DRAFT June 2002 Version 2.2

The Chilli Pepper Company

Living with Elephants II A manual for implementing an integrated

programme to reduce crop loss to elephants and to improve livelihood security

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Living with elephants II; A manual for implementing an integrated programme to reduce crop loss to elephants and to improve livelihood security of small-scale farmers. (2002) Osborn, F.V. Parker, G.E. Mid Zambezi Elephant Project 37 Lewisam Ave Chisipite, Harare Zimbabwe mzep@africaonline.co.zw www.elephantpepper.org Samson, M. The Chilli Pepper Company 5 Midvale Rd Chisipite, Harare Zimbabwe cpc@elephantpepper.org Cite as: Osborn, F.V. & Parker G.E. (2002) Living with elephants II; a manual. MZEP, 37 Lewisam Ave, Chisipite, Harare, Zimbabwe. 21 pages typescript.

This publication was also made possible through support to CAMPFIRE provided by the USAID in Harare, The Wildlife Conservation Society and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of any of the donors involved in this manual.

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Table of Contents

1) PROGRAMME STRATEGY ..................................................................................................... 3

2) BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 3

2.1) Current problems and the need for new approaches......................................................... 3 A) WILDLIFE BARRIERS................................................................................................................ 3 B) PROBLEM ANIMAL CONTROL.................................................................................................. 4 C) TRADITIONAL METHODS.......................................................................................................... 4

2.2) Influencing factors ............................................................................................................. 4 A) VIGILANCE AND CO-OPERATION BETWEEN FARMERS .............................................................. 4 B) AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION.............................................................................................. 4

3) FARMER-BASED PAC .............................................................................................................. 5

PASSIVE METHODS .............................................................................................................................. 5 ACTIVE METHODS ............................................................................................................................... 7

3.2) Working with an affected community................................................................................. 8

4) MONITORING AND EVALUATION ...................................................................................... 8

5) LAND-USE PLANNING............................................................................................................. 8

6) WILDLIFE RESISTANT CROPS AND FOOD SECURITY ................................................. 8

WIDER CONSERVATION ISSUES............................................................................................................ 9

THE CHILLI PEPPER COMPANY ............................................................................................... 10

SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................ 10

1) INPUTS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND FINANCE .................................................................................. 10 2) PRODUCERS .............................................................................................................................. 10 3) PEPPER SPRAY .......................................................................................................................... 11 4) OTHER CROPS............................................................................................................................ 11

GROWING GUIDE........................................................................................................................... 12

APPENDIX II..................................................................................................................................... 18

APPENDIX III ................................................................................................................................... 19

APPENDIX IV ................................................................................................................................... 20

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Summary This manual is designed to help communal farmers and wildlife managers mitigate the impact of wildlife upon small-scale agriculture. Crop damage is a severe problem across Africa where elephants and people coexist because it can severely affect the livelihood security of semi-subsistence farmers. Current methods for reducing crop damage are ineffective and plagued with logistical and technical problems. Poor agricultural practices make certain crops particularly vulnerable to damage by elephants and a range other wildlife. The Mid Zambezi Elephant Project (MZEP) has developed a two-stage integrated approach that reduces the impacts of elephant conflict upon farmers. The first component is a range of crop protection methods that can be administered by the farmers themselves. The second is a commercial venture with the Chilli Pepper Company (CPC) to reorganise and improve food crops currently grown, and to introduce cash crops that are unpalatable to wildlife. This document first explores the issues that influence crop damage, then presents the integrated approach to conflict mitigation. The methods described have been field-tested, and are designed to be replicated in different conflict situations. 1) Programme strategy The strategy of this programme is to 1) convey practical methods farmers can implement to reduce damage to crops by wildlife and 2) establish appropriate cash crops in order to improve their livelihood security. A non-lethal elephant management system has been developed that is suitable for community-based crop protection. The system enables rural communities to take control of the elephant conflict in their areas by providing farmers with the necessary skills, resources and confidence to defend their crops. Chilli peppers have been introduced as a cash crop which are economically viable and unpalatable to the majority of wildlife pests. 2) Background Conflict between humans and elephants is a growing concern across Africa where the rangeland of the elephant is being rapidly converted to farmland. Over 80% of the elephant range in Africa lies outside protected areas, and farmers and elephants increasingly come into contact. Crop damage in the communal lands of Zimbabwe is particularly severe: elephants were responsible for up to 75% of all wildlife crop damage in the northern districts. In some areas, crop damage by wildlife is perceived as the major problem facing farmers, and it threatens to undermine more general conservation and development efforts. A direct link has been made between crop damage and the levels of illegal killing of elephant and other animals. A number of management options to control crop damage are currently in use. All suffer from a range of problems, which are outlined below. 2.1) Current problems and the need for new approaches

