Literary and theatre movements in colonial ap

Social Scientist

Literary and Theatre Movements in Colonial Andhra: Struggle for Left Ideological LegitimacyAuthor(s): V. RamakrishnaReviewed work(s):Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 21, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Feb., 1993), pp. 69-85Published by: Social ScientistStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3517839 .

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V. RAMAKRISHNA*

Literary and Theatre Movements in Colonial Andhra: Struggle for Left Ideological Legitimacy

The paper proposes to assess and analyse the struggle of left-oriented cultural movements, specifically relating to literature and theatre, in the Andhra region of the erstWhile Madras Presidency, during the colonial rule, and their bid for ideological and political hegemony. The progressive writers' movement and the people's theatre movement were concerned with production and propagation of popular literature and people's theatre respectively. Elite and popular strands are two streams of culture of any society that exist simultaneously as parallel forms with different levels of mutually influencing interactions. Hopes and aspirations, joys and sorrows, travails and tribulations of the popular classes of society are embodied in vernacular folk literature.1 Women's literature consisting mainly of folk songs is available in plenty.2 They form a part of the oral tradition though the authorship is anonymous. Songs dealing with rituals performed by women-both religious and secular-puberty, marriage, child birth and fertility, 'sumangali' rites, romantic and humorous situations between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, situations expressing intimate relationships between members of close kinship in families,3 songs relating to agricultural operations-sowing, weeding, harvesting, milling, etc., are some of the examples in this context.4 The use of popular idiom and similies drawn from every day life which marked their singing are typical of rural folk-tradition and this genre of literature is simple in its expression without any literary embellishments, which are commonly seen in elite forms of literature. Similarly, performing art forms, as part of popular culture, are also seen as off-shoots of life and its struggles. Some of the Telugu folk art- forms are 'Harikatha', 'Burrakatha', 'Veedhi natakam' (street play) 'Kolatam', 'Golla Suddulu', 'Bhajanalu', 'Chenchu Veshalu', etc. One can notice here that song and dance constitute the essential components of folk art. Many of these art forms of popular culture have been in existence from the pre-modern times. However, the necessary changes

Department of History, University of Hyderabad.

Social Scientist, Vol. 21, Nos. 1-2, January-February 1993



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are made in them, keeping in tune with the transition of times, in form, content and technique.

The present paper, as already stated, is about the continuation of the popular cultural tradition in literature and theatre, though the motives and aims are different. Both progressive writers' and people's theatre movements in Andhra have to be viewed as a part of all India movements that arose during the late 1930s, in the wake of the spread of socialist ideas within the nationalist movement, as a reaction to Gandhiji's principles and methods of struggle and also under the impact of socialist experiment in Soviet Russia, economic depression of 1929-30 and the rise of Fascism. Consequently, a study of these movements which were closely connected with socialist ideology would also help us understand the rise and growth of popular economic and political struggles in Andhra, inspired by socialist ideology and their mutual interaction and spread during this period. Also, one can, through a study of these movements, study the impact of left ideology on the people and their struggles against imperialism, feudalism and other forms of exploitation. It is an interesting but significant coincidence that popular movements inspired by left ideology such as Kisan Sabhas, Agricultural labour organisations, trade unions, youth, student and women federations on one side, and popular cultural movements-literary and theatre-one the other, developed simultaneously along with each other, one motivating the growth of the other.5 A revival and active use of the popular art forms by a politically inspired ideology also helped immensely in the growth of the national movement. Thus it is precisely in this cultural area where we can see the relationship between the struggle for left ideological legitimacy within the anti-colonial struggle and its influence on Gandhian nationalist movement and also, ultimately, on the positive growth of radical movements.

Literature and art, hitherto mainly confined to educated sections, erudite and scholarly gatherings, Zamindars' durbars with emphasis on literary gimmicks such as 'Avadhanas', 'Padabandha Kavita', 'Chitra Kavita' (experiments within conventional metre and prosody), indulging liberally in depicting 'Sringara', 'Viraha', have now been changed and brought to the level of the people.6 Similarly, theatre, which became highly technique-oriented with large settings and lighting arrangements under the influence of Maharashtra (Surabhi theatre) and Karnataka (Dharwad theatre) styles,7 now gave up all its ostentatious externalities and brought within the reach of the people. More often than not, the popular art forms were staged on a dais which used to be made out of two bullock carts or on the central pial of the village ('Rachcha banda'), with participants putting on improvised make-up and dress. These simplified aspects of stage-craft were ignored by the people as they did not dilute the acting talent of the artistes who depicted through their art, the life of the people and



LITERARY AND THEATRE MOVEMENTS IN COLONIAL ANDHRA 71

conveyed the message of the dawn of a new era, i.e., socialist society. A study of these movements would also reveal the changes brought about in the content and form of literary creations, an increasing bias towards the problems of the people, use of spoken dialect in both literary forms and theatre scripts, new genres of literature such as free verse, giving up conventional rules of prosody and metre.8 The change in form and content and a close collaboration between the movements were necessitated to meet the demands of popular culture. A new crpo of writers, emerging from a different social mileu, nevertheless from literate sections of middle and lower middle classes and theatre artists, coming sometimes from even the semi-literate and the so- called lower castes and oppressed segments of the society. This is important as it explains the new tone and vigour of the new literary and art forms, modelled on folk tradition and totally different from the existing forms.

