Lory Mae Espera Sarmientoswu Gs Batch 17

8/4/2019 Lory Mae Espera Sarmientoswu Gs Batch 17

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LORY MAE ESPERA SARMIENTO SWU GS Batch 17M.A.N- Medical Surgical Nursing Prof. Gill Marie

Hermogenes____________________________________________________________________

1. Select two theories and discuss the relevance of the followingtheories as applied to higher education.

1.1 Adult Learning1.2 Experiential Learning1.3 Andragogy1.4 Anchored Instruction

ANSWER: Adult Learning, Anchored Instruction._____________________________________________________________________

1.1 Adult Learning TheoryK.P. Cross

Do adults learn the same way children do? It was not until the earlypart of the twentieth century that adult learning was studied in asystematic fashion. In the early stages of research, the first question

that needed to be answered was whether adults were even able tolearn. Once it was established that adults could learn, researchersattempted to differentiate between adult learning and learning inchildhood.

Principles of the Adult Learning Theory: Capitalize on the experience of participants Adapt to the aging limitations of participants Challenge participants to move to increasingly advancedstages of personal development.

Participants need choices in the availability and organization ofthe learning programs.


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Characteristics of Adult Learners Model Guidelines:

Personal Characteristics 1. Related Chronologic Age:

Physiologic Aging & Socio-Cultural life style.

2. Not Related to ChronologicAging:Psychological/Developmentalphase

Situational Characteristics Describes the conditions where

learning occurs.

1. Part-Time Learning vs. Full-TimeLearning2. Voluntary Learning vs.Compulsory Learning.

Overview of Theory:

Dr. Cross analyzed lifelong learning programs and devised theCharacteristics of Adults as Learners model (CAL model), whichincorporates other theories, including Androgogy and LifespanPsychology Theory. The CAL model analyzes Personal Characteristicsand Situational Characteristics to provide guidelines for adulteducation programs.

Personal Characteristics describe the learner. There are three areasupon which Cross concentrates. The first two have some influence bychronologic age: Physiological/Aging and Sociocultural/Life phases. Thethird is not as influenced by chronological age: Psychological or

Developmental Phases.

Situational Characteristics describe the conditions where learningoccurs. These characteristics usually separate adult learning from childlearning. The two main areas are: Part-Time Learning vs. Full-TimeLearning and Voluntary Learning vs. Compulsory Learning.


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1.2Anchored Instruction(John Bransford and the CTGV)

Overview:

Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-basedlearning that has been developed by the Cognition & TechnologyGroup at Vanderb ilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford.While many people have contributed to the theory and research o fanchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson andhence the theory is attributed to him.

The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive

videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose andsolve complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as"anchors" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning an dinstruction. As explai ned by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of theseanchors was quite different from the design of videos that weretypically used in education...our goal was to create interesting, realisticcontexts that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by learners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and weredesigned to be explored by students and teachers. " The use ofinteractive videodisc technology makes it possible for students toeasily explore the content.

Anchored instruction is close ly related to the situated learningframework (see CTGV, 1990, 1993) and also to the Cognitive Flexibilitytheory in its emphasis on the use of technology-based learning.

Scope/Application:

The primary application of anchored instruction has been toelementary reading, language arts and mathematics skills. The CLGVhas developed a set of interactive videodisc programs called the"Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series". These programs involve

adventures in which mathematical concepts are used to solveproblems . However, the anchored instruction paradigm is based upona general model of problem-solving (Bransford & Stein (1993).

Example:

One of the early anchored instruction activities involved the use of thefilm, "Young Sherlock Holmes" in interactive videodisc form. Students


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were asked to examine the film in terms of causal connections,motives of the characters, and authenticity of the settings in order tounderstand the nature of life in Victorian England. The film providesthe anchor for an understanding of story-telling and a particularhistorical era.

Principles:

1. Learning and teaching activities should be designed around a"anchor" which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.

2. Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner (e.g.,interactive videodisc programs).

For more about anchored instruction, visit the web sites of JohnBransford or the Jasper Woodbury project at Vanderbilt University.

