Presented by Balaji.S, Sr. Engg. Manager,

L&T, Construction,

EDRC, Chennai

technology.

Engineering or technology is the making of things that did not

previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of things

that have long existed.

Technological results are forms that exist only because

people want to make them, whereas scientific results are

information of what exists independently of human intentions.

(Billington 1985)

Science and Technology

Architectural design must respect various constraints:

Functionality: Influence of the adopted structure on the

purposes for which the structure was erected.

Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic

concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place severe

limitations on the structural system.

Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest

components of a structure are labours and materials. Design

cost is comparatively negligible.

Contents

1. Definition

2. Introduction

3. Historical Facts

4. Material

5. Structural System

6. Iconic Structures

One-way

spanning

X >> Y & Z

Ordinary

systems

Z

Y

X

High-rise

Z >> X & Y

Two-way spanning

Architects/Engineers have been challenged to cover the

largest space possible without any obstructions for

centuries

started in the 19th century with the advent of the

railways, which generated the need for long span

enclosures

The development of these buildings has closely

followed technological progress at a time when the

technology of cast iron structures was sufficiently advanced to be able to provide large span enclosure.

Progress from cast iron to wrought iron, then steel in

quick succession provided the means to build longer

and larger structures and created a new architectural

vocabulary

Progress in the latter half of the nineteenth century saw

the development of larger spanning train sheds such as

Barlow and Ordish's St. Pancras Station with a span of

74m followed by

The Galerie des Machines for the 1889 Paris Exhibition

by Contamin and Dutert with the incredibly long span of

114m.

This shed represented the accumulation of constructional

experience gained throughout the 19th century

It innovated the principle of the three pinned arch,

pioneered the use of structural steel and its massive

proportions have never really been equalled

In the early 20th century the major technological advances

changed from land to air starting with the development of

the airship and were followed by the aeroplane

The need for large span structures arise

from

Community Buildings,

Sports Complexes,

Convention Centers,

Exhibition Halls,

Manufacturing Facilities,

Railway Station Structures

Aircraft Hangers and

Museums

Timber has been available as a construction material for most societies since the human race first started to build crude shelters at the dawn of civilization .

The shelter frame work of Primeval Man - (120000-40000 BC)

Historical

Primeval Mankind shelter

(40000 to 10000 BC)

First timber framed houses were constructed by the

farmers between 4500-3000 BC.

The durability of these houses is usually quiet less.

Longhouse (4500 BC)

Longhouse (3000 BC)

The span of the long house ranging from 5.5 to 7 m.

Between the 13th and 15th century, rural architecture took

on different regional forms. Materials traditionally used at

that time were timber, stone and clay.

From the 14th century, stone and brick were used as

structural materials for the construction of houses. The

main reason for their spread was fire resistance of these

materials. Floor structures of houses were made of timber

until 16th century.

Bridge Pons Sublicius, Rome, Italy

Early timber bridges constructed by the romans were simple

beam structures of hewn tree trunks spanning between

timber piled piers.

high joined by semi circular timber arches of 52 m span

was raised across the Danube river, Serbia.

Andrea Palladio published an illustration of a timber bridge

spanning 30m over the cismone river in northeast Italy

which was constructed around 1550 AD

Model of Rhine bridge, Germany

Between 1755 and 1758 Hans Ulrich Grubenmann

built the well known Rhine Bridge at Schaffhausen.

He designed the bridge as a single span of 119m but

was forced by the town authorities to change the

design and incorporate the existing central pier into

the bridge.

During the dramatic period of railway expansion in

the 19th century, many bridges and viaducts were

constructed in timber.

The timbers were expected to last 30 years but as

labour costs for maintenance increased, the bridges

were replaced and almost had been removed from

use by 1940.

500 BC - Cast Iron in Japan

500 BC - Wrought Iron in Greece

6th

Century - Wrought Iron in China

1770 - Use of Cast iron for structural purpose

1779 - First Cast Iron bridge in Telford, England

1800 - Cast Iron was beginning to be replaced by wrought

iron.

1855 - Bessemer process. Late 1800 - Steel began to

replace wrought iron.

1920 - Arc welding

History of Metals

The first cast iron bridge was

built at Coalbrookdale, Telford, in 1779,

still carrying occasional light transport

and pedestrians.

Until 1840 the construction material

used was either cast iron or wrought

iron or a combination of both.

In the early 1800s cast iron was

beginning to be replaced by wrought

iron and many of the early railway

bridges were built of riveted wrought

iron construction. In late 1800s steel

began to replace wrought iron, and by

the early 1900s wrought iron was no

longer available.

Weichsel Bridge (1857), was the first large wrought iron

girder railway bridge to be built in Germany.

Menangle Viaduct (1863), is the oldest existing railway

bridge in Australia. It has two wrought iron riveted box

girders and originally had three equal spans of 49.4m.