Before we get to know the background of the genesis of the new movements, we need know, though briefly, the changes that were brought about in Telugu literature during the modem period and its position and status. Beginning, broadly from the middle of the 19th century, with Veerasalingam and his contemporaries who transformed the traditional character of TeluWu language and literature into a modern tool of communication, Gurajada Apparao and Gidugu Ramamurthy introduced the use of spoken dialect and produced fine literary works of lasting value. If kandukuri Veerasalingam broadened the base of literature by taking up new literary forms such as the novel, play, satire, essay, Gurajada through his new literary form called 'mutyalasaralu', was the founder of modem poetry in Telugu. His Kanyasulkam (bride price), was the first modem Telugu play that espoused the cause of social reform.11 Similarly Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy democratised the Telugu language by launching an organised movement to popularise and make the spoken dialect accepted by scholars and others.12 The efforts of Gidugu, in this direction, assumed such large proportions that Gurajada daimed it as 'people's movement' and said he would not give up its espousal to please anybody.13 The efforts of the trio-Kandukuri, Gurajada and Gidugu, are acclaimed as epoch-making and they are rightly described as the founders of a new epoch in modem Telugu literature. Their efforts should be understood in the realm of building up a broad cultural movement into which the so far neglected sections of population are drawn. Their modemising influences liberated Telugu language and literature from the fetters of medievalism and contributed to the growth of political consciousness among the Telugu writers.

From 1870s onwards the literary production started responding to the demands of the theatre movement, for the main concern of the theatre troupes was to enact the traditional/mythological stories in a



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non-Sanskritized Telugu prose and poems so that a popular cultural response could be generated to their movement in society. The best example is the life history of Chilakamarthi Lakshminarasimham.14 Here, of course, the theatre movement does not identify with any political movements, perhaps due to the very nature of their themes.

With the heralding of nationalist literature approximately from 1905 onwards, a number of writers like Chilakamarti Lakshminarasimham, Garimella Satyanarayana, Sripada Krishnamurthy Sastry, Damaraju Pundarikakashudu published poetical works and plays incorporating nationalist ideology.'5 By 1920s, Telugu literature reached a stage when, barring a few talented poets who were still writing romanticising the past, creative writers carved out a clear path of putting literature to not only social uses but even making use of it to political causes. Here the theatre becomes 'message bearers' of Gandhian politics.16 This was a significant breakthrough in the literary movements in colonial Andhra.

The 1920s brought about further significant changes in the field of Telugu literature with the establishment of a socialist state in soviet Russia. The impact of the Bolshevik revolution could be clearly seen n the writings of contemporary writers published in newspapers and journals such as Krishna Patrika and Andhra Patrika and, in particular, their annual numbers.17 Unnava Lakshminarayana's Malapalli (Harijan Hamlet) reflected the influence of Bolshevism. Malapalli is the first Telugu novel published during the 1920s, which, through one of the characters in the novel, expounded the socialist principles of economic and social equality and the elimination of exploitation. A Gandhian by faith and an active political agitator, Unnava, for the first time, showed the alternative path of economic development and even indicated that failure to ensure economic justice to the large number of the exploited in society would lead to violent revolutions.18 He juxtaposed Gandhism and socialism and finally resolved in favour of the former. This indicated the typical dilemma of the intellectuals of this period.

The post-Bolshevik revolution period and the political and economic changes that were brought about, both at the national and international levels, provided the necessary background to the emergence of popular literary and theatre movements in Andhra. As mentioned earlier, creative works such as Malapalli clearly prescribed the socialist ideology. The Indian Communist movement began to emerge during the 1920s. Socialist ideas through the theoretical works of Marx, Engels and Lenin were being secretly smuggled into Andhra, which in turn were translated and published in Telugu.19 Secret publishing houses with printing facilities were established. Books were sold among the educated sections especially the youth and students. Andhra, being predominantly an agricultural region, the national movement, had mainly drawn into their ranks the




rich peasantry with the support of small peasantry and agricultural labourers.20 This was evidenced in their participation in Palnad and Pedanandipadu Satyagraha movements during the non-cooperation movement of 1921-22. When the Justice party, led by Zamindars and landlords, was predominent, peasants in Andhra were organised by the Congress Socialist Party and the agricultural labour by the Communist Party from 1934. In the post-Civil Disobedience period, when the Communist Party of India was banned in 1934, Communists conducted their activities secretly among workers, peasants and agricultural labour classes and steadily built up the base for Marxist ideology.21

In the wake of the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience movement, general frustration and disenchantment with the Congress policies grew among the people. A sizable section of Congressmen particularly the youth were drawn towards the Communist movement. In 1935 the first conference of the Andhra Communist Party met secretly at Kakinada.22 This was preceded by the Andhra Congress Socialist Party conference and also the Andhra Youth Conference, besides the various other Kisan, Trade Union and other conferences in which Communists were actively involved.23 This establishes the fact that the communist party, by this time, was an organised political force spreading its activities in several spheres of public life including the cultural front. Thus the 1930s brought a radical change in the thinking of the writers. Unemployment and economic misery of the people in the wake of the Great Depression drove the writers to Socialism. They have observed the growth of Soviet Union into a state without economic exploitation and believed strongly that Socialism was the only solution to the problems of the poor.