A) Wildlife barriers Electric fencing has met with success in protecting small farming areas but the materials, installation and maintenance costs make these methods impractical for large-scale applications in poorer developing countries unless funded by international aid agencies. New systems are

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being developed that are simpler and less expensive to erect, but MZEP believes the concept is fundamentally flawed due to 1) lack of maintenance and problems with communal ownership 2) valuable materials being stolen or used for snaring 3) most farmers not being in a situation where they can afford this option.

B) Problem Animal Control

Farmers generally perceive the control of ‘problem elephants’ as the responsibility of the local or national wildlife authorities. These authorities employ response teams who attempt to travel to areas where conflict has been reported. Crop damage is at its height during the wet season when the majority of crops are grown, and these units do not have the human or financial resources to attend to most incidents. The most common PAC method used is disturbance shooting, (firing shots over the raiding elephant) but this becomes ineffective over time. The response to repeated crop loss is to send wildlife personnel to the location and attempt to kill one or more from the problem group. Shooting an elephant at night, while it is raiding is generally believed to be the best way to ‘teach’ the other elephants to stay away. However, it is often difficult for managers to get permission to shoot an animal quickly, thus making killing the ‘correct’ elephant virtually impossible. Usually, the elephant responsible for majority of the damage cannot be identified, and a token animal is killed. The meat is then given to the people to appease their anger and compensate for crop losses. While this method is still practised throughout much of the elephants’ range, most wildlife managers feel that it has little impact on crop loss and is a drain on a valuable resource.

C) Traditional methods

Communal farmers commonly resort to their own methods to defend their fields by lighting fires at the edge of their fields, beating drums and throwing stones at the elephants. Elephants regularly habituate to these methods, and they are widely regarded as having little effect. 2.2) Influencing factors

A) Vigilance and co-operation between farmers Elephants generally enter fields that are poorly defended. In many areas, farmers do not regularly defend their fields during the night when most raiding occurs. Crop loss is correlated to a farmer’s vigilance: being aware of the presence of elephants is a key component toward improving the effectiveness of PAC.

B) Agricultural organisation The majority of crop-raiding incidents involve elephants eating mature food crops, which are highly nutritious and palatable to elephants. In many communities, maize and sorghum crops are grown in newly cleared fields abutting the forest. These crops are particularly vulnerable to elephants as they grow over two meters tall and conceal elephants as they enter the fields.

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3) Farmer-based PAC MZEP’s integrated system for PAC has been developed and tested in communities across the Zambezi Valley of Zimbabwe. Initially, meetings were conducted with communities in areas affected by elephants, to discuss the problem and formulate plans for PAC. Two major problems identified by the farmers were: a) farmers not knowing when the elephants had entered their fields; and, b) elephants habituating to the PAC methods being used 3.1) Methods for reducing crop loss The PAC methods are divided into two categories. Passive systems alert farmers to approaching elephants and impede a crop-raiding elephants’ passage into the field, using simple physical barriers and deterrents. Active PAC methods are used by farmers to chase crop-raiding elephants away, and these include chilli-based chemical deterrents and noisemakers. Passive methods * Buffer zones: The buffer zone has two purposes; first, it defines the boundary between the fields and the bush; and second, it enables farmers to sight approaching elephants. This involves clearing secondary forest on the boundary and creating some physical distance between the boundary and cultivation. Farmers begin by clearing a five metre wide buffer zone around their fields, or in some cases along the edge of the whole village. (Tools needed: slashers, axes)

