engagement in classroom contexts

directed learning, collaboration, self-expression, and coherence (see Figure 1).

The first theme, real-world observation, creates motivation and sets the stage. Students are excited when they observe a live iguana, handle a skull, build a Native American totem pole, or trail the sources of a watershed. If this real-world interaction leads to conceptual questions that students desire to answer, they will read, write, and discuss with enthusiasm. Real-world encounters (e.g., field trips, lab activities, model-building projects, exhibits in the classroom) should arouse curiosities. If these encounters are exciting, thought provoking, and question arous- ing, they naturally lead to engaged reading.

The following example of engaged reading was drawn from a CORI classroom in a low-income mul- ticultural school. An expanded version of this

vignette appears in Reading Engagement: Motivating Readers Through Integrated Instruction (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997).

Students are working in small teams on a cricket hunt. They are beginning a unit that will focus on the concept of adaptation. Two students, Robert and Kantu, enthusiastically capture a cricket and place it in their canister. Robert and Kantu return to the classroom and begin observing their cricket. They engage in drawing and writing activities, not- ing the features of the cricket and the location where they found it. They spend several days observing and are soon full of questions.

Robert and Kantu, along with their classmates, begin to formalize their questions with the help of their teacher. Their teacher helps them direct their questions toward the concept of adaptation.




Kantu's question is "Why do crickets live here in the summer and where do they go in the winter?" After the questions are finalized, students begin to search for answers to their questions. The classroom library consists of books from a variety of gen- res that can be used to address student questions. The teacher provides strategy instruction whenever necessary, pointing out features of books such as the index and glossary to help students answer their questions.

Kantu locates information on the cricket's life cycle and records this information in his journal. Meanwhile, other students are searching for answers to their questions. Their answers can take the form of writing projects or drawings. The teacher asks students to return to their teams and decide how they can learn more about crickets. Some teams decide to conduct more observations or more reading. Kantu and Robert decide to conduct an experiment and present their results in a graph.

At the end of the unit, the teams are asked to choose one animal or insect and present their findings on that animal's adaptations. Students work together to retrieve information from multiple texts and share their findings with one another. Then each team communicates its findings to the rest of the class. Some teams make posters, others write narratives with illustrations. Robert and Kantu create a videotape that explains the life cycle of the monarch butterfly.

As this vignette illustrates, Kantu and Robert are engaged readers. Their engagement stems from the observations that they made at the beginning of the unit. Researchers have found that these observa- tional activities are meaningful and motivating (Newby, 1991). Such observations and real-world experiences lead to involvement and curiosity. These curiosities develop into personalized questions. Students are motivated to read in order to find the answers to their own set of questions.

CORI is strategic. A wide variety of reading strategies are emphasized in the CORI framework. The vignette illustrates several of these strategies, such as using the index, notetaking, and integrating information from multiple sources. Different strategies are emphasized during different stages of the

students' activity. During the initial stages of observing and personalizing, science strategies such as specimen collection may be emphasized. Then reading strategies are taught as students begin the process of searching for and retrieving information. During this stage of student activity, the teacher may emphasize summarizing information for the students' retrieval of information.

After students have completed the search and retrieval of information, they begin the task of comprehending and integrating the information they have acquired. Their information has been drawn from a variety of sources. Students must be able to evaluate the sources that they have used and com- bine this information into a coherent answer to their questions. These answers, which may take many different forms, are then communicated to the rest of the class. During all stages of the students' activity, teachers are actively involved in assisting in the acquisition of strategies that are useful for retrieving, comprehending, integrating, and communicating information. In a CORI classroom, strategies are not taught in isolation, but rather as tools that can be used to help students reach their goals. Figure 2 illustrates the wide range of strategies that may be emphasized during the various stages of the students' work.