The new mood was reflected in the translation of Eugene Pottier's international anthem of the working class into Telugu.24

All the orphans who are suffering from the pangs of hunger, arise

At the same time another young poet Pendyala Lokanatham who was drawn towards socialist ideas wrote a poem about the collective power of the working classZ25

If all the workers unite will there be dearth of bread?

Writers like Tummala Venkataramaiah, who later became an activist in the progressive writers movement and also its secretary, wrote a poem about the red flag, the symbol of toiling masses.

should fly, should fly our red flag till there is last breath in the throat of workers and warm blood flowing in the veins of poor peasant, should fly, should fly, our red flag.

At about the same time, in 1934, Gorki's 'Mother' was translated by Krovvidi Lingaraju who was, to begin with, active in the Congress



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Socialist Party and who later Joined the Communist Party. 'Amma' (Mother), name of the translation, became a household novel for men, women and youth.27 Again in 1934 another significant publication, this time an anthology of songs, Rytu-Bhajanavali (Bhajans of Peasants) was published by N.G. Ranga. Ranga was actively involved in organising peasants all over Andhra into 'Rytu Rakshana Samithis' (Peasant Protection Leagues) and this anthology consists of songs by several peasant activist writers who were involved in struggles against landlords, Zamindars and the Government. What is significant is that a good number of contributors in this anthology became leading writers of the progressive writers association in the 1940s. The songs depicted economic oppression on peasants, especially in the context of the Great Depression, and projected socialism as the alternative framework for the well being of peasants. Its popularity could be gauged in terms of the five quick editions it had in four years between 1934 and 1937. Tummala, a poet also wrote about the fall in prices of agricultural products and consequent decline in agriculture and excessive taxation.29

Nellori Venkataramanaidu, the stalwart of anti-Zamindari struggle of Venkatagiri in Nellore district, declared.30

We do not want this Zamindari system Garimella Satyanarayana, the most popular of the poets of the period whose songs became the day to day renderings of people wrote violently denouncing the British rule.31

We do not want the white man's rule This song was banned by the British; the poet charged with treason

was imprisoned. His other well known song advocated for the dawn of the day when lands and riches would belong to all people, thus openly exhorting people to take to socialist ideals.32

In their quest for social and economic justice, the writers went to the extent of questioning the existence of God. According to them if God is the embodiment of love and kindness and a dispenser of equal justice to all, the glaring economic inequalities will not be tolerated by Him.33

As seen from the above few examples, the language used in the songs is quite simple, with full of Telugu idioms appealing directly to the people who could easily sing them.

Simultaneously, the decade of the 1930s also witnessed the rise of a number of socialist left-oriented journals such as Vauhini (ed. Garimella Satyanarayana), Prabha (ed. Gadde Lingaiah), Jwala (ed. Muddukrishna) and Communist Party's jounal Navasakti; publishing houses like Progress Publishers, Viswa Sahityamala, etc., were established.34

The necessary literary climate was thus prevalent even during 1930s for the open launching of the Progressive writer's movement. A strong




indication was the growing influence of socialist ideas among educated youth, intelligentsia and also peasants and working classes. The civil disobedience movement did not leave a lasting impression on literary world. On the other hand, the literary world was marked by a growing disillusionment with Gandhian ideology and was in favour of more radical change. The influences of literary trends from other parts of the country too had an impact over their thinking. Prem Chand's 'Godan' which depicted peasant misery and penury and, in particular, his last literary piece before his death, Mahajani Sabhayata, left a deeper impression on their minds. Mahajani Sabhyata was a bitter critique of capitalist profit motive with the appreciation of the socialist experiment.35 Similarly the writings of poets like Madkholkar from Maharastra who, in turn, was influenced by the Bombay labour movement had reached them. The Bengali intelligentsia, it is stated, was never seriously influenced by Gandhi. Tagore kept himself aloof from the thick of the Civil Disobedience movement. Moreover his letters from Soviet Russia which were appreciative of the new experiment being carried out there, lent support to the growing positive feeling towards Socialism. The Bengali literary monthly Parichay started in 1931 was more concerned about international developments such as the world wide struggle against Fascism and questions like Marxist theory and practice.

The new thinking among the writers in different parts of India necessitated the starting of an All-India left-leaning writers association, the Progressive Writers Association (PWA), by a group of Urdu speaking intellectuals led by Sazzad Zahir and Mulk Raj Anand. However, before the Association held its first session in Lucknow in 1936, under the presidentship of Premchand, the manifesto of the Indian Progressive Writers' Association was drafted in London in 1935. About 50 Indians studying in England, after consulting Ralph Fox, met and finalised the manifesto which was later published in Left Review.36 Thought brief, it is well drafted and reflects the hopes and aspirations of the rising crop of new generation of writers in India.