*String fences: Three metre long poles are cut and placed at 30 metre intervals along the buffer zone. Bailing twine is then strung between them and squares of mutton cloth are tied at 5 metre intervals along the string. Poles can be of either living trees or cut from species that will re-grow to make ‘live poles’. (Equipment needed: Axes, string (nylon, sisal or bark), mutton cloth)

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*Watchtowers: Farmers build watchtowers at approximately half-kilometre intervals to increase their chance of being alerted to the elephants as they approach the fields. These shelters can be very simple, designed to keep a fire and farmer dry and can be replaced each season. These are usually sited on a termite mound or some vantage point. (Equipment: Axe, poles, thatching grass, string) *Alarm systems Alarm systems have a great security value, as they warn farmers of approaching animals. There is often some distance between the homestead or watch tower and the edge of the fields, and without a

warning system, farmers would have to stay awake all night to protect their crops. Simple alarm systems can be set up using string and cowbells or tin cans that will be disturbed when an elephant tries to enter a field. (Equipment: cowbells or any other metal objects, string)

*Grease and hot pepper oil are mixed together and applied to the string. The pepper oil is a concentrate made from hot chillies. The grease acts as a waterproof medium that holds the pepper oil in place. If elephants make contact with the string, the pepper oil and grease causes irritation to the animals. (Equipment: grease, chilli oil, gloves).

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Active methods *Fires are kept burning all night in areas where elephants are regular visitors. In some areas firewood is difficult to obtain, so any material that will smoulder can be used. *Pepper dung: Elephant dung is mixed with ground chillies, compacted into a brick mould, then dried in the sun. These bricks are burned in fires along the field boundaries to create a noxious smoke that lasts for 3-4 hours. (Equipment: Elephant dung, dried chillies, mould)

*Noisemakers are used by farmers to chase elephants from the fields. The noisemakers are currently bought commercially and are far less expensive than ammunition used by wildlife authorities. Many communities know how to make their own gunpowder, and a community-based option is currently being developed. (Equipment: Bangers, or homemade explosives made from gunpowder, fertilizer or simply placing a sealed metal tube filled with water on a fire).

*Pepper spray is used on occasion in situations where elephants have become habituated to the simpler methods presented (Osborn 2002). This method, while effective, is costly but efforts to produce both the pepper oil and the cans in Africa are underway. The pepper launcher and hand-held system are shown.

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3.2) Working with an affected community It is essential to bring farmers into the process of solving conflict situations. When elephants destroy crops or damage property the pressure on wildlife authorities to react can be very great. Farmers generally feel that wildlife managers are responsible for crop losses to elephants and expect some form of compensation. Farmers who are losing crops to elephants feel powerless to combat the problem. One way rural people can show their anger is to stop cooperating, or even sabotage government or foreign-funded development projects. The farmers themselves have to take responsibility for their own crop protection and co-operation between farmers is essential for deterring elephants. 4) Monitoring and evaluation It is essential to have accurate information about when and where the conflict is occurring. Simple crop damage monitoring schemes (appendices II, III and IV) are very important for gathering information that can be used in drawing up a strategy to combat the problem. The community should try to anticipate periods and areas of conflict. Research suggests that the same fields usually get raided every year. It is generally far more effective to try to prevent crop loss before it happens. Once elephants successfully raid crops in a village, it is usually far more difficult to deter them. Preventative control is most effective in the long-term. 5) Land-use planning

Conservation of elephants in areas where they live side-by-side with people will depend on an integrated approach to land use and the elephant’s productive role in the local economy. Unfortunately, land-use plans are rarely implemented in Africa, but are still of value as a guideline for development. Village-based land use planning can be useful for reducing loss to wildlife. On the micro scale, the positioning of fields in relation to elephant movements may be easier to implement than district wide schemes.

