LSAT Passages Compilation

8/20/2019 LSAT Passages Compilation

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LSAT 01 SECTION III

Time 35 minutes 26 Questions

Immigrants’ adoption of English as their primary language is one measure ofassimilation into the larger United States society. Generally languages dene social groupsand provide justication for social structures. Hence, a distinctive language sets a cultural

group o from the dominant language group. !hroughout United States history this patternhas resulted in one consistent, unhappy conse"uence, discrimination against mem#ers ofthe cultural minority. $anguage dierences provide #oth a %ay to rationali&e su#ordinationand a ready means for achieving it.

!raditionally, English has replaced the native language of immigrant groups #y thesecond or third generation. Some characteristics of today’s Spanish'spea(ing population,ho%ever, suggest the possi#ility of a departure from this historical pattern. )any familiesretain ties in $atin *merica and move #ac( and forth #et%een their present and formercommunities. !his +revolving door phenomenon, along %ith the high pro#a#ility ofadditional immigrants from the south, means that large Spanish'spea(ing communities areli(ely to e-ist in the United States for the indenite future.

!his e-pectation underlies the call for national support for #ilingual education in

Spanish'spea(ing communities’ pu#lic schools. ilingual education can serve dierentpurposes, ho%ever. In the /012s, such programs %ere esta#lished to facilitate the learningof English so as to avoid disadvantaging children in their other su#jects #ecause of theirlimited English. )ore recently, many advocates have vie%ed #ilingual education as a meansto maintain children’s native languages and cultures. !he issue is important for people %ithdierent political agendas, from a#sorption at one pole to separatism at the other.

!o date, the evaluations of #ilingual education’s impact on learning have #eeninconclusive. !he issue of #ilingual education has, nevertheless, served to unite theleadership of the nation’s Hispanic communities. Grounded in concerns a#out status that aredirectly tracea#le to the United States history of discrimination against Hispanics, thedemand for maintenance of the Spanish language in the schools is an assertion of the %orthof a people and their culture. If the United States is truly a multicultural nation3that is, if itis one culture re4ecting the contri#utions of many3this demand should #e seen as a

demand not for separation #ut for inclusion.)ore direct eorts to force inclusion can #e misguided. 5or e-ample, movements to

declare English the o6cial language do not truly advance the cohesion of a multiculturalnation. !hey alienate the t%enty million people %ho do not spea( English as their mothertongue. !hey are unnecessary since the pu#lic’s #usiness is already conducted largely inEnglish. 5urther, given the present state of understanding a#out the eects of #ilingualeducation on learning, it %ould #e un%ise to re"uire the universal use of English. 5inally, it isfor parents and local communities to choose the path they %ill follo%, including ho% much of their culture they %ant to maintain for their children.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that one of the characteristics of immigrant groups to theUnited States has traditionally been that, after immigration, relatively few members of thegroup

(A) became politically active in their new communities

() moved bac! and forth repeatedly between the United States and their formercommunities

(") used their native languages in their new communities

(#) suffered discrimination in their new communities at the hands of the cultural ma$ority

(%) sought assimilation into the dominant culture of the new communities they were entering

&. 'he passage suggests that one of the effects of the debate over bilingual education is that it



has

(A) given the ispanic community a newfound pride in its culture

() hampered the education of Spanishspea!ing students

(") demonstrated the negative impact on imposing %nglish as the official United Stateslanguage

(#) provided a common banner under which the Spanishspea!ing communities could rally

(%) polari*ed the opinions of local Spanishspea!ing community leaders

+. In lines ++-, the phrase different political agendas/ refers specifically to conflictingopinions regarding the

(A) means of legislating the assimilation of minorities into United States society

() methods of inducing ispanics to adopt %nglish as their primary language

(") means of achieving nondiscriminatory education for ispanics

(#) official given responsibility for decisions regarding bilingual education

(%) e0tent to which ispanics should blend into the larger United States society

. In lines 223 the author says that It would be unwise to re4uire the universal use of%nglish./ 5ne reason for this, according to the author, is that

(A) it is not clear yet whether re4uiring the universal use of %nglish would promote orhinder the education of children whose %nglish is limited

() the nation6s ispanic leaders have shown that bilingual education is most effective whenit includes the maintenance of the Spanish language in the schools

(") re4uiring the universal use of %nglish would reduce the cohesion of the nation6sispanic communities and leadership

(#) the 4uestion of language in the schools should be answered by those who evaluate bilingual education, not by people with specific political agendas

(%) it has been shown that bilingual education is necessary to avoid disadvantaging in theirgeneral learning children whose %nglish is limited

3. In the last paragraph, the author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing

(A) reasons against enacting a measure that would mandate the forced inclusion ofimmigrant groups within the dominant United culture

() the virtues and limitations of declaring %nglish the official language of the United States

(") the history of attitudes within the ispanic community toward bilingual education in theUnited States

(#) the importance for immigrant groups of maintaining large segments of their culture to pass on to their children

(%) the difference in cultures between ispanics and other immigrant groups in the UnitedStates

!he refusal of some countries to e-tradite persons accused or convicted of terrorist acthas focused attention on the pro#lems caused #y the political oense e-ception toe-tradition. E-tradition is the process #y %hich one country returns an accused or convictedperson found %ithin its #orders to another country for trial or punishment. Under the politicaloense e-ception, the re"uested state may, if it considers the crime to #e a +politicaloense, deny e-tradition to the re"uesting state.



7rotection of political oenses is a recent addition to the ancient practice of e-tradition.It is the result of t%o fundamental changes that occurred as European monarchies %erereplaced #y representative governments. 5irst, these governments #egan to reject %hat had#een a primary intent of e-tradition, to e-pedite the return of political oenders, and insteadsought to protect dissidents 4eeing despotic regimes. Second, countries #egan to contendthat they had no legal or moral duty to e-tradite oenders %ithout specic agreements

creating such o#ligations. *s e-tradition la%s su#se"uently developed through internationaltreaties, the political oense e-ception gradually #ecame an accepted principle among8estern nations.

!here is no international consensus, ho%ever, as to %hat constitutes a political oense.5or analytical purposes illegal political conduct has traditionally #een divided into t%ocategories. +7ure political oenses are acts perpetrated directly against the government,such as treason and espionage. !hese crimes are generally recogni&ed as none-tradita#le,even if not e-pressly e-cluded from e-tradition #y the applica#le treaty. In contrast, commoncrimes, such as murder, assault, and ro##ery, are generally e-tradita#le. Ho%ever, there aresome common crimes that are so insepara#le from a political act that the entire oense isregarded as political. !hese crimes, %hich are called +relative political oenses, aregenerally none-tradita#le. 9espite the %idespread acceptance of these analytic constructs,the distinctions are more academic than meaningful. 8hen it comes to real cases, there is

no agreement a#out %hat transforms a common crime into a political oense and a#out%hether terrorist acts fall %ithin the protection of the e-ception. )ost terrorists claim thattheir acts do fall under this protection.

:ations of the %orld must no% #alance the competing needs of political freedom andinternational pu#lic order. It is time to ree-amine the political oense e-ception, asinternational terrorism eradicates the critical distinctions #et%een political oenses andnonpolitical crimes. !he only rational and attaina#le o#jective of the e-ception is to protectthe re"uested person against unfair treatment #y the re"uesting country. !he internationalcommunity needs to nd an alternative to the political oense e-ception that %ould protectthe rights of re"uested persons and yet not oer terrorists immunity from criminal lia#ility.

2. In the passage, the author primarily see!s to

(A) define a set of terms

() outline a new approach

(") describe a current problem

(#) e0pose an illegal practice

(%) present historical information

7. According to the passage, when did countries begin to e0cept political offenders frome0tradition8

(A) when the principle of e0traditing accused or convicted persons originated

() when some nations began refusing to e0tradite persons accused or convicted of terroristacts

(") when representative governments began to replace %uropean monarchies(#) when countries began to refuse to e0tradite persons accused or convicted of common

crimes

(%) when governments began to use e0tradition to e0pedite the return of political offenders

. 9iven the discussion in the passage, which one of the following distinctions does the authorconsider particularly problematic8

(A) between common crimes and relative/ political offense



() between pure/ political offenses and common crimes

(") between pure/ political offenses and relative/ political offenses

(#) between terrorist acts and acts of espionage

(%) between the political offense e0ception and other e0ceptions to e0tradition

-. According to the author, the primary purpose of the political offense e0ception should be to(A) ensure that terrorists are tried for their acts

() ensure that individuals accused of political crimes are not treated unfairly

(") distinguish between political and nonpolitical offenses

(#) limit e0tradition to those accused of pure/ political offenses

(%) limit e0tradition to those accused of relative/ political offenses

1:. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of thefollowing statements about the political offense e0ception8

(A) 'he e0ception is very unpopular.

() 'he e0ception is probably illegal.

(") 'he e0ception is used too little.

(#) 'he e0ception needs rethin!ing.

(%) 'he e0ception is too limited.

11. ;hen referring to a balance between the competing needs of political freedom andinternational public order/ (lines 333) the author means that nations must stri!e a balance between

(A) allowing persons to protest political in$ustice and preventing them from committing political offenses

() protecting the rights of persons re4uested for e0tradition and holding terroristscriminally liable

(") maintaining the political offense e0ception to e0tradition and clearing up the confusionover what is a political offense

(#) allowing nations to establish their own e0tradition policies and establishing an agreedupon international approach to e0tradition

(%) protecting from e0tradition persons accused of pure/ political offenses and ensuring thetrial of persons accused of relative/ political offenses

1&. 'he author would most li!ely agree that the political offense e0ception

(A) has, in some cases, been stretched beyond intended use

() has been used too infre4uently to be evaluated

(") has been a modestly useful weapon again terrorism(#) has never met the ob$ective for which it was originally established

(%) has been of more academic than practical value to political dissidents

1+. ;hich one of the following, if true, would give the author most cause to reconsider herrecommendation regarding the political offence e0ception (lines 2&22)8

(A) <ore nations started refusing to e0tradite persons accused or convicted of terrorist acts.

() <ore nations started e0traditing persons accused or convicted of treason, espionage, and



other similar crimes.

(") 'he nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense e0ception protect persons accused of each of the various types of pure/ political offenses.

(#) 'he nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense e0ception to protect persons accused of each of the various types of relative/ political offenses.

(%) 'he nations of the world started to disagree over the analytical distinction betweenpure/ political offenses and relative/ political offenses.

*s is %ell (no%n and has often #een descri#ed, the machine industry of recent timestoo( its rise #y a gradual emergence out of handicraft in England in the eighteenth century.Since then the mechanical industry has progressively #een getting the upper hand in all thecivili&ed nations, in much the same degree in %hich these nations have come to #e countedas civili&ed. !his mechanical industry no% stands dominant at the ape- of the industrialsystem.

!he state of the industrial arts, as it runs on the lines of the mechanical industry, is atechnology of physics and chemistry. !hat is to say, it is governed #y the same logic as thescientic la#oratories. !he procedure, the principles, ha#its of thought, preconceptions, unitsof measurement and of valuation, are the same in #oth cases.

!he technology of physics and chemistry is not derived from esta#lished la% andcustom, and it goes on its %ay %ith as nearly complete a disregard of the spiritual truths ofla% and custom as the circumstances %ill permit. !he realities %ith %hich this technology isoccupied are of another order of actuality, lying altogether %ithin the three dimensions thatcontain the material universe, and running altogether on the logic of material fact. In eectit is the logic of inanimate facts.

!he mechanical industry ma(es use of the same range of facts handled in the sameimpersonal %ay and directed to the same manner of o#jective results. In #oth cases ali(e itis of the rst importance to eliminate the +personal e"uation, to let the %or( go for%ardand let the forces at %or( ta(e eect "uite o#jectively, %ithout hindrance or de4ection forany personal end, interest, or gain. It is the technician’s place in industry, as it is thescientist’s place in the la#oratory, to serve as an intellectual em#odiment of the forces at%or(, isolate the forces engaged from all e-traneous distur#ances, and let them ta(e full

eect along the lines of designed %or(. !he technician is an active or creative factor in thecase only in the sense that he is the (eeper of the logic %hich governs the forces at %or(.