Radical changes are talking place in Indian society.... It is the duty of Indian writers to give expression to the changes taking place in Indian life and to assist the spirit of progress in the country .... It is the object of our association to rescue literature and other arts from the priestly, academic and decadent classes in whose hands they have degenerated so long, to bring the arts into the closest touch with the people .... while claiming to be the inheritors of the best traditions of Indian civilization, we shall criticise ruthlessly, in all its political, economic and cultural aspects, the spirit of reaction in our country. . . We believe that the new literature of India must deal with the basic problems of our existence today-the problem of hunger and poverty, social



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backwardness and political subjection, so that it may help us to understand those problems, and through such understanding help us to act.37

To the first session of PWA, Abburi Ramakrishna Rao alone attended from Andhra. It was Abburi who became a link in the initial stages between the national organisation and the Andhra writers and provided them necessary intellectual support to start the PWA.38 Tagore, in 1938, sent a warm and unusually self-critical message to the PWA conference, regretting his own relative isolation from the masses. The All India PWA attained its greatest strength in Urdu because of its inter-regional span and its leading figures included Hasrat Mohani, Firq Gorakhpuri, Kishen Chander, and Kaifi Azmi. Its contribution was immense in terms of output, new themes and content and form. This may be illustrated by the successful conference of peasant poets at Faridabad in 1938. The revolutionary mushairas by Kaifi Azmi among Bombay workers which foreshadowed the major communist efforts at mobilization by folk culture through the IPTA (Indian People's Theatre of Arts) in 1940s. The PWA was also strong in Bengal and Kerala where the left movements were comparatively stronger.

In Andhra it took seven years (after the first Session of All India PWA in 1936) to bring together all the socialist-oriented writers into the Association and the first conference was held in Tenali (a coastal Andhra town and a cultural centre in Guntur district) in 1943 under the presidentship of Tapi Dharma Rao.39 As stated earlier, even without a formal organisation, poets like Sri Sri who is considered as the epoch maker of the progressive literature, were writing poems from 1929 onwards.40 His first poem was 'Suptastikalu' followed by 'Jayabheri' and 'Maroprapancham'. Sri Sri Was followed by many talented writers who, pursuing the same technique, made everlasting contributions to the movement. New journals such as Abhyudaya, Telugu Talli were added to the existing list of literary journals.41 Hundreds of literary works in the form of poetry, plays, short stories and fiction, literary criticism were written. The content was clear about the new society-an alternative to the existing unequal socio- economic and political order. Under the influence of Marxism, the writers made sincere efforts, though lacking in theoretical rigour, to take the message of socialism to the masses. It was a new voice, fresh and pure, with strong commitment to usher in a classless and casteless society where the creative faculties of human beings would blossom without hindrance. All those drawn into the PWA were not a part of the Communist Party cadre. Some of them were 'fellow travellers' and some were not even that. Quite a few of them were traditionalists in the sense that they were born and brought up in the atmosphere of traditional learming and yet came into the PWA as they grasped the quintessence of Marxism in terms of broad humanism that would




translate the ancient saying 'sarve jana sukhinobhavantu' into reality. The Communist Party linkages were there but only in a covert fashion and in fact these linkages helped the PWA to get into the programme of mass contact through which writers felt a sense of fulfillment, which, after all is the ultimate aim of any creative endeavour. What indeed the remarkable achievement of the movement is the realisation of almost all writers that all art including literature has a social purpose.42 That art forms should be expressed in easy and uninhibited manner, discarding the conventional fetters of grammar and prosody and literary embellishments. To drive home this point and also to provide sound theoretical grounding, the PWA in Andhra organised literary schools which included in their course content a critical study of ancient literature, knowledge of social sciences including philosophy and history and historical materialism.43 Eminent literary figuers acted as teachers in these schools. Until the Communist Party openly interfered with the working of the PWA, in no way Communist party inhibited its growth on a broad united front model.

INDIAN PEOPLE'S THEATRE ASSOCIATION

Irrespective of time and space, there has been an active link between dominant literary production and popular drama. During the late 19th century, to start with, plays depicting epic themes were produced. They became popular as they were pattemed, primarily, on the model of folk from of 'Veedhinatakam' (open stage or street play). The production of these plays became a part of the collective imagination of the people. By the end of the 19th century a noticeable change came about in the content of plays as they now took up the cause of social reform. 'Prahasanas' of Veerasalingam and Chilakamarti and Gurjada Apparao's 'Kanyasulkam' are only a few examples to be mentioned in this regard.44 Once the national movement gained momentum, plays portraying patriotism on themes relating to Chandragupta, Shivaji, Jhansi Rani, Tilak, Punjab atrocities and the like were produced.4 Under the impact of Gandhian philosophy and struggles, plays were produced on themes such as untouchability and village reconstruction. As a part of national movement, adopting peasant problems as the subject matter, Rytubidda (peasant) was written by Sabnavis Rama Rao and staged during the 1920s.46 By the 1930s, another stream of writers, under the influence of the writings of Ibsen, Bernard Shaw, Chekov and also Freud brought out quite a number of plays advocating women's liberty and rights including, divorce, and property.47 such play-wrights included P.V. Rajamannar, Malladi Avadhani, Bellary Raghava, Chalam, Kallakuri Hanumantha Rao, and Gali Bala Sundara Rao who could be called the early feminist writers in Telugu.48