6) Wildlife resistant crops and food security Many of the crops currently grown by small scale farmers are vulnerable to wildlife. In partnership with MZEP, the CPC has introduced chilli peppers as a cash crop that is resistant to crop damage by wildlife. By growing chillies, rural farmers are able to harvest a crop that is commercially viable, resistant to wildlife, and useful in the defence of their fields. A full description of chilli growing is given in the following section.

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The CPC is also introducing an open-pollinated variety (OPV) of maize that matures in three months, is drought-resistant and enables farmers to use the seed season after season. With a reduced maturing time, the OPVs can be harvested earlier than other food crops and will therefore, be less vulnerable to crop damage that usually occurs late in the growing season. Initial results suggest that maize yields can be significantly increased when using both the crop protection scheme and the OPVs. A full description of the activities of the CPC are given in the next section. Wider conservation issues Reducing the conflict between wildlife and farmers may relieve the negative attitudes that many communities have towards wildlife and conservation. Improving the food security of rural farmers will reduce the need for seeking alternative sources of food, such as subsistence hunting of wildlife. Intensifying and improving agricultural techniques will reduce the pressure for annual land expansion, which should in turn lessen the need for forest clearance.

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The Chilli Pepper Company

Summary The CPC was formed in 2000 to act as a for-profit facilitator between a collection of communal farmers who normally harvest small amounts of cash and food crops. The specific reason that the chilli pepper was targeted as a cash crop was two fold; 1) the pepper is a highly adaptable plant which can grow under conditions other cash crop cannot and 2) the complex chemicals that make peppers hot make them unpalatable to mammal pests. One of the main constraints on agricultural in the Zambezi Valley is crop raiding by elephants, buffalos and a variety of primates.

The genus Capsicum is a very diverse grouping of plants brought to the old world by Columbus in the late 15th century. Capsaicin is the part of a chilli that makes it ‘hot’ and is derived from the dried fruits from the family Solanaceae, (e.g. Capsicum frutescens, African chillies or Capsicum annum Tabasco pepper/Louisiana long pepper). These varieties are grown either as an annual or perennial and in tropical areas the plant can produce fruits for up to 3 years. In addition, these hot peppers are being used by farmers to protect their crops from mammal pests.

Small scale farmers grow small plots of two varieties of hot chilli. They are assisted and monitored by agronomists employed by the CPC. When the chillies are ripe, they are picked by the farmer, weighed, recorded in notebooks then ground and put into barrels. Farmers are paid at the time of purchase to demonstrate direct benefits. These are then transported to our Export Processing Zone factory in Ruwa, Zimbabwe. The CPC has managed to secure three markets for the peppers currently being produced in the valley.

The farmers currently with our outgrower scheme only have cotton as an alternative cash crop. We discourage farmers from switching entirely from one crop to another. In reality, no farmer would without a profit over multiple seasons. 1) Inputs, infrastructure and finance For the 2000/01 season the size of the growing effort was restricted to two wards in the Zambezi Valley. Inputs and yields were monitored and a growing guide developed. Input costs were low, as we wanted to see if pepper could be grown using only natural fertilizer and limited amounts of pesticides. Peppers were bought back at approximately $0.50 a kg for A grade and $0.35 for other grades. This compared favourably to the other cash crop (cotton) at $0.12 a kg for A grade. Lower grade can be used by farmers to burn in their fields at night to repel animals. The CPC provides extension and micro-finance for start-up farmers and monitors every stage of production. 2) Producers The farmers we have selected are among the most disadvantaged people in Zimbabwe. The have little access to draught power and only grow small plots of cotton for cash. The yields for food crops such as sorghum, maize and millet are highly variable. Most have had no experience with type of project and many were quite sceptical in the first phase.