!hese forces that so are #rought to #ear in mechanical industry are of an o#jective,impersonal, unconventional nature, of course. !hey are of the nature of opa"ue fact.7ecuniary gain is not one of these impersonal facts. *ny consideration of pecuniary gain thatmay #e injected into the technician’s %or(ing plans %ill come into the case as an intrusiveand alien factor, %hose sole eect is to de4ect, retard, derange and curtail the %or( in hand.*t the same time considerations of pecuniary gain are the only agency #rought into the case#y the #usinessmen, and the only ground on %hich they e-ercise a control of production.

1. 'he author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing

(A) industrial organi*ation in the eighteenth century

() the motives for pecuniary gain(") the technician6s place in mechanical industry

(#) the impersonal organi*ation of industry

(%) the material contribution of physics in industrial society

13. 'he author of the passage suggests that businessmen in the mechanical industry areresponsible mainly for

(A) !eeping the logic governing the forces at wor!



() managing the profits

(") directing the activities of the technicians

(#) employing the technological procedures of physics and chemistry

(%) treating material gain as a spiritual truth

12. ;hich one of the following, if true, would contradict the author6s belief that the role oftechnician is to be the !eeper of the logic/ (lines 32)8

(A) All technicians are human beings with feelings and emotions.

() An interest in pecuniary gain is the technician6s sole motive for participation in industry.

(") 'he technician6s wor!ing plans do not coincide with the technician6s pecuniary interests.

(#) 'echnicians are employed by businessmen to oversee the forces at wor!.

(%) 'echnicians refuse to carry out the instructions of the businessmen.

17. 'he author would probably most strongly agree with which one of the following statementsabout the evolution of the industrial system8

(A) 'he handicraft system of industry emerged in eighteenthcentury %ngland and was

subse4uently replaced by the machine industry.() 'he handicraft system of industrial production has gradually given rise to a mechanistic

technology that dominates contemporary industry.

(") 'he handicraft system emerged as the dominant factor of production in eighteenthcentury %ngland but was soon replaced by mechanical techni4ues of production.

(#) 'he mechanical system of production that preceded the handicraft system was the precursor of contemporary means of production.

(%) 'he industrial arts developed as a result of the growth of the mechanical industry thatfollowed the decline of the handicraft system of production.

1. ;hich one of the following best describes the author6s attitude toward scientific techni4ues8

(A) critical

() hostile

(") idealistic

(#) ironic

(%) neutral

;!his passage %as originally pu#lished in /02<=

!he %ord democracy may stand for a natural social e"uality in the #ody politic or for aconstitutional form of government in %hich po%er lies more or less directly in the people’shand. !he former may #e called social democracy and the later democratic government. !het%o dier %idely, #oth in origin and in moral principle. Genetically considered, socialdemocracy is something primitive, unintended, proper to communities %here there isgeneral competence and no mar(ed personal eminence. !here #e no %ill aristocracy, noprestige, #ut instead an intelligent readiness to lend a hand and to do in unison %hatever isdone. In other %ords, there %ill #e that most democratic of governments3no government atall. ut %hen pressure of circumstances, danger, or in%ard strife ma(es recogni&ed andprolonged guidance necessary to a social democracy, the form its government ta(es is thatof a rudimentary monarchy esta#lished #y election or general consent. * natural leaderemerges and is instinctively o#eyed. !hat leader may indeed #e freely critici&ed and %ill not#e screened #y any pomp or traditional mystery> he or she %ill #e easy to replace and everyciti&en %ill feel essentially his or her e"ual. ?et such a state is at the #eginnings of monarchy



and aristocracy.

7olitical democracy, on the other hand, is a late and articial product. It arises #y agradual e-tension of aristocratic privileges, through re#ellion against a#uses, and in ans%erto restlessness on the people’s part. Its principle is not the a#sence of eminence, #ut thediscovery that e-isting eminence is no longer genuine and representative. It may retainmany vestiges of older and less democratic institutions. 5or under democratic governments

the people have not created the state> they merely control it. !heir suspicions and jealousiesare "uieted #y assigning to them a voice, perhaps only a veto, in the administration. !hepeople’s li#erty consists not in their original responsi#ility for %hat e-ists, #ut merely in thefaculty they have ac"uired of a#olishing any detail that may distress or %ound them, and ofimposing any ne% measure, %hich, seen against the #ac(ground of e-isting la%s, maycommend itself from time to time to their instinct and mind.

If %e turn from origins to ideals, the contrast #et%een social and political democracy isno less mar(ed. Social democracy is a general ethical ideal, loo(ing to human e"uality and#rotherhood, and inconsistent, in its radical form, %ith such institutions as the family andhereditary property. 9emocratic government, on the contrary, is merely a means to an end,an e-pedient for the #etter and smoother government of certain states at certain junctures.It involves no special ideals of life> it is a "uestion of policy, namely, %hether the generalinterest %ill #e #etter served #y granting all people an e"ual voice in elections. 5or political

democracy must necessarily #e a government #y deputy, and the "uestions actuallysu#mitted to the people can #e only very large rough matters of general policy or ofcondence in party leaders.

1-. 'he author suggests that the lac! of mar!ed personal eminence/ (line 11) is an importantfeature of a social democracy because

(A) such a society is also li!ely to contain the seeds of monarchy and aristocracy

() the absence of visible social leaders in such a society will probably impede thedevelopment of a political democracy

(") social democracy represents a more sophisticated form of government than politicaldemocracy

(#) a society that lac!s recogni*ed leadership will be unable to accomplish its culturalob$ectives

(%) the absence of visible social leaders in such a community is li!ely to be accompanied bya spirit of cooperation

&:. ;hich one of the following forms of government does the author say is most li!ely toevolve from a social democracy8

(A) monarchy

() government by deputy

(") political democracy

(#) representative democracy

(%) constitutional democracy

&1. 'he author of the passage suggests that a political democracy is li!ely to have beenimmediately preceded by which one of the following forms of social organi*ation8

(A) a social democracy in which the spirit of participation has been diminished by the needto maintain internal security

() an aristocratic society in which government leaders have grown insensitive to people6sinterests





characteristics of social democracy8

(A) 5rgani*ed governmental systems tend to arise spontaneously, rather than in response tospecific problem situations.

() 'he presence of an organi*ed system of government stifles the e0pression of humane4uality and brotherhood.

(") Social democracy represents a more primitive form of communal organi*ation than political democracy.

(#) =rolonged and formal leadership may become necessary in a social democracy when problems arise that cannot be resolved by recourse to the general competence of the people.

(%) Although political democracy and social democracy are radically different forms ofcommunal organi*ation, it is possible for both to contain elements of monarchy.

LSAT 02 SECTION I


Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of

what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could

conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most

accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer

sheet.

!here is su#stantial evidence that #y /0@1, %ith the pu#lication of The Weary Blues,$angston Hughes had #ro(en %ith t%o %ell'esta#lished traditions in *frican *mericanliterature. In The Weary Blues, Hughes chose to modify the traditions that decreed that*frican *merican literature must promote racial acceptance and integration, and that, inorder to do so, it must re4ect an understanding and mastery of 8estern European literarytechni"ues and styles. :ecessarily e-cluded #y this decree, linguistically and thematically,%as the vast amount of secular fol( material in the oral tradition that had #een created #ylac( people in the years of slavery and after. It might #e pointed out that even the

spirituals or +sorro% songs of the slaves3as distinct from their secular songs and stories3had #een Europeani&ed to ma(e them accepta#le %ithin these *frican *merican traditionsafter the Aivil 8ar. In /B1@ northern 8hite %riters had commented favora#ly on the uni"ueand provocative melodies of these +sorro% songs %hen they rst heard them sung #yslaves in the Aarolina sea islands. ut #y /0/1, ten years #efore the pu#lication of TheWeary Blues, Hurry !. urleigh, the lac( #aritone soloist at :e% ?or(’s ultrafashiona#leSaint George’s Episcopal Ahurch, had pu#lished Jubilee Songs of the United States, %ithevery spiritual arranged so that a concert singer could sing it +in the manner of an art song.Alearly, the artistic %or( of lac( people could #e used to promote racial acceptance andintegration only on the condition that it #ecame Europeani&ed.

Even more than his re#ellion against this restrictive tradition in *frican *merican art,Hughes’s e-pression of the vi#rant fol( culture of lac( people esta#lished his %riting as alandmar( in the history of *frican *merican literature. )ost of his fol( poems have the

distinctive mar(s of this fol( culture’s oral traditionC they contain many instances of namingand enumeration, considera#le hyper#ole and understatement, and a strong infusion ofstreet'tal( rhyming. !here is a deceptive veil of artlessness in these poems. Hughes pridedhimself on #eing an impromptu and impressionistic %riter of poetry. His, he insisted, %as notan artfully constructed poetry. ?et an analysis of his dramatic monologues and other poemsreveals that his poetry %as carefully and artfully crafted. In his fol( poetry %e nd featurescommon to all fol( literature, such as dramatic ellipsis, narrative compression, rhythmicrepetition, and monosylla#ic emphasis. !he peculiar mi-ture of irony and humor %e nd inhis %riting is a distinguishing feature of his fol( poetry. !ogether, these aspects of Hughes’s%riting helped to modify the previous restrictions on the techni"ues and su#ject matter of



lac( %riters and conse"uently to #roaden the linguistic and thematic range of *frican*merican literature.

1. 'he author mentions which one of the following as an e0ample of the influence of lac!fol! culture on ughes6s poetry8

(A) his e0ploitation of ambiguous and deceptive meanings

() his care and craft in composing poems(") his use of naming and enumeration

(#) his use of firstperson narrative

(%) his strong religious beliefs

&. 'he author suggests that the deceptive veil/ (line &) in ughes6s poetry obscures

(A) evidence of his use of oral techni4ues in his poetry

() evidence of his thoughtful deliberation in composing his poems

(") his scrupulous concern for representative details in his poetry

(#) his incorporation of ;estern %uropean literary techni4ues in his poetry

(%) his engagement with social and political issues rather than aesthetic ones

+. ;ith which one of the following statements regarding Jubilee Songs of the United States would the author be most li!ely to agree8

(A) Its publication mar!ed an advance in the intrinsic 4uality of African American art.

() It paved the way for publication of ughes6s 'he ;eary lues by ma!ing AfricanAmerican art fashionable.

(") It was an authentic replication of African American spirituals and sorrow songs/.

(#) It demonstrated the e0tent to which spirituals were adapted in order to ma!e them more broadly accepted.

(%) It was to the spiritual what ughes6s 'he ;eary lues was to secular songs and stories.

. 'he author most probably mentions the reactions of northern ;hite writers to non%uropeani*ed sorrow songs/ in order to

(A) indicate that modes of e0pression acceptable in the conte0t of slavery in the South wereacceptable only to a small number of ;hite writers in the >orth after the "ivil ;ar

() contrast ;hite writers earlier appreciation of these songs with the growing tendencyafter the "ivil ;ar to regard %uropeani*ed versions of the songs as more acceptable

(") show that the re4uirement that such songs be %uropeani*ed was internal to the AfricanAmerican tradition and was unrelated to the literary standards or attitudes of ;hitewriters

(#) demonstrate that such songs in their non%uropeani*ed form were more imaginative

(%) suggest that ;hite writers benefited more from e0posure to African American art formsthan lac! writers did from e0posure to %uropean art forms

3. 'he passage suggests that the author would be most li!ely to agree with which one of thefollowing statements about the re4uirement that lac! writers employ ;estern %uropeanliterary techni4ues8

(A) 'he re4uirement was imposed more for social than for aesthetic reasons.

() 'he re4uirement was a relatively unimportant aspect of the African American tradition.



