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ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
LECTURE # 03
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 1
Review of Last Lecture
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 2
Todays Lecture
Review of last lecture
Reasoning
Types of Reasoning
Logic
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 3
Reasoning
Reasoning is the process of deriving logical conclusions
from given facts.
Durkin defines reasoning as the process of working with knowledge, facts and problem solving strategies to draw
conclusions.
Throughout this section, you will notice how representing
knowledge in a particular way is useful for a particular
kind of reasoning.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 4
Deductive reasoning
As the name implies, is based on deducing new
information from logically related known information.
A deductive argument offers assertions that lead
automatically to a conclusion, e.g.
If there is dry wood, oxygen and a spark, there will be a fire
Given: There is dry wood, oxygen and a spark
We can deduce: There will be a fire.
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man.
We can deduce: Socrates is mortal
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 5
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is based on forming, or inducing a
generalization from a limited set of observations, e.g.
Observation: All the crows that I have seen in my life are black.
Conclusion: All crows are black
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 6
Comparison of deductive and inductive
reasoning
The inductive reasoning is as follows: By experience, every time I have let a ball go, it falls downwards.
Therefore, I conclude that the next time I let a ball go, it
will also come down.
The deductive reasoning is as follows: I know Newton's Laws. So I conclude that if I let a ball go, it will certainly
fall downwards.
Thus the essential difference is that inductive reasoning is
based on experience,
while deductive reasoning is based on rules, hence the
latter will always be correct.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 7
Analogical Reasoning
Analogical reasoning works by drawing analogies
between two situations, looking for similarities and
differences, e.g.
when you say driving a truck is just like driving a car, by
analogy you know that there are some similarities in the
driving mechanism,
But you also know that there are certain other distinct
characteristics of each.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 8
Common-sense Reasoning
Common-sense reasoning is an informal form of
reasoning that uses rules gained through experience or
what we call rules-of-thumb.
It operates on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 9
Non-Monotonic Reasoning
Non-Monotonic reasoning is used when the facts of the
case are likely to change after some time, e.g.
Rule:
IF the wind blows
THEN the curtains sway
When the wind stops blowing, the curtains should sway
no longer.
However, if we use monotonic reasoning, this would not
happen. The fact that the curtains are swaying would be
retained even after the wind stopped blowing.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 10
Logic
Algebra is a type of formal logic deals with number
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
PREDICATE CALCULUS/LOGIC
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 11
Proposition
A proposition (p, q, r, ) is simply a statement (i.e., a declarative sentence) with a definite meaning, having a truth value thats either true (T) or false (F)
Normally, a proposition is named e.g. P, Q, R etc.
Propositional Logic is the logic of compound statements built from simpler statements using Boolean connectives.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 12
Proposition
A proposition is a statement about the world that may be either true or false.
Examples of propositions (properly formed statements): Alis car is blue. Seven plus six equals twelve. (7 + 6 = 12) Amjad is Alis uncle.
Each of the sentences is a proposition - not to be broken
down into its constituent parts. i. e., we simply assign true, say, to Amjad is Alis uncle. Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 13
Examples of non- propositions Alis uncle Seven plus four Whos there? (interrogative, question) Just do it! (imperative, command) 1 + 2 (expression with a non-true/false value)
Because we cannot assign truth value to them.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 14
Propositional Symbols
Propositions are denoted by propositional symbols such as: P, Q, R, S,.
Truth symbols are: true (or T), false (or F).
Single propositions by themselves are not very interesting.
We need to express complex propositions/compound propositions: The book is on the table or it is on the chair.
If Socrates is a man then he is mortal.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 15
Propositional Symbols
We can use logical connecters such as: ...and [conjunction] ...or [disjunction] ...implies [implication / conditional] ..is equivalent [biconditional] ...not [negation]
Sentences in the propositional calculus are formed from these atomic
symbols according to the syntax rules.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 16
Operators / Connectives
An operator or connective combines one or more operand expressions into a larger expression. (E.g., + in numeric exprs.)
Unary operators take 1 operand (e.g., -3);
Binary operators take 2 operands (eg 3 4).
Propositional or Boolean operators operate on propositions or truth values instead of on numbers.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 17
The Negation Operator
The unary negation operator (NOT) transforms a prop. into its logical negation.
E.g. If p = I have brown hair. then p = I do not have brown hair. Truth table for NOT:
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 18
p p
T F
F T
The Conjunction Operator
The binary conjunction operator (AND) combines two propositions to form their logical conjunction.
E.g. If p=I will have salad for lunch. and q=I will have steak for dinner., then pq=I will have salad for lunch and I will have steak for dinner.
Conjunction Truth Table
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 19
p q pq
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T
The Disjunction Operator
The binary disjunction operator (OR) combines two propositions to form their logical disjunction.
Example:
p=That car has a bad engine. q=That car has a bad carburetor.
pq=Either that car has a bad engine, or
that car has a bad carburetor.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 20
The Disjunction Operator
Note that pq means that p is true, or q is true, or both are true!