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3) Pepper Spray To extract the capsaicin, peppers are soaked in solvents. The amount of ‘heat’ in a pepper is measured in Scovil Units (1 SU=just enough capsaicin to feel ‘heat’ on your tongue). A very hot pepper measures approximately 30,000 SU. The capsaicin is mixed with soybean oil and inserted into an aerosol can with a modified spray nozzle (similar to hairspray). The mixture is then pressurised and when the trigger is depressed an atomised spray cloud is produced. Atomising the capsaicin into a gas cloud makes it extremely effective irritant. The CPC is in negotiations to licence this technology to enhance the viability of this project. Extensive tests have been conducted on animals and humans and even at very high doses there is no tissue damage. Even at high doses, capsaicin will not damage the eyes, lungs or the skin.

4) Other crops The facilitating NGO, MZEP, has introduced open-pollinated varieties of maize to address the central constraint on food production- quality seed. These OPV’s enable people to harvest even in the most severe drought as they have been bred in the valley under restricted water regimes (300mm). The varieties we have farmers grow vary from location and skill level of the individual farmer. The bird’s eve pepper, which is dried, can last for two seasons if stored properly.

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Appendix 1

The Chilli Pepper Company GROWING GUIDE

Plants of the Capsicum genus are tough woody plants and are a good crop for both small scale and commercial growers. This crop does not require many inputs to produce economic yields, but good cultivation techniques facilitate greater returns. Different farmers will have access to varying amounts of inputs and the guide gives the best outline for optimum yields, however alternatives are suggested for farmers with no access to chemical inputs. Harvesting is very labour intensive so small plots are advised. SOILS AND SITE SELECTION Deep, well aerated and well drained sandy to clay loams are best. Avoid soils that prone to water logging. 1. Optimum pH range 6.0 – 7.0 (CaC12). 2. Chillies are Solanaceous therefore avoid following or planting downwind of crops from

the Solancaeae family (e.g. tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco). 3. Always plant towards the prevailing wind when several plantings are going to be done.

This helps to reduce pests (insects and diseases) spreading from older plantings into younger plantings.

TEMPERATURE 1. Ideal temperature range (daily mean) is 21© - 26.5©. Rate of growth is reduced at

temperature outside this range. Below 10© there is no growth and above 38© there is flower abortion and no fruit set.

2. For growing in the cooler times of the year it is preferable to avoid low lying areas, to reduce chances of frost damage to plants, and select north-west facing slopes which tend to be warmer.

LAND PREPARATION AND SEEDBEDS 1. Where necessary, fields should receive an overall ripping to a depth of 50cm’s. 2. Lime (where necessary) and disc. 3. Chillies are planted on beds, as they are very sensitive to waterlogged conditions. Make

beds 1 metre wide with a height of 20cm – 30cm, and 3 metres long. This will allow enough space for approximately 5000 seedlings.

4. Beds must be cambered to prevent water from sitting on top of the beds and have a fine tilth to allow accurate planting as well as good water movement.

5. Chilli plants are bad competitors with weeds. If possible, a residual herbicide can be applied prior to transplanting (refer spray guide).

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FERTILISERS In many situations, farmers will not be able to access chemical fertilizers so will have to depend on mulching and other methods to improve the soil. Animal dung is a very goof source of N but it must be well decomposed before adding to seedbeds or rows of plants. 1. Crop nutrient requirements:

N - 180kg/ha P2O5 - 180kg/ha K2O - 200kg/ha S - 35kg/ha

2. Fertiliser recommendations depend on soil analysis. 3. Soil samples are required at least two weeks prior to transplanting. 4. Soil samples should be taken from a depth of 0 – 30cm and from at least 20 spots, taken

randomly in a “W” shape across the field. 5. Once results are available your agronomist will prepare optimal fertiliser

recommendations specific to your fields. 6. Fertilisers should preferably be broadcast before forming beds to ensure the fertiliser is

well incorporated in beds, preventing possible burning of the seedling roots. 7. Standard fertiliser applications are outlined below: APPLICATION FERTILISER QUANTITY (wks after transplanting) (kg/ha) At land preparation Compound C 500 4 Ammonium Nitrate 100 7 Ammonium Nitrate 100 10 Potassium Sulphate 100 12 Ammonium Nitrate 50 15 Potassium Nitrate 75 17 Potassium Nitrate 75 The above fertiliser applications may need to be adjusted depending on prevailing weather conditions and/or plant growth. SOWING 1. Seedlings are used for transplanting into beds. 2. Irrigate to field capacity a few days prior to transplanting allowing the soil to dry

sufficiently so that transplanting holes can be dug without creating a smooth lined hole which is not conducive to root penetration.

3. The holes should be dug using a narrow sharp pointed hoe. 4. Inspect, select and only transplant healthy seedlings with ‘sturdy’ stems and a good root

structure (not root bound) also avoid seedlings which already have flower buds. 5. Transplant seedlings at the following spacing:

i) 2 rows per bed, 40cm between each row ii) 28 – 30 cm between plants in the row

This will give a population of approximately 46 000 plants per ha. 6. On transplanting, the seedlings should be dangled by the stem and the soil drawn

towards it. Seedlings should never be stamped or forced into soil. It is very important that the seedlings roots remain vertical in the transplanting holes. Bent taproots or ‘J’

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roots will result in poor plant vigour, lower yields and plants falling over at fruiting. 7. Lack of supervision at transplanting could result in net loss of up to 50%. SPRAY PROGRAMME In many situations farmers will not have access to either the chemicals or sprayers and must improvise. CPC is examining a range of natural products to estimate their effectiveness and practicalities. The following is a basic spray programme, which should be adjusted for specific conditions and diseases. After planting fenvelerate + Copper Oxychloride.( 2 kg/ha) Week 2 Sulphur (200 g/100 litres of water) Week 3 Dithane (200 g/100 litres of water) Week 4 Copper oxychloride Week 5 Sulphur Week 6 Dithane Week 7 Copper oxychloride Week 8 Sulphur Week 9 Dithane Week 10 Bayfidan (500ml/per ha). Week 11 Dithane + Copper oxychloride Week 12 Sulphur Week 13 Bayfidan Week 14 Copper oxychloride + Dithane Week 15 Sulphur From week 16 on continue on a rotation using the products outlined in week 14 and 15. IRRIGATION 1. Irrigation should follow immediately after transplanting. A cutworm and fungicide

spray is also imperative after the first irrigation (refer to spray guide). 2. The young seedlings are very sensitive to hot sunny weather. To prevent wilting and

death of seedlings ensure that the top 10cm of the soil is not allowed to dry out more than 80% of field capacity by irrigating at least every 2 – 3 days until the seedlings have attained a strong root structure.

3. Chillies have a shallow root system, making it necessary to irrigate relatively frequently. However, frequency of irrigation depends on soil type and rate of daily evaporation. Generally 25 – 30mm net (after evaporation) per week applied over two irrigation cycles is adequate but must be adjusted depending on crop stage and prevailing weather conditions. In winter months, irrigation cycles can be further apart.

4. Monitoring of the soil moisture status by digging inspection sights, should be done to determine correct timing of irrigation this is to allow optimum plant growth without the unnecessary application of water.

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PRE-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 1. GAP FILLING: It is important to try and maintain the plant population. Any gaps

should be filled as soon as possible. 2. DE-BUDDING: Seedlings tend to flower prematurely due to transplanting ‘shock’.

The flower buds should be removed until the plants are at least 15cm high and have developed a strong root structure.

3. WEEDING: Poor weed control can seriously limit yield through competition for soil nutrients, moisture, light, space and spread of diseases.

4. MULCHING: Straw, hay or maize stover mulch over the beds is recommended, about 3 – 4 weeks after transplanting. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reducing water usage; promotes feeder root development by keeping soil surface cool; reduces incidence of weeds; and reduces soil splash onto fruit.