(") 'he re4uirement was the chief reason for ughes6s success as a writer.

(#) 'he re4uirement was appropriate for some forms of e0pression but not for others.

(%) 'he re4uirement was never as strong as it may have appeared to be.

2. ;hich one of the following aspects of ughes6s poetry does the author appear to value mosthighly8

(A) its novelty compared to other wor!s of African American literature

() its subtle understatement compared to that of other !inds of fol! literature

(") its virtuosity in adapting musical forms to language

(#) its e0pression of the fol! culture of lac! people

(%) its universality of appeal achieved through the adoption of collo4uial e0pressions

Historians generally agree that, of the great modern innovations, the railroad had themost far'reaching impact on major events in the United States in the nineteenth and earlyt%entieth centuries, particularly on the Industrial Devolution. !here is, ho%ever, considera#ledisagreement among cultural historians regarding pu#lic attitudes to%ard the railroad, #othat its inception in the /B2s and during the half century #et%een /BB2 and /02, %hen the

national rail system %as completed and reached the &enith of its popularity in the UnitedStates. In a recent #oo(, Fohn Stilgoe has addressed this issue #y arguing that the +romantic'era distrust of the railroad that he claims %as present during the /B2s vanished in thedecades after /BB2. ut the argument he provides in support of this position isunconvincing.

8hat Stilgoe calls +romantic'era distrust %as in fact the reaction of a minority of%riters, artistes, and intellectuals %ho distrusted the railroad not so much for %hat it %as asfor %hat it signied. !horeau and Ha%thorne appreciated, even admired, an improvedmeans of moving things and people from one place to another. 8hat these %riters andothers %ere concerned a#out %as not the ne% machinery as such, #ut the ne% (ind ofeconomy, social order, and culture that it pregured. In addition, Stilgoe is %rong to implythat the critical attitude of these %riters %as typical of the periodC their distrust %as largely areaction against the prevailing attitude in the /B2s that the railroad %as an un"ualied

improvement.Stilgoe’s assertion that the am#ivalence to%ard the railroad e-hi#ited #y %riters li(e

Ha%thorne and !horeau disappeared after the /BB2s is also misleading. In support of thisthesis, Stilgoe has unearthed an impressive volume of material, the %or( of hithertoun(no%n illustrators, journalists, and novelists, all devotees of the railroad> #ut it is not clear%hat this ne% material proves e-cept perhaps that the %or(s of popular culture greatlye-panded at the time. !he volume of the material proves nothing if Stilgoe’s point is that theearlier distrust of a minority of intellectuals did not endure #eyond the /BB2s, and, oddly,much of Stilgoe’s other evidence indicates that it did. 8hen he glances at the treatment ofrailroads #y %riters li(e Henry Fames, Sinclair $e%is, or 5. Scott 5it&gerald, %hat comesthrough in spite of Stilgoe’s analysis is remar(a#ly li(e !horeau’s feeling of contrariety andam#ivalence. ;Had he loo(ed at the %or( of 5ran( :orris, Eugene ’:eill, or Henry *dams,Stilgoe’s case %ould have #een much stronger.= !he point is that the sharp contrast #et%een

the enthusiastic supporters of the railroad in the /B2s and the minority of intellectualdissenters during that period e-tended into the /BB2s and #eyond.

7. 'he passage provides information to answer all of the following 4uestions %?"%='@

(A) #uring what period did the railroad reach the *enith of its popularity in the UnitedStates8

() ow e0tensive was the impact of the railroad on the Industrial evolution in the UnitedStates, relative to that of other modern innovations8



(") ;ho are some of the writers of the 1+:s who e0pressed ambivalence toward therailroad8

(#) In what way could Stilgoe have strengthened his argument regarding intellectuals6attitudes toward the railroad in the years after the 1:s8

(%) ;hat arguments did the writers after the 1:s, as cited by Stilgoe, offer to $ustify their

support for the railroad8

. According to the author of the passage, Stilgoe uses the phrase romanticera distrust/ (line1+) to imply that the view he is referring to was

(A) the attitude of a minority of intellectuals toward technological innovation that beganafter 1+:

() a commonly held attitude toward the railroad during the 1+:s

(") an ambivalent view of the railroad e0pressed by many poets and novelists between 1:and 1-+:

(#) a criti4ue of social and economic developments during the 1+:s by a minority ofintellectuals

(%) an attitude toward the railroad that was disseminated by wor!s of popular culture after1:

-. According to the author, the attitude toward the railroad that was reflected in writings ofenry Bames, Sinclair Cewis, and D. Scott Dit*gerald was

(A) influenced by the writings of Dran! >orris, %ugene 56>eill, and enry Adams

() similar to that of the minority of writers who had e0pressed ambivalence toward therailroad prior to the 1:s

(") consistent with the public attitudes toward the railroad that were reflected in wor!s of popular culture after the 1:s

(#) largely a reaction to the wor!s of writers who had been severely critical of the railroad inthe 1+:s

(%) consistent with the prevailing attitude toward the railroad during the 1+:s

1:. It can be inferred from the passage that the author uses the phrase wor!s of popular culture/(line 1) primarily to refer to the

(A) wor! of a large group of writers that was published between 1: and 1-+: and that inStilgoe6s view was highly critical of the railroad

() wor! of writers who were heavily influenced by awthorne and 'horeau

(") large volume of writing produced by enry Adams, Sinclair Cewis, and %ugene 56>eill

(#) wor! of $ournalists, novelists, and illustrators who were responsible for creating

enthusiasm for the railroad during the 1+:s(%) wor! of $ournalists, novelists, and illustrators that was published after 1: and that has

received little attention from scholars other than Stilgoe

11. ;hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the wor! of Dran! >orris, %ugene 56>eill, and enry Adams8

(A) 'heir wor! never achieved broad popular appeal.

() 'heir ideas were disseminated to a large audience by the popular culture of the early



1::s.

(") 'heir wor! e0pressed a more positive attitude toward the railroad than did that of enryBames, Sinclair Cewis, and D. Scott Dit*gerald.

(#) Although they were primarily novelists, some of their wor! could be classified as $ournalism.

(%) Although they were influenced by 'horeau, their attitude toward the railroad wassignificantly different from his.

1&. It can be inferred from the passage that Stilgoe would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following statements regarding the study of cultural history8

(A) It is impossible to !now e0actly what period historians are referring to when they use theterm romantic era./

() 'he writing of intellectuals often anticipates ideas and movements that are laterembraced by popular culture.

(") ;riters who were not popular in their own time tell us little about the age in which theylived.

(#) 'he wor!s of popular culture can serve as a reliable indicator of public attitudes towardmodern innovations li!e the railroad.

(%) 'he best source of information concerning the impact of an event as large as theIndustrial evolution is the private letters and $ournals of individuals.

1+. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) evaluate one scholar6s view of public attitudes toward the railroad in the United Statesfrom the early nineteenth to the early twentieth century

() review the treatment of the railroad in American literature of the nineteenth andtwentieth centuries

(") survey the views of cultural historians regarding the railroad6s impact on ma$or events inUnited States history

(#) e0plore the origins of the public support for the railroad that e0isted after the completionof a national rail system in the United States

(%) define what historians mean when they refer to the romanticera distrust/ of the railroad

!hree #asic adaptive responses3regulatory, acclimatory, and developmental3mayoccur in organisms as they react to changing environmental conditions. In all three,adjustment of #iological features ;morphological adjustment= or of their use ;functionaladjustment= may occur. Degulatory responses involve rapid changes in the organism’s use of its physiological apparatus3increasing or decreasing the rates of various processes, fore-ample. *cclimation involves morphological change3thic(ening of fur or red #lood cellproliferation3%hich alters physiology itself. Such structural changes re"uire more time than

regulatory response changes. Degulatory and acclimatory responses are #oth reversi#le.9evelopmental responses, ho%ever, are usually permanent and irreversi#leC they

#ecome -ed in the course of the individual’s development in response to environmentalconditions at the time the response occurs. ne such response occurs in many (inds of%ater #ugs. )ost %ater'#ug species inha#iting small la(es and ponds have t%o generationsper year. !he rst hatches during the spring, reproduces during the summer, then dies. !heeggs laid in the summer hatch and develop into adults in late summer. !hey live over the%inter #efore #reeding in early spring. Individuals in the second ;over%intering= generationhave fully developed %ings and leave the %ater in autumn to over%inter in forests, returning



in spring to small #odies of %ater to lay eggs. !heir %ings are a#solutely necessary for thisseasonal dispersal. !he summer ;early= generation, in contrast, is usually dimorphic3someindividuals have normal functional ;macropterous= %ings> others have much'reduced;micropterous= %ings of no use for 4ight. !he summer generation’s dimorphism is acompromise strategy, for these individuals usually do not leave the ponds and thusgenerally have no use for fully developed %ings. ut small ponds occasionally dry up during

the summer, forcing the %ater #ugs to search for ne% ha#itats, an eventuality thatmacropterous individuals are %ell adapted to meet.

!he dimorphism of micropterous and macropterous individuals in the summergeneration e-presses developmental 4e-i#ility> it is not genetically determined. !heindividual’s %ing form is environmentally determined #y the temperature to %hichdeveloping eggs are e-posed prior to their #eing laid. Eggs maintained in a %armenvironment al%ays produce #ugs %ith normal %ing, #ut e-posure to cold producesmicropterous individuals. Eggs producing the over%intering #rood are all formed during thelate summer’s %arm temperatures. Hence, all individuals in the over%intering #rood havenormal %ings. Eggs laid #y the over%intering adults in the spring, %hich develop into thesummer generation of adults, are formed in early autumn and early spring. !hose eggsformed in autumn are e-posed to cold %inter temperatures, and thus produce micropterousadults in the summer generation. !hose formed during the spring are never e-posed to cold

temperatures, and thus yield individuals %ith normal %ing. *dult %ater #ugs of theover%intering generation #rought into the la#oratory during the cold months and (ept %arm,produce only macropterous ospring.

1. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) illustrate an organism6s functional adaptive response to changing environmentalconditions

() prove that organisms can e0hibit three basic adaptive responses to changingenvironmental conditions

(") e0plain the differences in form and function between micropterous and macropterouswater bugs and analy*e the effect of environmental changes on each

(#) discuss three different types of adaptive responses and provide an e0ample that e0plainshow one of those types of responses wor!s

(%) contrast acclimatory responses with developmental responses and suggest an e0planationfor the evolutionary purposes of these two responses to changing environmentalconditions

13. 'he passage supplies information to suggest that which one of the following would happenif a pond inhabited by water bugs were to dry up in Bune8

(A) 'he number of developmental responses among the waterbug population woulddecrease.

() oth micropterous and macropterous water bugs would show an acclimatory response.

(") 'he generation of water bugs to be hatched during the subse4uent spring would containan unusually large number of macropterous individuals.

(#) 'he dimorphism of the summer generation would enable some individuals to survive.

(%) 'he dimorphism of the summer generation would be genetically transferred to the ne0tspring generation.