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By the 1940s the political scenario, both in India and abroad, had changed. The world situation underwent a radical change. As discussed earlier the spread of Marxist ideas and people's struggles resulted in the establishment of the hegemony of the Communist Party of India. The PWA, through its nationwide activities, had spread the message of socialism and world peace (anti-Fascist propaganda) in the wake of the outbreak of the Second World War. The struggle for left hegemony required the help of the theatre, the powerful instrument of visual arts-to supplement the literary activities of the PWA, which were hitherto confined primarily to middle class intellectuals and also, to some extent, to the literate and marginally to a few people from lower middle and middle and poor peasant and working class sections. By and large, the major sections of lower order were left out of its impact. The IPTA, founded in 1943 in Bombay was meant to fill this gap.49 Approaching the masses through people's theatre was the main aim of this movement and as such it was to be an adjunct to the PWA which was already working on the literary front.50 The All India People's Theatre Association Conference (1943) declared in its draft resolution that 'it recognises the urgency of organising people's theatre movement throughout the whole of India as the means of revitalising the stage and the traditional arts and making them at once the expression and organiser of our people's struggle for freedom, cultural progress and economic justice.' The organisers identified the fascist forces as 'enemies of freedom and culture, progress and economic justice',51 and the 'internal repression by an alien government' to be fought against. They wanted to work for the 'revival of the folk arts, mass singing and open air stage' to achieve their aim.52 An all India Committee was constituted, the composition of which shows that all leading mass organisations such as AITUC, Kisan Sabha, PWA were associated with it and representatives from different provinces were included. The provincial organising Committees were also formed.53

From Andhra only Garikapati Raja Rao attended the conference, but in the organising committee two others were included, Krishnamurthy and Chandalavada Pitchaiah.54 The IPTA in Andhra ('Praja Natyamandali') revived the old folk forms of art numbering about thirty. The artists were young and most of them came from rural working masses. They wrote songs and composed music, scripted plays and skits and presented them before large gatherings. It indeed became a people's movement registering a breakthrough in Andhra's cultural arena. Revived forms of folk art reached people with a social purpose. Largely based on the countryside, drawing its workers and artistes from the middle, lower middle and poor peasantry with little or no formal education, the Praja natyamandali succeeded in popularising the Communist Party programmes and politics through its performances.55 Its success was as much due to its class composition as also due to the power of medium through which they operated,



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namely, the traditional popular performing arts. Of all the arts forms they adopted, 'Burra Katha' (Bardic recitals) was the most popular item as it includes, a story, music, rhythmic movements of body, make- up and also the satirical remarks that players make on contemporary politics.56 It was enriched by Sunkara Satyanarayana, the poet who wrote most powerful and popular burra katha scripts such as Kashtajivi (the toiler) Alluri Seetharama Raju, Veeresalingam (Biography of a social reformer) Bengal Famine, Tanya, (Russian heroine), and Nasser, the performer. About half a dozen 'dalams' (squads) were performing throughout Andhra. The 'Harikatha' form was popularised by Kosuri Punnaiah and 'Pittala Dora' and 'Koya Dora' forms by Koganti Gopalakrishnayya whose performances in the first conference of IPTA at Bombay were highly appreciated.57

Activities of 'Praja Natyamandali' reached a peak during the Telangana armed struggle (1946-51) when many more popular forms of culture were used.58 Particular mention should be made of the phenomenal success of the play Maabhoomi (our land) authored by Sunkara and Vasireddy. It stirred and roused the urbanites and the rural masses alike with its splendid performances, even winning laurels from Congress politicians and ministers who proscribed it later.59 In one year, during 1947, the play Maabhoomi, was staged around thousand times by 125 troupes to an audience of two million people which, according to K.A. Abbas, was a world record.60

The vigour and vitality of the Theatre movement could be seen from its organisational network from the grassroots level. There were more than two hundred village level branches. Each district had a coordinating committee. The body at the provincial level overseered the work of the lower bodies. District training centres were organised.61 Rigorous rehearsals, group discussions of the script and attention to minute details in production were the hallmarks of the 'Prajanatya Mandali'. Mutual respect, close affinity and camaraderie marked the atmosphere among the members of 'dalams' (squads) who used to run a common mess. After a prolonged discussion within the Communist Party, it was decided that roles of women should be played only by women. Women, in particular, family women of younger age became active participants in the movement. Women actively took part in the plays. They were also trained in the technique of 'Burrakatha' and exclusive female squads of this were organised.62

The glorious epoch of the cultural revival in Andhra-both literary and theatre-received a rude shock in 1948 when, along with the Communist Party, all its front organisations, including the IPTA, were banned and large scale repression was unleashed. The offices were raided and ransacked, artistes arrested and some activists among them killed, printing presses and libraries were destroyed with the result that the whole movement got paralysed temporarily.



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The writers and artists who had strong party affiliations went underground and some of them were killed. The others became passive and took to their earlier professions. Quite a few of the talented writers, actors and other artistes migrated to Madras city and to the cinema industry.

Literature and theatre in colonial Andhra can be divided broadly into three main stages.

1. 1870-1920, The traditional and social reform themes relating to the early cultural front.

2. 1920-1934, 'Message Bearers' for Gandhian politics and dominant bourgeois ideology.

3. 1934-1948 Movements refracted the left ideology and also the shift in the terrain of struggle of hegemony.