5. STAKING: Some plants tend to fall over when they start fruiting, such plants need to be supported with sticks to enable them to carry fruit.

6. Insect and disease control is also very important since blemished fruit is not exportable. HARVEST 1. Green fruit should be ready for harvest 8 – 10 weeks after transplanting and red fruit 14

– 16 weeks after transplanting, depending on temperature. 2. The fruit must have no skin blemishes

and be evenly coloured. Red chillies should be harvested before they turn fully red. This is achieved by harvesting the fruit with a slightly coloured (brown or green) ‘shoulder’. Harvesting at this stage will ensure that the red fruit does not become soft and over-mature since the fruit continues to ripen after being harvested.

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 1. Field heat must be reduced from the harvested

produce as soon as possible. The bucket into which the fruit is placed must have a water soaked hessian cloth over it, allowing evaporation cooling to take place. As soon as the bucket is full the fruit should be carried and temporarily stored in crates in a field shelter before being taken to the cold room.

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DISEASE AND PESTS FUNGAL DISEASES i) Cercospora or Frog eye leaf spot (Cercospora capsici)

Circular brown leaf lesions with small to large grey centres and dark brown margins. The stem and fruit are not attacked.

ii) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. capsici, C. acutatum)

Large, black, wrinkles and sunken lesions with concentric rings on the skin of ripe fruit. This disease is often the result of secondary infection from insect damage and sun scorch. Symptoms also appear on the stalks of the fruit as black sunken lesions. Anthracnose develops and spreads quickly under favourable weather conditions: high temperatures, high humidity and rainfall. Keep area free from solanaceous weeds to limit spread of disease.

iii) Powdery Mildew (Leveillula taurica)

Chlorotic blotches on the upper leaf surface with white powdery fungus on the lower leaf surface. The disease progresses from older to younger leaves and defoliation occurs in severe cases. Powdery Mildew usually appears in crops that are in full fruit, and a wet period of 24 hours followed by warm dry conditions.

iv) Damping – Off (Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium spp., Fusarium spp.)

Decay of the seedling stem near the soil surface causing young seedlings to topple over. The fungi that causes this disease are soil inhabitants whose activities are enhanced by high soil moisture.

v) Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)

Initial symptoms appear as slight yellowing of the foliage and wilting of the upper leaves progressing into a permanent wilt with the leaves still attached. High temperatures and wet soil conditions favour disease development. Disease usually appears in localised areas of the fields, which are poorly drained.

vi) Phytophthora Blight (Phytophthora capsici)

Dark brown stem discoloration extending upwards from the soil line accompanied by a sudden wilt of the entire plant without foliar yellowing. Disease appears in poorly drained wet areas of the field.

BACTERIAL DISEASES i) Bacterial Spot (Xanthomonas vesicatoria)

Occurs on leaves, fruit and stems. Circular, water soaked spots with straw coloured centres surrounded by a yellow halo on leaves. Fruit symptoms occur as raised brown wart like spots. Narrow elongated lesions may develop on stems. Favourable conditions for disease development and spread are warm and rainy weather. Once disease is present limit overhead irrigation and do not harvest or cultivate plants when wet.

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ii) Bacterial Spot Rot (Erwinia carotovora) Fruit appear water-soaked and soft. Infection is usually secondary, occurring through wounds on the fruit caused by bollworm or thrips. Disease is most prevalent during the rainy season.

INSECT PESTS i) American Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)

Dark green to brown caterpillars with a distinct pale strip down each side of the body. They bore into the fruit causing secondary infection to rot the fruit.

ii) Cutworm (Agrotis spp.) Smooth brown caterpillars that live in the soil. They eat the stems of young seedlings. They may also attack mature plants just below the soil surface causing the plant to wilt.

iii) Termites

Termites ring-bark the stems causing the plant to fall over, or cause stunted root growth. iv) Thrips (Thysanoptera)

Small brown torpedo shaped insects with rasping and sucking mouthparts and wings. Causes distortion of the leaves and small raised ‘pimples’ on fruit.

v) Red Spider Mite (Tetranychus spp.)