12. It can be inferred from the passage that if the winter months of a particular year wereunusually warm, the



(A) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce a higher than usual proportion of macropterous individuals

() eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce an entire summergeneration of water bugs with smaller than normal wings

(") eggs of the overwintering generation formed in the autumn would not be affected by this

temperature change(#) overwintering generation would not leave the ponds for the forest during the winter

(%) overwintering generation of water bugs would most li!ely form fewer eggs in theautumn and more in the spring

17. According to the passage, the dimorphic wing structure of the summer generation of water bugs occurs because

(A) the overwintering generation forms two sets of eggs, one e0posed to the coldertemperatures of winter and one e0posed only to the warmer temperatures of spring

() the eggs that produce micropterous and macropterous adults are morphologicallydifferent

(") water bugs respond to seasonal changes by ma!ing an acclimatory functional ad$ustmentin the wings

(#) water bugs hatching in the spring live out their life spans in ponds and never need to fly

(%) the overwintering generation, which produces eggs developing into the dimorphicgeneration, spends the winter in the forest and the spring in small ponds

1. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following is an e0ample of aregulatory response8

(A) thic!ening of the plumage of some birds in the autumn

() increase in pulse rate during vigorous e0ercise

(") gradual dar!ening of the s!in after e0posure to sunlight

(#) gradual enlargement of muscles as a result of weight lifting

(%) development of a heavy fat layer in bears before hibernation

1-. According to the passage, the generation of water bugs hatching during the summer is li!elyto

(A) be made up of e4ual numbers of macropterous and micropterous individuals

() lay its eggs during the winter in order to e0pose them to cold

(") show a mar!ed inability to fly from one pond to another

(#) e0hibit genetically determined differences in wing form from the early springhatchedgeneration

(%) contain a much greater proportion of macropterous water bugs than the early springhatched generation

&:. 'he author mentions laboratory e0periments with adult water bugs (lines 2+22) in order toillustrate which one of the following8

(A) the function of the summer generation6s dimorphism

() the irreversibility of most developmental adaptive responses in water bugs

(") the effect of temperature on developing waterbug eggs



(#) the morphological difference between the summer generation and the overwinteringgeneration of water bugs

(%) the functional ad$ustment of water bugs in response to seasonal temperature variation

&1. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) iological phenomena are presented, e0amples of their occurrence are compared andcontrasted, and one particular e0ample is illustrated in detail.

() A description of related biological phenomena is stated, and two of those phenomena aree0plained in detail with illustrated e0amples.

(") 'hree related biological phenomena are described, a hypothesis e0plaining theirrelationship is presented, and supporting evidence is produced.

(#) 'hree complementary biological phenomena are e0plained, their causes are e0amined,and one of them is described by contrasting its causes with the other two.

(%) A new way of describing biological phenomena is suggested, its applications are presented, and one specific e0ample is e0amined in detail.

!he Aonstitution of the United States does not e-plicitly dene the e-tent of the

7resident’s authority to involve United States troops in con4icts %ith other nations in thea#sence of a declaration of %ar. Instead, the "uestion of the 7resident’s authority in thismatter falls in the ha&y area of concurrent po%er, %here authority is not e-pressly allocatedto either the 7resident or the Aongress. !he Aonstitution gives Aongress the #asic po%er todeclare %ar, as %ell as the authority to raise and support armies and a navy, enactregulations for the control of the military, and provide for the common defense. !he7resident, on the other hand, in addition to #eing o#ligated to e-ecute the la%s of the land,including commitments negotiated #y defense treaties, is named commander in chief of thearmed forces and is empo%ered to appoint envoys and ma(e treaties %ith the consent of theSenate. *lthough this allocation of po%ers does not e-pressly address the use of armedforces short of a declared %ar, the spirit of the Aonstitution at least re"uires that Aongressshould #e involved in the decision to deploy troops, and in passing the 8ar 7o%ersDesolution of /0, Aongress has at last reclaimed a role in such decisions.

Historically, United States 7residents have not %aited for the approval of Aongress#efore involving United States troops in con4icts in %hich a state of %ar %as not declared.ne scholar has identied /00 military engagements that occurred %ithout the consent ofAongress, ranging from Feerson’s con4ict %ith the ar#ary pirates to :i-on’s invasion ofAam#odia during the ietnam con4ict, %hich 7resident :i-on argued %as justied #ecausehis role as commander in chief allo%ed him almost unlimited discretion over the deploymentof troops. Ho%ever, the ietnam con4ict, never a declared %ar, represented a turning pointin Aongress’s tolerance of presidential discretion in the deployment of troops in undeclared%ars. Galvani&ed #y the human and monetary cost of those hostilities and sho%ing a ne%determination to fulll its proper role, Aongress enacted the 8ar 7o%ers Desolution of /0,a statute designed to ensure that the collective judgment of #oth Aongress and the7resident %ould #e applied to the involvement of United States troops in foreign con4icts.

!he resolution re"uired the 7resident, in the a#sence of a declaration of %ar, to consult%ith Aongress +in every possi#le instance #efore introducing forces and to report toAongress %ithin JB hours after the forces have actually #een deployed. )ost important, theresolution allo%s Aongress to veto the involvement once it #egins, and re"uires the7resident, in most cases, to end the involvement %ithin 12 days unless Aongress specicallyauthori&es the military operation to continue. In its nal section, #y declaring the resolutionis not intended to alter the constitutional authority of either Aongress or the 7resident, theresolution asserts that congressional involvement in decisions to use armed force is inaccord %ith the intent and spirit of the Aonstitution.



&&. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) showing how the Eietnam conflict led to a new interpretation of the "onstitution6s provisions for use of the military

() arguing that the ;ar =owers esolution of 1-7+ is an attempt to reclaim a share ofconstitutionally concurrent power that had been usurped by the =resident

(") outlining the history of the struggle between the =resident and "ongress for control ofthe military

(#) providing e0amples of conflicts inherent in the "onstitution6s approach to a balance of powers

(%) e0plaining how the ;ar =owers esolution of 1-7+ alters the "onstitution to eliminatean overlap of authority

&+. ;ith regard to the use of United States troops in a foreign conflict without a formaldeclaration of war by the United States, the author believes that the United States"onstitution does which one of the following8

(A) assumes that the =resident and "ongress will agree on whether troops should be used

() provides a clearcut division of authority between the =resident and "ongress in thedecision to use troops

(") assigns a greater role to the "ongress than to the =resident in deciding whether troopsshould be used

(#) grants final authority to the =resident to decide whether to use troops

(%) intends (SI9>IDF, <%A>) that both the =resident and "ongress should be involved inthe decision to use troops

&. 'he passage suggests that each of the following contributed to "ongress6s enacting the ;ar=owers esolution of 1-7+ %?"%='

(A) a change in the attitude in "ongress toward e0ercising its role in the use of armed forces

() the failure of =residents to uphold commitments specified in defense treaties

(") "ongress6s desire to be consulted concerning United States military actions instigated bythe =resident

(#) the amount of money spent on recent conflicts waged without a declaration of war

(%) the number of lives lost in Eietnam

&3. It can be inferred from the passage that the ;ar =owers esolution of 1-7+ is applicableonly in the absence of a declaration of war/ (lines -) because

(A) "ongress has enacted other laws that already set out presidential re4uirements forsituations in which war has been declared

() by virtue of declaring war, "ongress already implicitly participates in the decision todeploy troops

(") the =resident generally receives broad public support during wars that have beenformally declared by "ongress

(#) "ongress felt that the =resident should be allowed unlimited discretion in cases in whichwar has been declared

(%) the United States "onstitution already e0plicitly defines the reporting and consultingre4uirements of the =resident in cases in which war has been declared



&2. In can be inferred from the passage that the author believes that the ;ar =owers esolutionof 1-7+

(A) is not in accord with the e0plicit roles of the =resident and "ongress as defined in the"onstitution

() interferes with the role of the =resident as commander in chief of the armed forces

(") signals "ongress6s commitment to fulfill a role intended for it by the "onstitution

(#) fails e0plicitly to address the use of armed forces in the absence of a declaration of war

(%) confirms the role historically assumed by =residents

&7. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following statements regarding the invasion of "ambodia8

(A) ecause it was underta!en without the consent of "ongress, it violated the intent andspirit of the "onstitution.

() ecause it galvani*ed support for the ;ar =owers esolution, it contributed indirectly tothe e0pansion of presidential authority.

(") ecause it was necessitated by a defense treaty, it re4uired the consent of "ongress.

(#) It served as a precedent for a new interpretation of the constitutional limits on the=resident6s authority to deploy troops.

(%) It differed from the actions of past =residents in deploying United States troops inconflicts without a declaration of war by "ongress.

&. According to the provisions of the ;ar =owers esolution of 1-7+ as described in the passage, if the =resident perceives that an international conflict warrants the immediateinvolvement of United States armed forces, the =resident is compelled in every instance to

(A) re4uest that "ongress consider a formal declaration of war

() consult with the leaders of both house of "ongress before deploying armed forces

(") desist from deploying any troops unless e0pressly approved by "ongress(#) report to "ongress within hours of the deployment of armed forces

(%) withdraw any armed forces deployed in such a conflict within 2: days unless war isdeclared

LSAT 03 SECTION II






sheet.

!he e-tent of a nation’s po%er over its coastal ecosystems and the natural resources inits coastal %aters has #een dened #y t%o international la% doctrinesC freedom of the seasand adjacent state sovereignty. Until the mid't%entieth century, most nations favoredapplication of #road open'seas freedoms and limited sovereign rights over coastal %aters. *nation had the right to include %ithin its territorial dominion only a very narro% #and ofcoastal %aters ;generally e-tending three miles from the shoreline=, %ithin %hich it had theauthority #ut not the responsi#ility, to regulate all activities. ut, #ecause this area ofterritorial dominion %as so limited, most nations did not esta#lish rules for management orprotection of their territorial %aters.



Degardless of %hether or not nations enforced regulations in their territorial %aters,large ocean areas remained free of controls or restrictions. !he citi&ens of all nations had theright to use these unrestricted ocean areas for any innocent purpose, including navigationand shing. E-cept for controls over its o%n citi&ens, no nation had the responsi#ility, letalone the unilateral authority, to control such activities in international %aters. *nd, sincethere %ere fe% standards of conduct that applied on the +open seas, there %ere fe%

jurisdictional con4icts #et%een nations. !he lac( of standards is tracea#le to popular perceptions held #efore the middle of thiscentury. y and large, marine pollution %as not perceived as a signicant pro#lem, in part #ecause the adverse eect of coastal activities on ocean ecosystems %as not %idelyrecogni&ed, and pollution caused #y human activities %as generally #elieved to #e limited tothat caused #y navigation. )oreover, the freedom to sh, or oversh, %as an essentialelement of the traditional legal doctrine of freedom of the seas that no maritime country%ished to see limited. *nd nally, the technology that later allo%ed e-ploitation of otherocean resources, such as oil, did not yet e-ist.

!o date, controlling pollution and regulating ocean resources have still not #eencomprehensively addressed #y la%, #ut international la%3esta#lished through the customsand practices of nations3does not preclude such eorts. *nd t%o recent developments mayactually lead to future international rules providing for ecosystem management. 5irst, the

esta#lishment of e-tensive shery &ones e-tending territorial authority as far as @22 milesout from a country’s coast, has provided the opportunity for nations individually to managelarger ecosystems. !his opportunity, com#ined %ith national self'interest in maintaining shpopulations, could lead nations to reevaluate policies for management of their sheries andto address the pro#lem of pollution in territorial %aters. Second, the international communityis #eginning to understand the importance of preserving the resources and ecology ofinternational %aters and to sho% signs of accepting responsi#ility for doing so. *s aninternational consensus regarding the need for comprehensive management of oceanresources develops, it %ill #ecome more li(ely that international standards and policies for#roader regulation of human activities that aect ocean ecosystems %ill #e adopted andimplemented.