So this operation is also called inclusive or, because it includes the possibility that both p and q are true.
Disjunction Truth Table
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 21
p q pq
F F F
F T TT F TT T T
Examples
Example: BCS AI Class P = Ali is the teacher Q = Saira is the student R= AI is a course teaching in BS
P ^ Q = Ali is the teacher and Saira is the student. Q ^ R= Saira is the student and tought AI in BS
The book is on the table or it is on the chair. If Socrates is a man then he is mortal.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 22
A Simple Exercise
Let p=It rained last night, q=The sprinklers came on last night, r=The lawn was wet this morning.
Translate each of the following into English:
p q ^ r r p r p q
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 23
The Exclusive Or Operator
The binary exclusive-or operator (XOR) combines two propositions to form their logical exclusive or.
p = I will earn an A in this course, q = I will drop this course, p q = I will either earn an A for this course, or I will drop it
(but not both!)
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 24
Exclusive-Or Truth Table
Note that pq means that p is true, or q is true, but not both!
This operation is called exclusive or, because it excludes the possibility that both p and q are true.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 25
p q pq
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F
The Implication Operator
The implication p q states that p implies q. It is FALSE only in the case that p is TRUE but q is FALSE. E.g., p=I am elected.
q=I will lower taxes. p q = If I am elected, then I will lower taxes
Its premise or antecedent is p and its conclusion or consequent
is q
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 26
Implication Truth Table
p q is false only when
p is true but q is not true.
Examples:
If 1+1=2, then I am richer than Bill Gates. True or False?
If the moon is made of green cheese, then I am richer than Bill Gates. True or False?
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 27
p q pq
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
The Biconditional Operator
The biconditional p q states that p is true if and only if (IFF) q is true.
It is TRUE when both p q and q p are TRUE. p = It is raining. q = The home team wins. p q = If and only if it is raining, the home team wins.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 28
Biconditional Truth Table
p q means that p and q have the same truth value.
Note this truth table is the exact opposite of s! p q means (p q)
p q does not imply p and q are true, or cause each other.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 29
p q p q
F F T
F T F
T F F
T T T
Truth Table
30
p q p q p q p p q p q p q
F F F F T T T T
F T F T T T T F
T F F T F F F F
T T T T F T T T
Precedence of Logical Operators
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 31
Precedence of Logical Operators
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 32
Operator Precedence
Some Alternative Notations
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 33
Name: not and or xor implies iffPropositional logic: Boolean algebra: p pq + C/C++/Java (wordwise): ! && || != ==C/C++/Java (bitwise): ~ & | ^Logic gates:
Propositional Calculus Sentences (Syntax)
Every propositional symbol and truth symbol is a sentence.
e. g., true, P, R.
The negation of a sentence is a sentence.
e. g., ~P, ~false
The conjunction of two sentences is a sentence.
e. g., P Q, P Q
The disjunction of two sentences is a sentence.
e. g., Q R
The implication of one sentence for another is a sentence.
e. g., P Q
The equivalence of two sentences is a sentence
e. g., P Q = R
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 34
Exercise
Fact 1: Saira likes cakes. = P
Fact 2: Saira eats cakes. = Q
P Q, PQ, Q, P Q, P Q ????????
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 35
Exercise
Fact 1: Saira likes cakes. = P
Fact 2: Saira eats cakes. = Q
P Q, PQ, Q, P Q, P Q ????????
PQ : Saira Likes cakes or eats cakes.
PQ : Saira likes cakes and eats cakes.
Q : Saira does not eat cakes.
PQ: If Saira likes cakes then he eats cakes.
PQ:Saira eats cakes if and only if he likes cakes.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 36
Limitations of Propositional logic
We Cant describe things in terms of their properties or relationships (very limited expressive power)
Propositional logic is declarative Propositional logic is compositional: meaning of B1,1 P1,2 is derived from meaning of B1,1 and of
P1,2 We cant express rules or generalizations
If the train is late and there are no taxis, john is late for the meeting If trains are late and there are no taxis, anyone traveling by trains is late
for the meeting
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 37
Limitations
Propositions can only represent knowledge as complete sentences, e.g.
a = the balls color is blue. Cannot analyze the internal structure of the sentence.
No quantifiers are available, e.g. for-all, there-exists Propositional logic provides no framework for proving statements
such as: All humans are mortal All women are humans Therefore, all women are mortals
This is a limitation in its representational power.
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 38
References
Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for
Complex Problem Solving
Internet
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 39
End of Lecture
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 40
Puzzle Game
A farmer went to market and purchased a fox, a goose, and a bag of beans. On his way home, the farmer came to the bank of a river and hired a boat. But in crossing the river by boat, the farmer could carry only himself and a single one of his purchases - the fox, the goose, or the bag of the beans.
If left alone, the fox would eat the goose, and the goose would eat the beans.
The farmer's challenge was to carry himself and his purchases to the far bank of the river, leaving each purchase intact. How did he do it?
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal 41