Small, orange to red mite which spins a web on the underside of leaves. Causes a bronzing or mottling on upper leaf surface. Usually associated with hot dry weather conditions.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS i) ‘Purpling”

The skin of green fruit shows a purple coloration, usually covering only part of the fruit. This condition is caused by a large diurnal fluctuation in daily temperatures i.e. relatively cool nights and hot daytime temperatures. These symptoms disappear as the fruit turns red in colour.

ii) Sun Scald

A large bleached sunken lesion develops on the side of fruit exposed to direct sunlight. Green fruit are most susceptible. Good leaf canopy cover reduces incidence.

iii) Fruit Spilt

Occurs mainly on red fruit. Primarily caused by inconsistent watering of the crop, i.e. dry spell followed by large amounts of water.

iv) Wind Scaring

Fruit develops a corky streak where the fruit rubs, usually against the stem, due to movement caused by wind. Fruit may become distorted in shape under severe cases.

Any further enquiries please contact the Chilli Pepper Company or visit: http://www.elephantpepper.org/

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Appendix II

MZEP Crop Damage Reporting Form 2/3/01 Report date Village Incident date Farmer Reporter 6 fig grid reference Crop Age Quality Total area of crop Area affected Intensity of damage Number of elephants Direction of entry Sex of elephants Time of entry PAC used Effect of PAC _____________________________________________________________________ Comments _____________________________________________________________________

MZEP Crop Damage Reporting Form

Report date Village Incident date Farmer Reporter 6 fig grid reference Crop Age Quality Total area of crop Area affected Intensity of damage Number of elephants Direction of entry Sex of elephants Time of entry PAC used Effect of PAC ____________________________________________________________________ Comments

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Appendix III

MZEP Passive PAC report form (16/10/01)

Report date : Village: Incident date: Farmer: Reporter: 6 GR: Weather conditions: Moon phase: How many elephants?____ Sex of elephants:______ ___________________________________________________________________________ If fence was broken: What type of fence?_______ Where was it broken?_____ How many elephants entered the fields?_____ How far did they go?_____ Where did they exit the fence?_____ Was there crop damage? (give report number) _____ ___________________________________________________________________________ If fence was not broken: Where did the elephants enter the buffer zone? Or did farmers hear them in the bush? ___________________________________________________________________________ Comments:

MZEP Passive PAC report form

Report date : Village: Incident date: Farmer: Reporter: 6 GR: Weather conditions: Moon phase: How many elephants?____ Sex of elephants:______ ___________________________________________________________________________ If fence was broken: What type of fence?_______ Where was it broken?_____ How many elephants entered the fields?_____ How far did they go?_____ Where did they exit the fence?_____ Was there crop damage? (give report number) _____ ___________________________________________________________________________ If fence was not broken: Where did the elephants enter the buffer zone. Or did farmers hear them in the bush? Comments:

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Appendix IV MZEP Active PAC reporting sheet (16/10/01)

Report date Village Incident date Farmer Reporter 6 fig grid reference Weather conditions Moon phase _______________________________________________________________________________ Number of elephants Time of entry Sex of elephants Direction of entry Evidence of elephants during the day? _______________________________________________________________________________ PAC methods used Persons doing PAC Start time of PAC Time elephants leave field Exact description of elephant reactions _______________________________________________________________________________ Comments: _____________________________________________________________________

MZEP active PAC reporting sheet

Report date Village Incident date Farmer Reporter 6 fig grid reference Weather conditions Moon phase _______________________________________________________________________________ Number of elephants Time of entry Sex of elephants Direction of entry Evidence of elephants during the day? _______________________________________________________________________________ PAC methods used Persons doing PAC Start time of PAC Time elephants leave field Exact description of elephant reactions _______________________________________________________________________________ Comments