The vignette provides an illustration of the conceptual aspect of CORI. Instruction is organized around concepts, such as adaptation. Scientific concepts provide a powerful context for teaching the strategies of reading and writing. This integration is very similar to the curriculum integration currently used in many middle schools. For this rea- son, we feel that CORI fits nicely into a middle school environment. Pate, Homestead, and McGinnis (1994) suggest that schools should em- brace integrated curriculum because students favor it. During the 1992-93 school year, Pate et al. sur- veyed 46 eighth-grade students who were taught that year in integrated curriculum classrooms. An open-ended questionnaire asked about students' perceptions. The majority of students, regardless of gender or ability level, responded in favor of an integrated curriculum. Additional support comes from Lawton (1994), who used test scores from




Figure 2 Strategies that may be emphasized at each stage of student activity in a CORI classroom

Maine's Educational Assessment Tests in November 1993 to support his claim that students in middle schools outperform their peers in junior high schools on achievement tests.

The self-directed aspect of CORI also fits nicely in a middle school environment. Researchers have found that early adolescents have a desire for increasing autonomy (Anders & Pritchard, 1993). Middle school students want to make their own decisions. CORI provides opportunities for this autonomy. The self-directed component is evident from the vignette in which students develop personalized questions that are related to the overall classroom concept introduced by the teacher. Students also make their own decisions about what materials they will use to answer their questions and how they will communicate their findings to their classmates and others.

By providing opportunities for self-directed activities, CORI also provides opportunities for self- expression. Students use their own interests as a basis for developing their questions. They are asked to share those questions with the rest of the class and, eventually, to share their findings with their

classmates in a medium of their choice. According to Oldfather (1995), opportunities for self-expression are crucial to motivation. Students who are given the opportunities to engage in self-expression are intrin- sically motivated. Oldfather reported, however, that opportunities for self-expression often decrease in middle school and lead to decreases in intrinsic motivation. Self-expression is therefore another motivating aspect of CORI.

CORI is also collaborative. As the vignette illustrates, students work in groups of varying sizes in CORI classrooms. Some work is completed individ- ually, but most activities are completed in groups of various sizes. Students often work together to for- mulate questions, conduct observations, and find answers to their questions. Groups of students also work together to communicate their findings to the rest of the class. This participation in a variety of social patterns of communication contributes to increased literacy engagement (Heath, 1991).

Coherence is the final dimension of CORI. CORI creates a coherent context by providing connections between learning experiences. Students are less likely to be engaged in literacy activities when




they fail to make connections between different learning experiences (Lepper, 1988). By using concepts such as adaptation as the basis for all other instruction, CORI provides a sense of coherence and connectivity. Diverse strategies such as searching for information, using the index, summarizing, and evaluating text are linked by the concept of adaptation. All of these strategies are tools to help the students find more information about their own questions related to the concept.

Teachers' perceptions of the CORI context. The following quote is a reflection from Sue, a middle school teacher in the Omaha public schools. She illustrates how the seven dimensions of CORI fit together into a coherent whole. Sue has been teaching low-achieving students in a CORI classroom. When asked about the motivation of her students, Sue offered this answer:

(Motivation] is a real interest of mine and I know I have been guilty in the past of giving stickers and often rewards for reading pages or reading books.... The CORI program offered an authentic purpose for children to read. I recall one day we were talking about bats and one of the students said, "Did you know bats can't see?" and somebody else said, "Yes, they can," and the first student said, "No, I'm sure they can't." And so, I said, "There's some books about bats; why don't you find out?" So they used the table of contents and index and pretty soon they brought it over to the rest of the class and they read what they had found. Well, a couple of them still were not sure that bats could see. They said, "Well, it says so right here." And I said, "Let's see if the authors know what they are talking about." So, they found some information about the authors in the back of the book and after they saw they (the authors) were really scientists, they finally conceded, "Yes, bats can see a little." They have been really motivated to read because they wanted to find more information about what they had been observing.

Chris, a teacher in Omaha, offered the following when asked about how CORI helped the struggling or emergent readers in her classroom.

Well, I found that the emergent readers in my room tended to pick up books that they would not normal- ly have picked up during the regular year because they were motivated. When we would go out to ei- ther the pond or the forest, they would select animal life and plant life and they would use their observation skills so that by the time they got back to the classroom they were very excited and motivated.