1. According to the passage, until the midtwentieth century there were few $urisdictional

disputes over international waters because.(A) the nearest coastal nation regulated activities

() few controls or restrictions applied to ocean areas

(") the ocean areas were used for only innocent purposes

(#) the freedom of the seas doctrine settled all claims concerning navigation and fishing

(%) broad authority over international waters was shared e4ually among all nations

&. According to the international law doctrines applicable before the midtwentieth century, ifcommercial activity within a particular nation6s territorial waters threatened all marine life inthose waters, the nation would have been

(A) formally censured by an international organi*ation for not properly regulating marine

activities() called upon by other nations to establish rules to protect its territorial waters

(") able but not re4uired to place legal limits on such commercial activities

(#) allowed to resolve the problem at it own discretion providing it could contain the threatto its own territorial waters

(%) permitted to hold the commercial offenders liable only if they were citi*ens of that particular nation



+. 'he author suggests that, before the midtwentieth century, most nations6 actions withrespect to territorial and international waters indicated that

(A) managing ecosystems in either territorial or international waters was given low priority

() unlimited resources in international waters resulted in little interest in territorial waters

(") nations considered it their responsibility to protect territorial but not international waters

(#) a nation6s authority over its citi*enry ended at territorial lines

(%) although nations could e0tend their territorial dominion beyond three miles from theirshoreline, most chose not to do so

. 'he author cites which one of the following as an effect of the e0tension of territorial waters beyond the threemile limit8

(A) increased political pressure on individual nations to establish comprehensive lawsregulating ocean resources

() a greater number of $urisdictional disputes among nations over the regulation of fishingon the open seas

(") the opportunity for some nations to manage large ocean ecosystems

(#) a new awareness of the need to minimi*e pollution caused by navigation

(%) a political incentive for smaller nations to solve the problems of pollution in their coastalwaters

3. According to the passage, before the middle of the twentieth century, nations failed toestablish rules protecting their territorial waters because

(A) the waters appeared to be unpolluted and to contain unlimited resources

() the fishing industry would be adversely affected by such rules

(") the si*e of the area that would be sub$ect to such rules was insignificant

(#) the technology needed for pollution control and resource management did not e0ist

(%) there were few $urisdictional conflicts over nations6 territorial waters

2. 'he passage as a whole can best be described as

(A) a chronology of the events that have led up to presentday crisis

() a legal in4uiry into the abuse of e0isting laws and the li!elihood of reform

(") a political analysis of the problems inherent in directing national attention to aninternational issue

(#) a historical analysis of a problem that re4uires international attention

(%) a proposal for adopting and implementing international standards to solve an ecological problem

!he human species came into #eing at the time of the greatest #iological diversity in thehistory of the Earth. !oday, as human populations e-pand and alter the natural environment,they are reducing #iological diversity to its lo%est level since the end of the )eso&oic era, 1<million years ago. !he ultimate conse"uences of this #iological collision are #eyondcalculation, #ut they are certain to #e harmful. !hat, in essence, is the #iodiversity crisis.

!he history of glo#al diversity can #e summari&ed as follo%sC after the initial 4o%ering of multicellular animals, there %as a s%ift rise in the num#er of species in early 7aleo&oic times;#et%een 122 and J2 million years ago=, then plateauli(e stagnation for the remaining @22million years of the 7aleo&oic era, and nally a slo% #ut steady clim# through the )eso&oicand Aeno&oic eras to diversity’s all'time high. !his history suggests that #iological diversity



%as hard %on and a long time in coming. 5urthermore, this pattern of increase %as set #ac( #y ve massive e-tinction episodes. !he most recent of these, during the Aretaceous period,is #y far the most famous, #ecause it ended the age of the dinosaurs, conferred hegemonyon the mammals, and ultimately made possi#le the ascendancy of the human species. utthe cretaceous crisis %as minor compared %ith the 7ermian e-tinctions @J2 million yearsago, during %hich #et%een and 01 percent of marine animal species perished. It too( <

million years, %ell into )eso&oic times, for species diversity to #egin a signicant recovery.8ithin the past /2,222 years #iological diversity has entered a %holly ne% era. Humanactivity has had a devastating eect on species diversity, and the rate of human'inducede-tinctions is accelerating. Half of the #ird species of 7olynesia have #een eliminatedthrough hunting and the destruction of native forests. Hundreds of sh species endemic to$a(e ictoria are no% threatened %ith e-tinction follo%ing the careless introduction of onespecies of sh, the :ile perch. !he list of such #iogeographic disasters is e-tensive.

ecause every species is uni"ue and irreplacea#le, the loss of #iodiversity is the mostprofound process of environmental change. Its conse"uences are also the least predicta#le#ecause the value of Earth’s #iota ;the fauna and 4ora collectively= remains largelyunstudied and unappreciated> unli(e material and cultural %ealth, %hich %e understand#ecause they are the su#stance of our everyday lives, #iological %ealth is usually ta(en forgranted. !his is a serious strategic error, one that %ill #e increasingly regretted as time

passes. !he #iota is not only part of a country’s heritage, the product of millions of years ofevolution centered on that place> it is also a potential source for immense untapped material%ealth in the form of food, medicine, and other commercially important su#stance.

7. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'he reduction in biodiversity is an irreversible process that represents a setbac! both forscience and for society as a whole.

() 'he material and cultural wealth of a nation are insignificant when compared with thecountry6s biological wealth.

(") 'he enormous diversity of life on %arth could not have come about without periodice0tinctions that have conferred preeminence on one species at the e0pense of another.

(#) 'he human species is in the process of initiating a massive e0tinction episode that mayma!e past episodes loo! minor by comparison.

(%) 'he current decline in species diversity is humaninduced tragedy of incalculable proportions that has potentially grave conse4uences for the human species.

. ;hich one of the following situations is most analogous to the history of global diversitysummari*ed in lines 1:1 of the passage8

(A) 'he number of fish in a la!e declines abruptly as a result of water pollution, then ma!esa slow comebac! after cleanup efforts and the passage of ordinances against dumping.

() 'he concentration of chlorine in the water supply of large city fluctuates widely beforestabili*ing at a constant and safe level.

(") An oldfashioned article of clothing goes in and out of style periodically as a result offeatures in fashion maga*ines and the popularity of certain period films.

(#) After valuable mineral deposits are discovered, the population of a geographic region booms then levels off and begins to decrease at a slow and steady pace.

(%) 'he variety of styles stoc!ed by a shoe store increases rapidly after the store opens, holdsconstant for many months, and then gradually creeps upward.

-. 'he author suggests which one of the following about the "retaceous crisis8



(A) It was the second most devastating e0tinction episode in history.

() It was the most devastating e0tinction episode up until that time.

(") It was less devastating to species diversity than is the current biodiversity crisis.

(#) 'he rate of e0tinction among marine animal species as a result of the crisis did notapproach 77 percent.

(%) 'he dinosaurs comprised the great ma$ority of species that perished during the crisis.

1:. 'he author mentions the >ile perch in order to provide an e0ample of

(A) a species that has become e0tinct through human activity

() the typical lac! of foresight that has led to biogeographic disaster

(") a marine animal species that survived the =ermian e0tinctions

(#) a species that is a potential source of material wealth

(%) the !ind of action that is necessary to reverse the decline in species diversity

11. All of the following are e0plicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to the e0tinctionof species %?"%='

(A) hunting

() pollution

(") deforestation

(#) the growth of human populations

(%) humanengineered changes in the environment

1&. 'he passage suggests which one of the following about material and cultural wealth8

(A) ecause we can readily assess the value of material and cultural wealth, we tend not tota!e them for granted.

() Bust as the biota is a source of potential material wealth, it is an untapped source of

cultural wealth as well.(") Some degree of material and cultural wealth may have to be sacrificed if we are to

protect our biological heritage.

(#) <aterial and cultural wealth are of less value than biological wealth because they haveevolved over a shorter period of time.

(%) <aterial wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that material wealthand cultural wealth are not.

1+. 'he author would be most li!ely to agree with which one of the following statements aboutthe conse4uences of the biodiversity crisis8

(A) 'he loss of species diversity will have as immediate an impact on the material of nations

as on their biological wealth.() 'he crisis will li!ely end the hegemony of the human race and bring about the

ascendancy of another species.

(") 'he effects of the loss of species diversity will be dire, but we cannot yet tell how dire.

(#) It is more fruitful to discuss the conse4uences of the crisis in terms of the potential lossto humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in strictly biological terms.

(%) 'he conse4uences of the crisis can be minimi*ed, but the pace of e0tinctions can not be



reversed.

8omen’s participation in the revolutionary events in 5rance #et%een /B0 and /0< hasonly recently #een given nuanced treatment. Early t%entieth century historians of the5rench Devolution are typied #y Faures, %ho, though sympathetic to the %omen’smovement of his o%n time, never even mentions its antecedents in revolutionary 5rance.Even today most general histories treat only cursorily a fe% individual %omen, li(e )arie

*ntoinette. !he recent studies #y $andes, adinter, Godineau, and Doudinesco, ho%ever,should signal a much'needed reassessment of %omen’s participation.

Godineau and Doudinesco point to three signicant phases in that participation. !herst, up to mid'/0@, involved those %omen %ho %rote political tracts. !ypical of theirorientation to theoretical issues3in Godineaus’s vie%, %ithout practical eect3is )arieGou&e’s Declaration of the Right of Women. !he emergence of vocal middle'class %omen’spolitical clu#s mar(s the second phase. 5ormed in /0/ as adjuncts of middle'class malepolitical clu#s, and originally philanthropic in function, #y late /0@ independent clu#s of%omen #egan to advocate military participation for %omen. In the nal phase, the famine of/0< occasioned a mass %omen’s movementC %omen sei&ed food supplies, hold o6cialshostage, and argued for the implementation of democratic politics. !his phase ended in )ayof /0< %ith the military suppression of this multiclass movement. In all three phases%omen’s participation in politics contrasted mar(edly %ith their participation #efore /B0.

efore that date some no#le%omen participated indirectly in elections, #ut suchparticipation #y more than a narro% range of the population3%omen or men3came only%ith the Devolution.

8hat ma(es the recent studies particularly compelling, ho%ever, is not so much theirorgani&ation of chronology as their un4inching %illingness to confront the reasons for thecollapse of the %omen’s movement. 5or $andes and adinter, the necessity of %omen’shaving to spea( in the esta#lished voca#ularies of certain intellectual and political traditiondiminished the a#ility of the %omen’s movement to resist suppression. )any %omen, andmany men, they argue, located their vision %ithin the conning tradition of Fean'Fac"uesDousseau, %ho lin(ed male and female roles %ith pu#lic and private spheres respectively.ut, %hen %omen %ent on to ma(e political alliances %ith radical Faco#in men, adinterasserts, they adopted a voca#ulary and a violently e-tremist vie%point that unfortunately%as even more damaging to their political interests.

Each of these scholars has dierent political agenda and ta(es a dierent approach3Godineau, for e-ample, %or(s %ith police archives %hile Doudinesco uses e-planatoryschema from modern psychology. ?et, admira#ly, each gives center stage to a group thatpreviously has #een marginali&ed, or at #est undierentiated, #y historians. *nd in the caseof $andes and adinter, the reader is left %ith a so#ering a%areness of the cost to the%omen of the Devolution of spea(ing in #orro%ed voices.

1. ;hich one of the following best states the main point of the passage8

(A) According to recent historical studies, the participation of women in the revolutionaryevents of 17-17-3 can most profitably be viewed in three successive stages.

() 'he findings of certain recent historical studies have resulted from an earlier generalreassessment, by historians, of women6s participation in the revolutionary events of17-17-3.

(") Adopting the vocabulary and viewpoint of certain intellectual and political traditionsresulted in no political advantage for women in Drance in the years 17-17-3.

(#) "ertain recent historical studies have provided a muchneeded description andevaluation of the evolving roles of women in the revolutionary events of 17-17-3.

(%) istorical studies that see! to e0plain the limitations of the women6s movement is moreconvincing than are those that see! only to describe the general features of that



movement.

13. 'he passage suggests that 9odineau would be li!ely to agree with which one of thefollowing statements about <arie 9ou*e6s #eclaration of the ights of ;omen8

(A) 'his wor! was not understood by many of 9ou*e6s contemporaries.

() 'his wor! indirectly inspired the formation of independent women6s political clubs.

(") 'his wor! had little impact on the world of political action.

(#) 'his wor! was the most compelling produced by a Drench woman between 17- and17-&.

(%) 'his wor! is typical of the !ind of writing Drench women produced between 17-+ and17-3.

12. According to the passage, which one of the following is a true statement about the purposeof the women6s political cubs mentioned in line &:8

(A) 'hese clubs fostered a mass women6s movement.

() 'hese clubs eventually developed a purpose different from their original purpose.

(") 'hese clubs were founder to advocate military participation for women.(#) 'hese clubs counteracted the original purpose of male political clubs.