In the foregoing account we have endeavoured to analyse how the literature and the theatre interacted, one influencing the other in relation to shifts coming up in the hegemonic struggle. We looked at the nature of the world view posited and propagated both in literary production and popular drama. The world view as projected by left ideology and reflected in literature and theatre from the late 1920s onwards brought abut a noticeable shift in the course of the dominant bourgeois nationalist ideology. This could be seen in the writings of the dominant bourgeois ideologies when they wrote about problems of untouchables mainly touching upon their economic problems. After 1934, a total break came about among a section of intellectuals with bourgeois nationalist ideology, who now advocated class-oriented nationalism. The dominant nationalist ideology was anti-colonial but supported the existing pro-property relations. On the other hand, the left ideology, no doubt, was anti-colonial but anti-dominant property relations.

The struggle by the Left succeeded only to a limited extent. The dominant nationalist ideology under the impact of the Left challenge, incorporated into its agenda the problems of the popular classes which could perhaps be seen in the measures such as Zamindari abolition, promises to carry out land reforms and and the like. However, the real impact of the struggle, as discussed in the paper, was in the realm of democratisation of culture through the revival of people's art forms. The Left ideology was taken to the people through these art forms. A linkage between ideology and struggles was clearly established by popularising literature and theatre when creative writers and artistes wrote and spoke in the language of the people, depicting through art forms their basic problems. Realism in literature and art became predominant, and it came through popular struggle.

In the districts where the left movement was popular, each village had a small library, night school, youth association and a small office room equipped with minimum furniture and a couple of musical




instruments such as harmonium, mridangam, tabla, etc. Rehearsals of art forms such as drama, 'burraktha' and group singing were conducted there. They became centres of educational and cultural activities in the villages, as centres of counter-culture. Thousands of artists sprang up from the ranks of common people. It was indeed a glorious people's cultural movement in Andhra. The Left hegemonic struggle also included a popular library movement. Number of low-priced editions on basics of science, philosophy, economics and literature were published. Translations of Marxist classics into Telugu were carried out. Sales weeks were organised. Dissemination of progressive ideas was meant to bring about the necessary ideological revolution in society.

Literature and art are closely intertwined with people. Their inseperable nature leads to the adoption of new cultural forms by people in their struggles for change. This was amply demonstrated in the case of popular cultural movements in Andhra. Therefore an analysis of these movements would lead us to a study of the struggles waged by the oppressed sections in the society, their victories and failures. These two movements owed their origin and growth to the Communist movement in Andhra and the Telangana struggle in Hyderabad state. Between 1935 and 1939, the Communists in India adopted the popular-front policies as outlined in the Dutt-Bradley thesis. It was precisely during this period both the movements became well organised. Progressive minded and forward looking people in the society came into the Communist party through the cultural movement.63

I am grateful to my colleagues, Dr P. Sudhir and Dr A. Murali for going through the first draft of the paper and offering useful comments.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. A number of well-researched works are available on this aspect in Telugu. See for example, N. Gangadharam, lanapadageya Vangmaya Vyasavali, (Telugu), Rajahmundry, 1961; R.V.S. Sundaram, Andhrula Janapada Vignanam (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1983.

2. Chinta Dikshitulu, Praja Vangmayamu (Tel), Vijayawada, 1955. The book focusses particular attention on popular women's literature and also popular tradition relating to children.

3. For this aspect see in particular, Krishnasri (ed), Streela Pauranikapu Patalu (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1963; To. Donappa, Janapada Kala Sampada (Telugu) Hyderabad, 1987, (First Edn. 1972).

4. For a comprehensive account of this, see B. Ram Raju, Telugu Inapada Gehya Sahityamu, Hyderabad, 1978: N. Gangadharam, Aatalu-Patalu (Telugu), Rajahmundry, 1965.

5. Arudra, Prajaka1aloo-Pragathivaduloo (Telugu) Vijayawada, n.d. pp 139-72.



82 SOCIAL SCIENTIST

6. K.V. Ramana Reddy, Mahodayam (Telugu) Vijayawada, 1969, see in particular chapter II, pp. 17-41 The book is a masterly account of the life and work of Gurajada Apparo.

7. K.V. Gopalaswamy (ed.), Telugu Vagmayam (Telugu), Tenali, 1960, article on the history of Telugu plays, pp. 272-312.

8. A discussion of these significant changes in Telugu literature are carried out by many. To cite an important source, see K.V. Ramana Reddy's detailed article on 'Progressive Poetry-An Analytical Review', In Bbhyudaya (monthly journal of PWA, Andhra), special issue of the V PWA conference, Vijayawada, 1955, pp. 86-112.

9. V. Ramakrishna, Socal Reform in Andhra, New Delhi, 1983, pp. 71-74; Also V.R. Narla, Veeresalingam, New Delhi, 1968.

10. KV. Ramana Reddy, Mahodayam, op.cit., See for a discussion on this, Chapter IV, pp. 274-327.

11. Ibid., pp. 361-426. 12. G.V. Sitapati, History of Telugu Literature, New Delhi, 1968, see chapter IX

'The Modem Telugu Movement'. pp. 139-45; Chekuri Rama Rao, Marosari Gidugu Ramamurthy (Telugu), a collection of articles on the contribution of Gidugu to the modern Telugu movement, Hyderabad, 1968.