Then, as their teacher, it was easy at that point, when the motivation was already there, just to direct them to the resources and the books they needed to look in. And we went into the table of contents and index so they knew that they could look up a particular fact without having to read the book cover to cover. I think that reassured them that there was no need to feel overwhelmed. They could read one page of the book or maybe just the caption under the illustration and that was enough to complete a project or report.

Both Sue and Chris address the motivational aspect of CORI. Sue differentiates between extrinsic motivation, such as reading for stickers and awards, and intrinsic motivation, or reading for authentic purposes. Students in CORI classrooms are intrin- sically motivated. They want to find the answers to the questions generated from observations. They use strategies to help them find the answers to their questions. They acquire these strategies from CORI teachers such as Sue and Chris, who take ad- vantage of "teachable moments" to provide strategy instruction.

Relationship to strategy instruction CORI can be related to strategy-based teaching. Many reading strategies are being taught in middle school classrooms today. One of the best known is the K-W-L model (Ogle, 1986). Other strategies include I-charts (Randall, 1996) and PLAN (Caverly, Mandeville, & Nicholson, 1995). All of these strategies are designed to improve students' comprehension of text. They all seek to activate prior knowledge and then have students add new information that they have gained from the text during and after reading. While these strategies may be effective in improving comprehension, they lack the motivational component. Students are unlikely to use these strategies without a motivating force, such as observation.

Strategy-based models often seek to integrate reading and writing with a content area. For example, the inquiry cycle is an instructional model pro- posed by Anders and Pritchard (1993). The inquiry cycle begins with dialogue between the students and the teacher during which prior knowledge is ac- tivated. This dialogue produces student questions and goals. These questions and goals are the basis for the inquiry cycle. Students with similar ques-




tions work together to find answers to their questions. The groups devise a plan, gather information from a variety of sources, analyze and interpret the information they have gathered, and then present their findings. Strategy instruction is embedded in the cycle and strategies are taught as they are needed by students (Anders & Pritchard, 1993). Like CORI, the inquiry cycle takes strategy instruction and surrounds it in a larger context.

The Exeter Extending Literacy Project (EXEL) is an inquiry-centered approach that was developed in England. This comprehensive strategy instruction project is aimed at extending literacy into the junior or middle school. EXEL emphasizes strategy instruction to improve comprehension of informational text. The strategies include activating prior knowledge, establishing purposes, locating information, choosing a strategy, interacting with text, self-monitoring, notetaking, evaluating information, assisting memory, and communicating information (Wray & Lewis, 1994).

Some individual teachers are using their own instructional models, which exemplify several of the CORI dimensions. Scarnati (1994) describes his own science classroom where students conduct observations of an earthworm and then complete a writing activity based upon their observations and a brief reading assignment. Scarnati has linked writing and science into an integrated lesson on earth- worms. Throughout the lesson, both science and writing strategies are emphasized. Scarnati's lesson provides a sense of coherence to his students because a variety of strategies are linked together by an integrative assignment.

Long-term engagement Teachers are aware that students do not spend much time reading or show sustained commitment to their learning. Intrinsic motivations for schooling (e.g., personal desires to be academically compe- tent), furthermore, decline during the adolescent years. However, the story is not all gloom and doom. Motivation is also contextual. Students are motivated in some contexts but not in others. The same student can be bored in one classroom and animated in the next one.

We have seen that classroom contexts that engage students in reading possess clear characteris- tics. These classrooms connect school to real-world learning, provide for self-directed activities, invite collaborative learning, provide direct strategy teaching, and allow for varied forms of self-expression. Research illustrates that classrooms embody- ing these principles increase long-term motivations and strategies for reading. However, creating these contexts is a challenge for teachers.

Although the principles are challenging, the good news is that many teachers and schools are mov- ing toward them. Many progressive programs of integrated curricula contain real-world connections, self-directed learning, and strategy instruction. These principles are spreading for a very good rea- son. At their best, they contain the seeds for long- term growth of engagement in reading.

Guthrie teaches at the University of Maryland, College Park, USA, and codirects the National Reading Research Center, hlao is a doctoral candidate and Rinehart is a graduate assistant at the same university.

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Literacy Issues in Focus: Engagement in Reading for Young Adolescents