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2. Choose four theories (not mentioned in #1). Illustrate (or draw aschema showing its relationship with the following:

2.1 the learner2.2 the learning environment2.3 the teacher2.4 the subject matter


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2.1Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner)


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2.2 Connectionism (E. Thorndike)

2.3 Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman)


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2.4 Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro, P. Feltovitch & R.Coulson)

3. Briefly discuss the four schema or illustration:

3.1 Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner)

Overview:

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learningis an active process in which learners construct new ideas or conceptsbased upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects andtransforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions,relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e.,schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to


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experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the informationgiven".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try andencourage students to discover principles by themselves. The

instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socraticlearning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to belearned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state ofunderstanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner sothat the student continually builds upon what they have alreadylearned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address fourmajor aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways inwhich a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be mostreadily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in

which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewardsand punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge shouldresult in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing themanipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded histheoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects oflearning as well as the practice of law.

________________________________________________________________________

3.2 Connectionism (E. Thorndike)

Overview

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R frameworkof behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations formingbetween stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become

strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-Rpairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning inwhich certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. Thehallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learningcould be adequately explained without refering to any unobservableinternal states.

Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws:


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(1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by arewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitualresponses to that situation,

(2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to

satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and

(3) law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practiceand weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law ofeffect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving arewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.

The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon thepresence of identical elements in the original and new learningsituations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In laterversions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was introduced;

connections are more readily established if the person perceives thatstimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Anotherconcept introduced was "polarity" which specifies that connectionsoccur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formedthan the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect"idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that produced thembut temporally adjacent connections as well.

Scope/Application: Connectionism was meant to be a general theory oflearning for animals and humans. Thorndike was especially interestedin the application of his theory to education including mathematics

(Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921),measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adultlearning (Thorndike at al., 1928).

Example

The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a cat learning toescape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. Aftermuch trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing thelever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R connection is establishedbecause it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box).

The law of exercise specifies that the connection was establishedbecause the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) andwas rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (lawof readiness).

Principles


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1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belongto the same action sequence (law of readiness).

3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encounteredsituations.

4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

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3.3 Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman)

Overview

D. Rumelhart & D. Norman (1978) proposed that there are threemodes of learning: accretion, structuring and tuning. Accretion is theaddition of new knowledge to existing memory. Structuring involvesthe formation of new conceptual structures or schema. Tuning is theadjustment of knowledge to a specific task usually through practice.Accretion is the most common form of learning; structuring occurs

much less frequently and requires considerable effort; tuning is theslowest form of learning and accounts for expert performance.

Restructuring involves some form of reflection or insight (i.e.,metacognition) and may correspond to a plateau in performance. Onthe other hand, tuning often represents automatic behavior that is notavailable to reflection (e.g., learning procedures).

Rumelhart & Norman (1981) extended their model to includeanalogical processes: a new schema is created by modeling it on anexisting schema and then modifying it based upon further experiences.

Scope/Application

This is a general model for human learning, although it was originallyproposed in the context of language learning .


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opportunity to develop their own representations of information inorder to properly learn.

Cognitive flexibility theory builds upon other constructivist theories(e.g., Bruner, Ausubel, Piaget) and is related to the work ofSalomon in

terms of media and learning interaction.

Scope/Application

Cognitive flexibility theory is especially formulated to support the useof interactive technology (e.g., videodisc, hypertext). Its primaryapplications have been literary comprehension, history, biology andmedicine.

Example

Jonassen, Ambruso & Olesen (1992) describe an application ofcognitive flexibility theory to the design of a hypertext program ontransfusion medicine. The program provides a number of differentclinical cases which students must diagnose and treat using varioussources of information available (including advice from experts). Thelearning environment presents multiple perspectives on the content, iscomplex and ill-defined, and emphasizes the construction ofknowledge by the learner.

Principles

1. Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content.

2. Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the contentdomain and support context-dependent knowledge.

3. Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledgeconstruction, not transmission of information.

4. Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather thancompartmentalised.
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Lory Mae Espera Sarmientoswu Gs Batch 17