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Contemporary Wisdom, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies (IHCS)
Biannual Journal, Vol.12, No.1, Spring and Summer 2021, 211-233
Logical Expressivism as a Defense for the Necessity of
Entailment of Logical Arguments
Hooman Mohammad Ghorbanian*
Abstract
Introduction
In his famous 1985 article “What the Tortoise Said to Achilles”, Lewis Carroll offers a
regress that suggests we could never reach the conclusion of a deductive argument. In that
story, logical rules are conditional propositions that adding them to an argument never
provides enough reason to infer the conclusion. For example, when we are to use modus
ponens, “if (if P then Q) and (P) then (Q)”, the rule itself does not justify us in a way that
we could follow (Q) from (if P then Q) and (P) as the premises.
Here, we follow a path that in Ethics is called non-cognitive moral expressivism.
According to logical expressivism, logical inferences are not just mental states without any
consequences, but we should consider logical facts and rules of logic as some dispositions
that create capabilities for making inferences from premises.
Methods and Material
The method of research here is based on content analysis and logical inference. First, the
main problem is established, and then I tried to apply the solution introduced in Ethics for
the same problem in Logic. In the end, I concluded that disposition could serve as a good
reason to reach the conclusion in arguments.
Results and Discussion
It seems as if we should have a principle that makes whoever faces an argument draw the
conclusion. In the philosophy of Ethics, these principles are usually expressed by “ought”,
so in logic, we should express inferential rules, such as MP, as follow:
* Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran, [email protected]
Date received: 06/04/2021, Date of acceptance: 23/06/2021
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View, CA 94042, USA.
212 ����� �� ���12 ���� 1 ������� � ���� 1400
- Everyone that believes P and if P then Q ought to believes Q too.
The normativity of logical rules is defended by some famous philosophers such as
Wittgenstein and Ryle. Wittgenstein believes rules of inference cannot be true or false, since
they are just like instructions or commands that we must follow like instructions in a
handbook. What I added here is that these instructions themselves could make the mind
move in a certain direction without any need for other reasons. Ryle believes that logical
rules are not some sort of knowledge of facts, but actually, are “how-to-act” or knowledge of
performance; in other words, we should explore the issue at hand in practical wisdom rather
than theoretical wisdom. When we know a logical rule, we know how to act in a certain
way, not that this knowledge is an extra premise that should be added to the argument.
Boghossian suggests this idea that passing through one piece of information to another
one does not need further belief to justify this move. Logical dispositions, when we try to
have a valid inference, make the logical move from premises to the conclusion possible. As
Wittgenstein put forward in his Philosophical Investigations, acting according to logic is
like following some rules, and our knowledge about these rules is dispositional: “When I
obey a rule, I do not choose. I obey the rule blindly”. In this way, logic is internally
sufficient and justified. Logical internalism explains this idea as follow:
- Beliefs, in their propositional form, do not motivate to act.
- Logical rules motivate to act according to them.
- Therefore, logical rules are not beliefs in propositional form.
The conclusion introduces a simple form of logical non-cognitivism that suggests
knowledge of logic is not knowledge about facts, but rather logic contains norms that lead
agents to infer properly.
Conclusion
As the result, the solution for Carroll`s puzzle suggested here is that we should consider
logical principles as dispositions that guide us in our mental movements; logical principles,
in this way, are not some sort of beliefs that represents facts. In articulating this solution,
we use a theory in the philosophy of ethics that considers moral judgments as non-
cognitive mental states. In logical non-cognitivism, logic is a handbook for deducing. Also,
according to logical internalism, non-propositional rules of logic are enough to entail the
conclusion and there is no need to add other premises to the argument. Logical
expressivism is an approach in the epistemology of logic that regards logic as a self-
sufficient knowledge and as a prerequisite for any rational activity.
Basic principles and rules of logic should not be presented as descriptive propositions.
The justification of inferential rules is based on their normativity. All our knowledge is not
objective and descriptive, but some part of it is normative and how-to-do norms. It is clear
that this picture of logic is not realistic and logical expressivism should be considered an
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antirealist theory and must be interpreted in this way: logic is not trying to paint a picture of
the word, rather it is the precondition for any objective knowledge about the world.
Keywords: Lewis Carroll, cognitive states, logical non-cognitivism, logical internalism,
logical expressivism.
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