(%) 'hese clubs lost their direction by the time of the famine of 17-3.

17. 'he primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to@

(A) outline the author6s argument about women6s roles in Drances between 17- and 17-3

() anticipate possible challenges to the findings of the recent studies of women in Drance between 17- and 17-3

(") summari*e some longstanding e0planations of the role of individual women in Drance between 17- and 17-3

(#) present a conte0t for the discussion of recent studies of women in Drance between 17-

and 17-3

(%) characteri*e various eighteenthcentury studies of women in Drance

1. 'he passage suggests that Candes and adinter would be li!ely to agree with which one ofthe following statements about the women6s movement in Drance in the 17-:s8

(A) 'he movement might have been more successful if women had developed their own political vocabularies.

() 'he downfall of the movement was probably unrelated to it alliance with Bacobin men.

(") 'he movement had a great deal of choice about whether to adopt a ousseauist politicalvocabulary.

(#) 'he movement would have triumphed if it had not been suppressed by military means.(%) 'he movement viewed a ousseauist political tradition, rather than a Bacobin politicalideology, as detrimental to its interests.

1-. In the conte0t of the passage, the word cost/ in line 2+ refers to the

(A) dichotomy of private roles for women and public roles for men

() almost none0istent political participation of women before 17-

(") historians6 lac! of differentiation among various groups of women



(#) political alliances women made with radical Bacobin men

(%) collapse of the women6s movement in the 17-:s

&:. 'he author of the passage is primarily concerned with

(A) critici*ing certain political and intellectual traditions

() summari*ing the main points of several recent historical studies and assessing their value(") establishing a chronological se4uence and arguing for its importance

(#) comparing and contrasting women6s political activities before and after the Drenchevolution

(%) ree0amining a longheld point of view and isolating its strengths and wea!nesses

*rt historians’ approach to 5rench Impressionism has changed signicantly in recentyears. 8hile a decade ago De%ald’s History of Impressionism, %hich emphasi&esImpressionist painters’ stylistic innovations, %as unchallenged, the literature onimpressionism has no% #ecome a (ind of ideological #attleeld, in %hich more attention ispaid to the su#ject matter of the paintings, and to the social and moral issues raised #y it,than to their style. Decently, politically charged discussions that address the impressionists’une"ual treatment of men and %omen and the e-clusion of modern industry and la#or from

their pictures have tended to cro%d out the stylistic analysis favored #y De%ald and hisfollo%ers. In a ne% %or( illustrating this trend, Do#ert $. Her#ert dissociates himself fromformalists %hose preoccupation %ith the stylistic features of impressionist painting has, inHer#ert’s vie%, left the history out of art history> his aim is to restore impressionist paintings+to their sociocultural conte-t. Ho%ever, his arguments are not nally persuasive.

In attempting to place impressionist painting in its proper historical conte-t, Her#ert hasredra%n the traditional #oundaries of impressionism. $imiting himself to the t%o decades#et%een /B12 and /BB2, he assem#les under the impressionist #anner %hat can only #edescri#ed as a some%hat eccentric grouping of painters. Ae&anne, 7isarro, and Sisley arealmost entirely ignored, largely #ecause their paintings do not suit Her#ert’s emphasis onthemes of ur#an life and su#ur#an leisure, %hile )anet, 9egas, and Aaille#otte3%ho paintscenes of ur#an life #ut %hom many %ould hardly characteri&e as impressionists3dominatethe rst half of the #oo(. *lthough this ne% description of Impressionist painting provides amore unied conception of nineteenth'century 5rench painting #y grouping "uite disparatemodernist painters together and emphasi&ing their common concerns rather than theirstylistic dierence, it also forces Her#ert to overloo( some of the most important genres ofimpressionist painting3portraiture, pure landscape, and still'life painting.

)oreover, the rationale for Her#ert’s emphasis on the social and political realities thatImpressionist paintings can #e said to communicate rather than on their style is nallyundermined #y %hat even Her#ert concedes %as the failure of Impressionist painters toserve as particularly conscientious illustrators of their social milieu. !hey left much ordinarye-perience3%or( and poverty, for e-ample3out of their paintings and %hat they did put in%as transformed #y a style that had only an indirect relationship to the social realities of the%orld they depicted. :ot only %ere their pictures inventions rather than photographs, they%ere inventions in %hich style to some degree disrupted description. !heir painting in eecthave t%o levels of su#jectC %hat is represented and ho% it is represented, and no arthistorian can aord to emphasi&e one at the e-pense of the other.

&1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point of the passage8

(A) 'he style of impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their sub$ect matter.

() 'he approach to impressionism that is illustrated by erbert6s recent boo! is inade4uate.

(") 'he historical conte0t of impressionist paintings is not relevant to their interpretation.

(#) impressionism emerged from a historical conte0t of ideological conflict and change.



(%) Any ade4uate future interpretation of impressionism will have to come to terms witherbert6s view of this art movement.

&&. According to the passage, ewald6s boo! on impressionism was characteri*ed by which oneof the following8

(A) evenhanded ob$ectivity about the achievements of impressionism

() bias in favor of certain impressionist painters

(") an emphasis on the stylistic features of impressionist painting

(#) an idiosyncratic view of which painters were to be classified as impressionists

(%) a refusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri*ed earlier discussions of impressionism

&+. 'he author implies that erbert6s redefinition of the boundaries of impressionism resultedfrom which one of the following8

(A) an e0clusive emphasis on form and style

() a bias in favor of the representation of modern industry

(") an attempt to place impressionism within a specific sociocultural conte0t(#) a broadening of the term impressionism to include all nineteenthcentury Drench

painting

(%) an insufficient familiarity with earlier interpretations of impressionism

&. 'he author states which one of the following about modern industry and labor as sub$ects for painting8

(A) 'he impressionists neglected these sub$ects in their paintings.

() erbert6s boo! on impressionism fails to give ade4uate treatment of these sub$ects.

(") 'he impressionists6 treatment of these sub$ects was ideali*ed.

(#) ewald6s treatment of impressionist painters focused inordinately on their

representations of these sub$ects.

(%) <odernist painters presented a distorted picture of these sub$ects.

&3. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the structure of the author6s argumentin the passage8

(A) 'he first two paragraphs each present independent arguments for a conclusion that isdrawn in the third paragraph.

() A thesis is stated in the first paragraph and revised in the second paragraph and revisedin the second paragraph, and the revised thesis is supported with argument in the third paragraph.

(") 'he first two paragraphs discuss and critici*e a thesis, and the third paragraph presentsan alternative thesis.

(#) a claim is made in the first paragraph, and the ne0t two paragraph, and the ne0t two paragraphs each present reasons for accepting that claim.

(%) An argument is presented in the first paragraph, a counterargument is presented in thesecond paragraph, and the third paragraph suggests a way to resolve the dispute.

&2. 'he author6s statement that impressionist paintings were inventions in which style to somedegree disrupted description/ (lines 373-) serves to



(A) strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi*e the differences between painting and photography

() wea!en the argument that style is the only important feature of impressionist paintings

(") indicate that impressionists recogni*ed that they had been strongly influence by photography

(#) support the argument that an e0clusive emphasis on the impressionists sub$ect matter ismista!en

(%) undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain !inds of sub$ect matter

&7. 'he author would most li!ely regard a boo! on the impressionists that focused entirely ontheir style as

(A) a product of the recent confusion caused by erbert6s boo! on impressionism

() emphasi*ing what impressionists themselves too! to be their primary artistic concern

(") an overreaction against the traditional interpretation of impressionism

(#) neglecting the most innovative aspects of impressionism

(%) addressing only part of what an ade4uate treatment should cover LSAT 04 SECTION IV






sheet.

Governments of developing countries occasionally enter into economic developmentagreements %ith foreign investors %ho provide capital and technological e-pertise that maynot #e readily availa#le in such countries. esides the normal economic ris( that

accompanies such enterprises, investors face the additional ris( that the host governmentmay attempt unilaterally to change in its favor the terms of the agreement or even toterminate the agreement altogether and appropriate the project for itself. In order to ma(eeconomic development agreements more attractive to investors, some developing countrieshave attempted to strengthen the security of such agreements %ith clauses specifying thatthe agreements %ill #e governed #y +general principles of la% recogni&ed #y civili&ednations3a set of legal principles or rules shared #y the %orld’s major legal systems.Ho%ever, advocates of governments’ freedom to modify or terminate such agreementsargue that these agreements fall %ithin a special class of contracts (no%n as administrativecontracts, a concept that originated in 5rench la%. !hey assert that under the theory ofadministrative contracts, a government retains inherent po%er to modify or terminate itso%n contract, and that this po%er indeed constitutes a general principle of la%. Ho%ever,their argument is 4a%ed on at least t%o counts.

5irst, in 5rench la% not all government contracts are treated as administrative contracts.Some contracts are designated as administrative #y specic statute, in %hich case thecontractor is made a%are of the applica#le legal rules upon entering into agreement %iththe government. *lternatively, the contracting government agency can itself designate acontract as administrative #y including certain terms not found in private civil contracts.)oreover, even in the case of administrative contracts, 5rench la% re"uires that in the eventthat the government unilaterally modies the terms of the contract, it must compensate thecontractor for any increased #urden resulting from the government’s action. In eect, thegovernment is thus prevented from modifying those contractual terms that dene thenancial #alance of the contract.



Second, the 5rench la% of administrative contracts, although adopted #y severalcountries, is not so universally accepted that it can #e em#raced as a general principle ofla%. In #oth the United States and the United Kingdom, government contracts are governed#y the ordinary la% of contracts, %ith the result that the government can reserve the po%erto modify or terminate a contract unilaterally only #y %riting such po%er into the contract asa specic provision. Indeed, the very fact that termination and modication clauses are

commonly found in government contracts suggests that a government’s capacity to modifyor terminate agreements unilaterally derives from specic contract provisions, not frominherent state po%er.

1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following8

(A) pointing out flaws in an argument provided in support of a position

() analy*ing the wea!nesses inherent in the proposed solution to a problem

(") marshaling evidence in support of a new e0planation of a phenomenon

(#) analy*ing the ris!s inherent in adopting a certain course of action

(%) advocating a new approach to a problem that has not been solved by traditional means

&. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with which

one of the following assertions regarding the general principles of law/ mentioned in lines1217 of the passage8

(A) 'hey fail to ta!e into account the special needs and interests of developing countries thatenter into agreements with foreign investors.

() 'hey have only recently been invo!ed as criteria for ad$udicating disputes betweengovernments and foreign investors.

(") 'hey are more compatible with the laws of Drance and the United States than with thoseof the United Gingdom.

(#) 'hey do not assert that governments have an inherent right to modify unilaterally theterms of agreements that they have entered into with foreign investors.

(%) 'hey are not useful in ad$udicating disputes between developing countries and foreigninvestors.

+. 'he author implies that which one of the following is true of economic developmentagreements8

(A) 'hey provide greater economic benefits to the governments that are parties to suchagreements than to foreign investors.

() 'hey are interpreted differently by courts in the United Gingdom than they are by courtsin the United States.

(") 'hey have proliferated in recent years as a result of governments6 attempts to ma!e themmore legally secure.

(#) 'hey entail greater ris! to investors when the governments that enter into suchagreements reserve the right to modify unilaterally the terms of the agreements.

(%) 'hey have become less attractive to foreign investors as an increasing number ofgovernments that enter into such agreements consider them governed by the law ofordinary contracts.

. According to the author, which one of the following is true of a contract that is designated by a Drench government agency as an administrative contract8



(A) It re4uires the government agency to pay for unanticipated increases in the cost ofdelivering the goods and services specified in the contract.

() It provides the contractor with certain guarantees that are not normally provided in private civil contracts.

(") It must be ratified by the passage of a statute.

(#) It discourages foreign companies from bidding on the contract.

(%) It contains terms that distinguish it from a private civil contract.