Weichsel Bridge Menangle Viaduct

Kymijoki railway bridge, was the first 3-span steel truss

bridge built in Finland.

Originally for a railway, this riveted bridge was converted

to carry road traffic in 1923, and is still in use today as a

footbridge.

Eads Bridge-(Longest span-158m)

The Eads Bridge (Wrought Iron) was the longest arch

bridge in the world, When completed in 1874 with an

overall length of 6,442 feet (1,964 m).

The ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as

was the use of steel as a primary structural material.

It was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge

project.

The Crystal Palace (1851), Cast Iron

Before the advent of cast iron (1781) then steel (1893)

and finally reinforced concrete, stone and timber were

the only available materials for buildings.

Gallery of Machines (Paris-1889), Cast Iron and

Wrought Iron

Long-span structures in steel developed more slowly than

the high-rise in the years from 1895 to 1945, and none

exceeded the span of the Gallery of Machines.

Euston Station-(London-1840), Cast Iron

Two-hinge (made of a single member hinged at each end)

and three-hinge (made of two members hinged at each

end and at the meeting point at the crown) trussed arches

were widely used.

Airship Hangers U.S. Navy

The largest examples being two great airship hangars for

the U.S. Navy in New Jersey the first built in 1922 with

a span of 79 metres (262 feet), the second in 1942 with

a span of 100 metres (328 feet)

Cast Iron Structural frame work with load bearing infill

were being used in English mills and warehouses by the

turn of the 19th century.

First Steel frame building in London

(1906-Ritz hotel)

Reinforced Concrete including Precast

Metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel,

Stainless steel or alloyed aluminum)

Timber

Laminated timber

Metal/RC combined

Plastic-coated Textile material

Fiber reinforced plastic

Materials suitable for various

forms of long span structures

types of structural systems

Beam Structures

Frame structures - Portals

Plane Trusses and Space trusses

Arch structures

Vault structures

Dome structures

Shell structures

Masted Structures

Cable structures

Membrane structures

Beam Structures

Linear elements forming frames with orthogonal rigid

joints

Vertical members (columns) subjected to axial load

(compression & tension)

Horizontal members (beams) subjected to flexure

(moment)

Bending elements are less efficient for large spans

because they use only half of the material (bending

stress varies from compression to tension with zero stress

at the neutral axis)

Frame Structures

A truss is a structural frame based on the geometric

rigidity of the triangle. Linear members are subjected

only to axial tension and compression. They support

load much like beams but for larger spans

A space truss is a long-spanning three-dimensional

plate structure based on the rigidity of the triangle

Two-way space trusses are most effective if the spans in

the principle directions are almost equal.

Trusses

Trusses

PLANE TRUSS

SPACE TRUSS

The most important

characteristic of the arch

is that it does thrust

outwards on its

abutments and weighing

down vertically on them

Arch Structures

Arches are the structural

elements that span a

horizontal distance carrying

loads totally or mainly by

internal compression

Arch Structures

The vault is a structural

system that distributes loads

by arch action through a

single curved plane to

continuous supports

The stresses within the vault

are primarily compressive. It

can be considered as a

curved bearing wall

enclosing a space

Lateral stability is developed

within the plane of the vault,

due to its continuous form

Vault Structures

Vault Structures

The dome is a structural form, which

distributes loads to supports through

a doubly curved plane

Continuous geometric form, without

corners or perpendicular changes in

surface direction. The dome must be

designed to resist compressive

stresses along the meridian lines

and to resolve circumferential tensile

forces in the lower portion of

hemispherical domes

The dome is an extremely stable

structural form and resists lateral

deformation through its geometry

Dome Structures

Shells are thin, curved plate

structures typically

constructed of reinforced

concrete

A shell can sustain relatively

large forces if uniformly

applied. Because of its

thinness however, a shell has

little bending resistance and is

unstable for concentrated

loads

Shell Structures

Shell Structures

Shell Structures

MASTED Structures

Cable structures

utilize the cable as

the principle

means of support

They are effective

if the curvature is

compatible with

spatial design

objectives, and the

thrust is resisted

by a compression

ring or grandstand.

Cable Structures

Membranes are thin, flexible

surfaces that carry loads primarily

through the development of tensile

stresses

They may be suspended or

stretched between posts or be

supported by air pressure

Air-supported structures consists of

a single membrane supported by

an internal air pressure slightly

higher than normal atmospheric

pressure

Air-inflated structures are

supported by pressurized air within

inflated building elements

Plan of Exhibition Hall

Section

Key Plan

Section

61

64

65

66

Self sustenance

Gather People of India

Service to Mankind

Lead the Change

&

Their Best display

The Dandi March

secretariat

http://www.planetizen.com/node/49410

http://www.planetizen.com/node/49410

THOUGHT OF TRUTH REALIZING

The Wave of Freedom

By Gandhiji &

Freedom Fighters March for Salt

thro

Villages of Gujarat

Plan

Section

76

77

78

79