13. A Suryarao, (ed.,) Gurajada Rachanalu-Lekhalu, (Telugu), Vijayawada, 1958, pp. 105-106.

14. Chilakamarthi Lakshminarasimham, Sweeyacharitramu, (Autobiography, Telugu), Visakhpatnam, 1957).

15. Several works have been written on national movement and Telugu literature, Most of these works have presented mainly the literary output of the period without much analysis. See in this context M. Subbareddy, Telugulo Jateeyodyama Kavitvam (Telugu) (The impact of National Movement on Modern Telugu Poetry), Tirupati, 1982.

16. A Murali, Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920-22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry', in The Indian Historical Review, Vol. XII, No. 1-2, July 1985, January 1986, pp. 188-217; s. Theodore Baskaran, The Message Bearers: The National Politics and the Entertainment Media in South India 1880-1945, Madras, 1981.

17. For details see K. Satyanarayana, Artha Satabda Kalamlo Andrulapaini October Viplava Prabhavam, (Telugu), (hereafter referred to as October Viplavam), Madras, 1973. The book gives in brief the literary and other influences of October Revolution on Andhra.

18. K.V. Ramana Reddy (ed.,) Unnava Rachanallu Konni (Telugu), Kaval, 1979; Bangorey, Malapalli pai Nishedhalu, (Telugu), Madras, 1979. Also A. Murali, 'Changing Perceptions and Radicalisation of the National Movement in Andhra, 1922-34', in Social Scientist, August 1988.

19. K. Satyanarayana, October Viplavam, op.cit., pp. 38-40; K. Satyanarayana in the first volume of his History of the Communist Movement in Andhra Pradesh (Telugu) (hereafter referred to as Communist Movement), Vijayawada, 1983, discussed in detail in II and III chapters the background of the origins of the Communist movement in Andhra. In appendices he also provided useful documents in this regard.

20. Interesting information onl this is provided in abundance with particulars of the activities of agricultural labour organisation, students and youth wings and also details about the Congress socialist party in which the Communists were active. See Ibid., Chapter IV, pp. 106-66.

21. V. Krishna Rao, Communism in Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1989, p. 7. The Andhra Communist Party was officially organised in 1934.

22. K. Satyanarayana, Communist Movement, op.cit., pp. 126-27 and 153.




23. The poem was translated by B. Nalini Kantha Rao, a student at Kakinada at the instance of P. Sundaraiah. Ibid., Appendix, 12, pp. 233-34, Arudra, op.cit., pp. 142 and 157-58.

24. See Kambhampati, Communist Movement, op.cit, Appendix-7, pp. 208-10. The Poem was first published in Prabha, fortnightly, 5 June, 1935. Pendyala Lokanatham wrote this poem stressing the power of the united working class. He is considered as the first working class poet in Andhra. For biographical particulars see K.V. Ramana Reddy, Adhunikayugamlo Kavilokam (Telugu), Nellore, 1984, pp. 19-24.

25. See Kambhampati, Communist Movement, op.cit., Appendix- 11, p. 232. This poem was also first published in Prabha 20 June 1935. Prabha was edited by Gudde Lingaiah. The journal was started during the ban on the Communist Party. It served the party in disseminating information on party politics and was also publishing the writings of budding poets with socialist ideas. Linagaiah was the secretary of the Krishna district Congress Socialist party.

26. Gorky's Mother was earlier translated in a summary form by Tummala Venkataramaiah Called Matruhridayam (mother's heart). See for details on this Arudra, op.cit., p. 160.

27. N.G. Ranga, (ed.) Rytu Bhajanavali, (Telugu), Nidubrolu, 1949, (12th edition). It was first published in 1934. On the activities of N.G. Ranga among peasants in Guntur district see Kambhampati, Communist Movement, op.cit., 117-18.

28. N.G. Ranga, ed., op.cit. 29. Ibid. 30. Jatiya Geethamulu (Telugu) (Volume of 40 National songs),

Rajamahendravaram, n.d., p. 12. 31. On the life and work of Garimella Satyanarayana see, Ch. Radhakrishna

Sarma, Grimella Sahityam (Telugu) Madras, 1989. 32. Ibid. 33. N.G. Ranga, op.cit. Narla Venkateswara Rao, a writer and a well known

journalist wrote Net ashya (Russia Today) in July 1934, highly appreciating the socialist state. The book was banned within four moths after the publication.

34. Kambhampati, Communist Movement, op.cit., pp. 116 and 163. Many more details of the publishing houses of this period are given in K. Satyanarayana's history of the Communist Movement, Volume 2, 1936-42, pp. 291-93. A Kameshwara Rao established 'Ativada Grandhamandali' in Guntur, Ashwini Kumar Datta's 'Pragati Prachuranalu in Nidamarru, West Godavari District, Proletarian Series in Bheemavaram by Dharh Sririamurthy are other publishers.

35. We have no definite information whether or not the wrifings of Premchand were translated into Telugu. Nevertheless, it is known that by 1935 that there were regular cultural contacts between the North and the South.