3. It can be inferred from the passage that under the ordinary law of contracts/ (lines 3+3), agovernment would have the right to modify unilaterally the terms of a contract that it hadentered into with a foreign investor if which one of the following were true8

(A) 'he government undertoo! a greater economic ris! by entering into the contract than didthe foreign investor.

() 'he cost to the foreign investor of abiding by the terms of the contract e0ceeded theoriginal estimates of such costs.

(") 'he modification of the contract did not result in any increased financial burden for the

investor.

(#) oth the government and the investor had agreed to abide by the general principles oflaw recogni*ed by civili*ed nations.

(%) 'he contract contains a specific provision allowing the government to modify thecontract.

2. In the last paragraph, the author refers to government contracts in the United States and theUnited Gingdom primarily in order to

(A) "ite two governments that often reserve the right to modify unilaterally contracts thatthey enter into with foreign investors.

() Support the assertion that there is no general principle of law governing contracts between private individuals and governments.

(") "ast doubt on the alleged universality of the concept of administrative contracts.

(#) =rovide e0amples of legal systems that might benefit from the concept of administrativecontracts.

(%) =rovide e0amples of characteristics that typically distinguish government contracts from private civil contracts.

7. ;hich one of the following best states the author6s main conclusion in the passage8

(A) =roviding that an international agreement be governed by general principles of law isnot a viable method of guaranteeing the legal security of such an agreement.

() Drench law regarding contracts is significantly different from those in the United Statesand the United Gingdom.

(") "ontracts between governments and private investors in most nations are governed byordinary contract law.

(#) An inherent power of a government to modify or terminate a contract cannot beconsidered a general principle of law.

(%) "ontracts between governments and private investors can be secured only by reliance ongeneral principles of law.



. 'he author6s argument in lines 372& would be most wea!ened if which one of the followingwere true8

(A) 'he specific provisions of government contracts often contain e0plicit statements ofwhat all parties to the contracts already agree are inherent state powers.

() 9overnments are more fre4uently put in the position of having to modify or terminate

contracts than are private individuals.(") <odification clauses in economic development agreements have fre4uently been

challenged in international tribunals by foreign investors who were a party to suchagreements.

(#) 'he general principles of law provide that modification clauses cannot allow the termsof a contract to be modified in such a way that the financial balance of the contract isaffected.

(%) 'ermination and modification agreements are often interpreted differently by nationalcourts than they are by international tribunals.

:ico 5rijda %rites that emotions are governed #y a psychological principle called the+la% of apparent realityC emotions are elicited only #y events appraised as real, and theintensity of these emotions corresponds to the degree to %hich these events are appraisedas real. !his o#servation seems psychologically plausi#le, #ut emotional responses elicited#y %or(s of art raise countere-amples.

5rijda’s la% accounts for my panic if I am afraid of sna(es and see an o#ject I correctlyappraise as a rattlesna(e, and also for my identical response if I see a coiled garden hose Imista(enly perceive to #e a sna(e. Ho%ever, suppose I am %atching a movie and see asna(e gliding to%ard its victim. Surely I might e-perience the same emotions of panic anddistress, though I (no% the sna(e is not real. !hese responses e-tend even to phenomenanot conventionally accepted as real. * movie a#out ghosts, for e-ample, may #e terrifying toall vie%ers, even those %ho rmly reject the possi#ility of ghosts, #ut this is not #ecausevie%ers are confusing cinematic depiction %ith reality. )oreover, I can feel strong emotionsin response to o#jects of art that are interpretations, rather than representations, of realityC Iam moved #y )o&art’s Reuiem, #ut I (no% that I am not at a real funeral. Ho%ever, if5rijda’s la% is to e-plain all emotional reactions, there should #e no emotional response at allto aesthetic o#jects or events, #ecause %e (no% they are not real in the %ay a livingrattlesna(e is real.

)ost psychologists, perple-ed #y the feelings they ac(no%ledge are aroused #yaesthetic e-perience, have claimed that these emotions are genuine, #ut dierent in (indfrom nonaesthetic emotions. !his, ho%ever, is a descriptive distinction rather than anempirical o#servation and conse"uently lac(s e-planatory value. n the other hand,Gom#rich argues that emotional responses to art are ersat&> art triggers remem#rances ofpreviously e-perienced emotions. !hese de#ates have prompted the psychologist Dadford toargue that people do e-perience real melancholy or joy in responding to art, #ut that theseare irrational responses precisely #ecause people (no% they are reacting to illusory stimuli.5rijda’s la% does not help us to untangle these positions, since it simply implies that events

%e recogni&e as #eing represented rather than real cannot elicit emotion in the rst place.5rijda does suggest that a vivid imagination has +properties of reality3implying,

%ithout e-planation, that %e ma(e aesthetic o#jects or events +real in the act ofe-periencing them. Ho%ever, as Scruton argues, a necessary characteristic of theimaginative construction that can occur in an emotional response to art is that the person(no%s he or she is pretending. !his is %hat distinguishes imagination from psychotic fantasy.

-. ;hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage8

(A) 'he law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for the emotional nature of



belief.

() 'heories of aesthetic response fail to account for how we distinguish unreasonable fromreasonable responses to art.

(") 'he law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for emotional responses to art.

(#) =sychologists have been unable to determine what accounts for the changeable nature of

emotional responses to art.

(%) =sychologists have been unable to determine what differentiates aesthetic fromnonaesthetic emotional responses.

1:. According to the passage, Dri$da6s law asserts that emotional responses to events are

(A) unpredictable because emotional responses depend on how aware the person is of thereality of an event

() wea!er if the person cannot distinguish illusion from reality

(") more or less intense depending on the degree to which the person perceives the event to be real

(#) more intense if the person perceives an event to be frightening

(%) wea!er if the person $udges an event to be real but unthreatening

11. 'he author suggests that Dri$da6s notion of the role of imagination in aesthetic response is problematic because it

(A) ignore the unselfconsciousness that is characteristic of emotional responses to art

() ignores the distinction between genuine emotion and ersat* emotion

(") ignores the fact that a person who is imagining !nows that he or she is imagining

(#) ma!es irrelevant distinctions between vivid and wea! imaginative capacities

(%) suggests, in reference to the observation of art, that there is no distinction between realand illusory stimuli

1&. 'he passage supports all of the following statements about the differences between9ombrich and adford %?"%='@

(A) adfod6s argument relies on a notion of irrationality in a way that 9omgbrich6sargument does not.

() 9mbrich6s position is closer to the position of the ma$ority of psychologists than isadford6s.

(") 9ombrich, unli!e adford, argues that we do not have true emotions in response to art.

(#) 9ombrich6s argument rests on a notion of memory in a way that adford6s argumentdoes not.

(%) adford6s argument, unli!e 9ombrich6s, is not focused on the artificial 4uality of

emotional responses to art.

1+. ;hich one of the following best captures the progression of the author6s argument in lines -+18

(A) 'he emotional responses to events ranging from the real to the depicted illustrate theirrationality of emotional response.

() A series of events that range from the real to the depicted conveys the contrast betweenreal events and cinematic depiction.



(") An intensification in emotional response to a series of events that range from the real tothe depicted illustrates Dri$da6s law.

(#) A progression of events that range from the real to the depicted e0amines the precisenature of panic in relation to feared ob$ect.

(%) 'he consistency of emotional responses to events that range from the real to the depicted

challenges Dri$da6s law.

1. Author6s assertions concerning movies about ghosts imply that all of the followingstatements are false %?"%='@

(A) <ovies about ghosts are terrifying in proportion to viewers6 beliefs in the phenomenonof ghosts.

() <ovies about imaginary phenomena li!e ghosts may be $ust as terrifying as moviesabout phenomena li!e sna!e.

(") <ovies about ghosts and sna!es are not terrifying because people !now that what theyviewing is not real.

(#) <ovies about ghosts are terrifying to viewers who previously re$ected the possibility of

ghosts because movies permanently alter the viewers sense of reality.(%) <ovies about ghosts elicit a very different emotional response from viewers who do not

believe in ghosts than movies about sna!es elicit from viewers who are frightened bysna!es.

13. ;hich one of the following statements best e0emplifies the position of adford concerningthe nature of emotional response to art8

(A) A person watching a movie about guerrilla warfare irrationally believes that he or she is present at the battle.

() A person watching a play about a !idnapping feels nothing because he or she rationallyreali*es it is not a real event.

(") A person gets particular en$oyment out of writing fictional narratives in which he or shefigures as a main character.

(#) A person irrationally bursts into tears while reading a novel about a destructive fire, evenwhile reali*ing that he or she is reading about a fictional event.

(%) A person who is afraid of sna!es trips over a branch and irrationally panics.

*lthough #acteria are unicellular and among the simplest autonomous forms of life, theysho% a remar(a#le a#ility to sense their environment. !hey are attracted to materials theyneed and are repelled #y harmful su#stances. )ost types of #acteria s%im very erraticallyCshort smooth runs in relatively straight lines are follo%ed #y #rief tum#les, after %hich the#acteria shoot o in random directions. !his leaves researchers %ith the "uestion of ho%such #acteria nd their %ay to an attractant such as food or, in the case of photosynthetic

#acteria, light, if their s%imming pattern consists only of smooth runs and tum#les, the latterresulting in random changes in direction.

ne clue comes from the o#servation that %hen a chemical attractant is added to asuspension of such #acteria, the #acteria s%im along a gradient of the attractant, from anarea %here the concentration of the attractant is %ea(er to an area %here it is stronger. *sthey do so, their s%imming is characteri&ed #y a decrease in tum#ling and an increase instraight runs over relatively longer distances. *s the #acteria encounter increasingconcentrations of the attractant, their tendency to tum#le is suppressed, %hereas tum#lingincreases %henever they move a%ay from the attractant. !he net eect is that runs in thedirection of higher concentrations of the attractant #ecome longer and straighter as a result



of the suppression of tum#ling, %hereas runs a%ay from it are shortened #y an increasedtendency of the #acteria to tum#le and change direction.

iologists have proposed t%o mechanisms that #acteria might use in detecting changesin the concentration of a chemical attractant. 5irst, a #acterium might compare theconcentration of a chemical at the front and #ac( of its cell #ody simultaneously. If theconcentration is higher at the front of the cell, then it (no%s it is moving up the

concentration gradient, from an area %here the concentration is lo%er to an area %here it ishigher. *lternatively, it might measure the concentration at one instant and again after a#rief interval, in %hich case the #acterium must retain a memory of the initial concentration.Desearchers reasoned that if #acteria do compare concentrations at dierent times, then%hen suddenly e-posed to a uniformly high concentration of an attractant, the cells %ould#ehave as if they %ere s%imming up a concentration gradient, %ith long, smooth runs andrelatively fe% tum#les. If, on the other hand, #acteria detect a chemical gradient #ymeasuring it simultaneously at t%o distinct points, front and #ac(, on the cell #ody, they%ould not respond to the jump in concentration #ecause the concentration of the attractantin front and #ac( of the cells, though high, %ould #e uniform. E-perimental evidencesuggests that #acteria compare concentrations at dierent times.

12. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following e0perimental results

would suggest that bacteria detect changes in the concentration of an attractant by measuringits concentration in front and bac! of the cell body simultaneously8

(A) ;hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractantwas uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high, the tendencyof the bacteria to tumble and undergo random changes in direction increased.

() ;hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractantwas uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high, the bacteria6se0hibited no change in the pattern of their motion.

(") ;hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractantwas uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly high, the bacteria6smovement was characteri*ed by a complete absence of tumbling.

(#) ;hen placed in a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was in some areaslow and in others high, the bacteria e0hibited an increased tendency to tumble in thoseareas where the concentration of the attractant was high.

(%) ;hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an attractantwas uniformly low to one that was completely free of attractants, the bacteria e0hibiteda tendency to suppress tumbling and move in longer, straighter lines.

17. It can be inferred from the passage that a bacterium would increase the li!elihood of itsmoving away from an area where the concentration of a harmful substance is high if it didwhich one of the following8

(A) Increased the speed at which it swam immediately after undergoing the random changes

in direction that result from tumbling.() #etected the concentration gradient of an attractant toward which it could begin to swim.