36. Suddhi Pradhan in his Marxist Cultural Movement in India-Chronicles and Documents (1936-47), Calcutta, 1979, published the manifesto in an amended form in pp. 20-21 and added a part of the original text in pp. 97-98. For the full text of the original manifesto, see Arudra, op.cit. 162-63.

37. Ibid. 38. Ibid., pp. 158 and 161. 39. For details see, Y. Prasad (ed.) Collection of Documents of PWA for 50 years

(Tel) brought out by A.P.P.W.A., Hyderabad, 1988, pp. 19-28. 40. K.V. Ramana Reddy, (ed.,) Sri Sri Sahityam (Complete works of Sri Sri)-2

(poetry), 1933-1945, Madras, 1970, in particular see Introduction. Also see for a critical appraisal of Sri Sri' s work K.V. Ramana Reddy, Jagannadha Radhachakralu (Cariot Wheels of Jagannadha), Vijaywada, 1986.

41. V. Prasad, (ed.,) op.cit.



84 SOCIAL SCIENTIST

42. For a comprehensive and critical assessment of the PWA see V. Narayana Rao, Telugu Kavita Viplavala Swaroopam, (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1987, Chapter VII, pp. 120-44. Also Chandram Vyasalu, (Telugu) (articles of Maddukuri Chandrasekhara Rao), Vijayawada, 1974.

43. For full details see V. Prasad, op.cit., pp. 59-83. The school was organised for a moth from May 11th to June 10th 1946 at Pedapudi in Guntur district. Devi Prasad Roy Choudary inaugurated the school. Eminent literary figures, historians artists, Gadar Party activists such as Nidadavolu Venkata Rao, Korada Ramakrishnaiah, Sripada Gopalakrishnamurthy, Sri Sri Kodavatiganti Kutumba Rao, Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma, Chilukuri Narayana Rao, Madhavapeddi Gokhalae, Darsi Chenchaiah, to mention a few, acted as teachers. Te participants included young and promising writers and artists who are to become later the leading lights in the popular literary and theatre movements in Andhra.

44. M. Radhakrishna Murthy's article, 'Telugulo Samajika Natakalu' is Telugu Nataka Sahityam (Collection of lecture articles) (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1986, pp. 20-43; Also K.K. Ranganathacharulu's (ed.,) NooreUa Telugunadu (hundred years of Andhra) (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1984. pp. 131-56.

45. Ibid., also M. Radhakrishna Murthy, op.cit., p. 30. 46. Ibid., p. 33. 47. Ibid., pp. 31-32. 48. Ibid. 49. Sudhi Pradhan, op.cit., pp. 129-30. 50. Interview with K.A. Abbas by Kausar Khan in IPTA IX National Conference

and Festival Souvenir, Hyderabad, 1986, pp. 38-39. 51. Sudhi Pradhan, op.cit., pp. 130-32. 52. Ibid. 53. The General Secretary of the AITUC, N.M. Joshi was elected the president of

the IPTA. Bankim Mukherjee, President All India Kisan Sabha, S.A. Dange, the President of the AITUC, Saj)ad Zaheer, the General Secretary, All India PWA, Arun Bose, the General Secretary, AISF were taken as the members of the Executive Committee of the ITA. Ibid., pp. 132-34.

54. Ibid., p. 134. 55. All League for Revolutionary Culture, Inaugural Conference Souvenir, New

Delhi, 1 Oct, 1983; Also, Krishna, Prajanatyamandali Gnapakalu, (Telugu) Hanumakonda, 1984, p. 12. The author an activist of IPTA recorded his reminiscences in this.

56. Ibid., pp. 9 and 21-22. Sudhi Pradhan, op.cit., pp. 273- 57. Sudhi Pradhan gives a detailed account of these performances in Ibid.,

pp. 354-0. 58. This aspect has been elaborately dealt with by many people of which only a

few references are given here. Jayadhir Tirumala Rao three well researched books based on extensive field work are, Prajakala-Roopalu Patalu (Telugu), Hyderabad 1987, Telengana Rytanga Portam (Telugu), Hyderabad, 1988) Telengana Porata Patalu (Telugu), Hyderabad 1990. Also see D.V. Rao, TElengana Prajala Sayudhaporata Charitra, Hyderabad, 1988, pp. 519 and 576-793, KVR, Telengana Portam-Sahityam (Telugu), Guntur, 1984.

59. Vasireddy, Sunkaa, Maabhoomi (play in Telugu), Vijayawada, 1984 (Frist edn. 1947); See Pratap Reddy's article 'People's Theatre Stars the People' in IPTA Souvenir, op.dt., p. 46.

60. M. Radhakrishna Murthy's article, op.cit., p. 34. 61. K.K. Ranganathacharyulu's artide, op.at., pp. 143-45. 62. Krishan op.cit., pp. 9 and 21-23; for further details see Kambhampati,

Communist Movement, Vol. 2, pp. 301-303.




63. Examples are many. A remarkable collection of autobiographical accounts of twelve people published in 1946 reveal this fact. They came into the Communist part from different professions such as medicine, law, agriculture and labour. Some of them are poets and singers and also housewives. They belong to different religions and also castes, See Mukkamala Nagabhushanam, ed., Nenu Communist Elaayyanu, (Telugu), (How did I become a Communist), Bezawada, 1946.