(") elied on the simultaneous measurement of the concentration of the substance in frontand bac! of its body, rather than on the comparison of the concentration at different points in time.

(#) %0hibited a complete cessation of tumbling when it detected increases in theconcentration of substance.



(%) %0hibited an increased tendency to tumble as it encountered increasing concentrations of the substance, and suppressed tumbling as it detected decreases in the concentration ofthe substance.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that when describing bacteria as swimming up aconcentration gradient/ (lines -3:), the author means that they were behaving as if they

were swimming(A) Against a resistant medium that ma!es their swimming less efficient.

() Away from a substance to which they are normally attracted.

(") Away from a substance that is normally harmful to them.

(#) Drom an area where the concentration of a repellent is wea!er to an area where it iscompletely absent.

(%) Drom an area where the concentration of a substance is wea!er to an area where it isstronger.

1-. 'he passage indicates that the pattern that characteri*es a bacterium6s motion changes inresponse to

(A) 'he !inds of chemical attractants present in different concentration gradients.

() 'he mechanism that the bacterium adopts in determining the presence of an attractant.

(") 'he bacterium6s detection of changes in the concentration of an attractant.

(#) 'he e0tent to which neighboring bacteria are engaged in tumbling.

(%) "hanges in the intervals of time that occur between the bacterium6s measurement of theconcentration of an attractant.

&:. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the third paragraph of the passage8

(A) 'wo approaches to a problem are discussed, a test that would determine which is more

efficient is described, and a conclusion is made, based on e0perimental evidence.() 'wo hypotheses are described, a way of determining which of them is more li!ely to be

true is discussed, and one said to be more accurate on the basis of e0perimentalevidence.

(") 'wo hypotheses are described, the flaws inherent in one of them are elaborated, ande0perimental evidence confirming the other is cited.

(#) An assertion that a species has adopted two different mechanisms to solve a particular problem is made, and evidence is then provided in support of that assertion.

(%) An assertion that one mechanism for solving a particular problem is more efficient thananother is made, and evidence is then provided in support of that assertion.

&1. 'he passage provides information in support of which one of the following assertions8(A) 'he seemingly erratic motion e0hibited by a microorganism can in fact reflect a

mechanism by which it is able to control its movement.

() iologists often overstate the comple0ity of simple organisms such as bacteria.

(") A bacterium cannot normally retain a memory of a measurement of the concentration ofan attractant.

(#) acteria now appear to have less control over their movement than biologists had



previously hypothesi*ed.

(%) =hotosynthetic bacteria appear to have more control over their movement than do bacteria that are not photosynthetic.

*nthropologist 9avid )andel#aum ma(es a distinction #et%een life'passage studies andlife'history studies %hich emerged primarily out of research concerning :ative *mericans.

$ife'passage studies, he says, +emphasi&e the re"uirements of society, sho%ing ho% groupssociali&e and enculturate their young in order to ma(e them into via#le mem#ers of society.$ife histories, ho%ever, +emphasi&e the e-periences and re"uirements of the individual, ho%the person copes %ith society rather than ho% society copes %ith the stream of individuals.$ife'passage studies #ring out the general cultural characteristics and commonalities that#roadly dene a culture, #ut are unconcerned %ith an individual’s choices or ho% theindividual perceives and responds to the demands and e-pectations imposed #y theconstraints of his or her culture. !his distinction can clearly #e seen in the auto#iographiesof :ative *merican %omen.

5or e-ample, some early recorded auto#iographies, such as The !utobiography of a "o#Indian Woman, a life passage recorded #y anthropologist !ruman )ichelson, emphasi&esprescri#ed roles. !he narrator presents her story in a %ay that conforms %ith tri#ale-pectations. )ichelson’s %or( is valua#le as ethnography, as a re4ection of the day'to'day

responsi#ilities of )es"ua(ie %omen, yet as is often the case %ith life'passage studies, itpresents little of the central character’s psychological motivation. !he 5o- %oman’s life storyfocuses on her tri#al education and integration into the %ays of her people, and relates only%hat )ichelson ultimately decided %as %orth preserving. !he dierence #et%een the t%otypes of studies is often the result of the amount of control the narrator maintains over thematerial> auto#iographies in %hich there are no recorder'editors are far more re4ective ofthe life'history category, for there are no outsiders shaping the story to re4ect theirpreconceived notions of %hat the general cultural patterns are.

5or e-ample, in )aria Aamp#ell’s account of gro%ing up as a Aanadian )etis %ho %asin4uenced strongly, and often negatively, #y the non':ative *merican %orld around her, onelearns a great deal a#out the life of :ative *merican %omen, #ut Aamp#ell’s individual story,%hich is told to us directly, is al%ays the center of her narrative. Alearly it is important to herto communicate to the audience %hat her e-periences as a :ative *merican have #een.

!hrough Aamp#ell’s story of her family the reader learns of the eect of poverty andprejudice on a people. !he reader #ecomes an intimate of Aamp#ell the %riter, sharing herpain and cele#rating her small victories. *lthough Aamp#ell’s #oo( is %ritten as a life history;the dramatic moments, the frustrations, and the fears are clearly hers=, it reveals mucha#out ethnic relations in Aanada %hile re4ecting the period in %hich it %as %ritten.

&&. ;hich one of the following is the most accurate e0pression of the main point of the passage8

(A) 'he contributions of lifehistory studies to anthropology have made lifepassage studiesobsolete.

() #espite their dissimilar approaches to the study of culture, lifehistory and lifepassagestudies have similar goals.

(") 'he autobiographies of >ative American women illustrate the differences between life

history and lifepassage studies.(#) 'he roots of <aria "ampbell6s autobiography can be traced to earlier narratives such as

The Autobiography of a Fox Indian Woman.

(%) #espite its shortcomings, the lifepassage study is a more effective tool than the lifehistory study for identifying important cultural patterns.

&+. 'he term prescribed roles/ in line & of the passage refers to the

(A) Dunction of lifepassage studies in helping ethnologists to understand cultural tradition.



() Dunction of lifehistory studies in helping ethnologists to gather information.

(") ;ay in which a sub$ect of a life passage views himself or herself.

(#) oles clearly distinguishing the narrator of an autobiography from the recorder of anautobiography.

(%) oles generally adopted by individuals in order to comply with cultural demands.

&. 'he reference to the psychological motivation/ (line +:) of the sub$ect of The

Autobiography of a Fox Indian Woman serves primarily to

(A) #ismiss as irrelevant the personal perspective in the lifehistory study.

() Identify an aspect of e0perience that is not commonly a ma$or focus of lifepassagestudies.

(") "larify the narrator6s selfac!nowledged purpose in relating a life passage.

(#) Suggest a common conflict between the goals of the narrator and those of the recorder inmost lifepassage studies.

(%) Assert that developing an understanding of an individual6s psychological motivationusually undermines ob$ective ethnography.

&3. ;hich one of following statements about <aria "ampbell can be inferred from material inthe passage8

(A) She was familiar with the very early history of her tribe but lac!ed insight into themotivations of non>ative Americans.

() She was unfamiliar with <ichelson6s wor! but had probably read a number of life passage studies about >ative Americans.

(") She had training as a historian but was not 4ualified as an anthropologist.

(#) er family influenced her beliefs and opinions more than the events of her time did.

(%) er life history provides more than a record of her personal e0perience.

&2. According to the passage, one way in which life history studies differ from lifepassagestudies is that lifehistory studies are

(A) Usually told in the sub$ect6s native language.

() Cess reliable because they rely solely on the sub$ect6s recall.

(") <ore li!ely to be told without the influence of an intermediary.

(#) <ore creative in the way they interpret the sub$ect6s cultural legacy.

(%) <ore representative of the historian6s point of view than of the ethnographer6s.

&7. ;hich one of the following pairings best illustrates the contrast between life passages andlife histories8

(A) A study of the attitudes of a society toward a mainstream religion and an analysis oftechni4ues used to instruct members of that religious group.

() A study of how a preindustrial society maintains peace with neighboring societies and astudy of how a postindustrial society does the same.

(") A study of the way a military organi*ation establishes and maintains discipline and anewly enlisted soldier6s narrative describing his initial responses to the militaryenvironment.

(#) An analysis of a society6s means of subsistence and a study of how its members



celebrate religious holidays.

(%) A political history of a society focusing on leaders and parties and a study of how theelectorate shaped the political landscape of the society.

LSAT 05 SECTION III

Time 35 minutes 28 Questions Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of




sheet.

Until recently many astronomers #elieved that asteroids travel a#out the solar systemunaccompanied #y satellites. !hese astronomers assumed this #ecause they consideredasteroid'satellite systems inherently unsta#le. !heoreticians could have told them other%iseCeven minuscule #odies in the solar system can theoretically have satellites, as long aseverything is in proper scale. If a #o%ling #all %ere or#iting a#out the Sun in the asteroid#elt, it could have a pe##le or#iting it as far a%ay as a fe% hundred radii ;or a#out <2meters= %ithout losing the pe##le to the Sun’s gravitational pull.

#servations no% suggest that asteroid satellites may e-ists not only in theory #ut alsoin reality. Several astronomers have noticed, %hile %atching asteroids pass #rie4y in front ofstars, that something #esides the (no%n asteroid sometimes #loc(s out the star as %ell. Isthat something a satelliteL

!he most convincing such report concerns the asteroid Herculina, %hich %as due to passin front of a star in /0B. *stronomers %aiting for the predicted event found not just oneoccultation, or eclipse, of the star, #ut t%o distinct drops in #rightness. ne %as thepredicted occultation, e-actly on time. !he other, lasting a#out ve seconds, preceded thepredicted event #y a#out t%o minutes. !he presence of a secondary #ody near Herculinathus seemed strongly indicated. !o cause the secondary occultation, an unseen satellite%ould have to #e a#out J< (ilometers in diameter, a "uarter of the si&e of Herculina, and ata distance of 002 (ilometers from the asteroid at the time. !hese values are %ithin

theoretical #ounds, and such an asteroid'satellite pair could #e sta#le.8ith the Herculina event, apparent secondary occultations #ecame +respecta#le3and

more commonly reported. In fact, so common did reports of secondary events #ecome thatthey are no% simply too numerous for all of them to #e accurate. Even if every asteroid hasas many satellites as can #e tted around it %ithout an undue num#er of collisions, only onein every hundred primary occultations %ould #e accompanied #y a secondary event ;one inevery thousand if asteroid satellites system resem#led those of the planets=.

?et even astronomers %ho nd the case for asteroid satellites unconvincing at presentsay they %ould change their minds if a photoelectric record %ere made of a %ell'#ehavedsecondary event. y +%ell'#ehaved they mean that during occultation the o#served#rightness must drop sharply as the star %in(s out and must rise sharply as it reappearsfrom #ehind the o#structing o#ject, #ut the #rightness during the secondary occultationmust drop to that of the asteroid, no higher and no lo%er. !his %ould ma(e it e-tremely

unli(ely that an airplane or a glitch in the instruments %as mas"uerading as an occulting#ody.


(A) 'he observation of erculina represented the crucial event that astronomical observersand theoreticians had been waiting for to establish a convincing case for the stability ofasteroidsatellite systems.

() Although astronomers long believed that observation supports the e0istence of stable



asteroidsatellite systems, numerous recent reports have increased s!epticism on thisissue in astronomy.

(") 'heoreticians6 views on the stability of asteroidsatellite systems may be revised in thelight of reports li!e those about erculina.

(#) Astronomers continue to consider it respectable to doubt the stability of asteroidsatellite

systems, but new theoretical developments may change their views.(%) 'he erculina event suggests that theoreticians6 views about asteroidsatellite systems

may be correct, and astronomers agree about the !ind of evidence needed to clearlyresolve the issue.

&. ;hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as providing evidence thaterculina has a satellite8

(A) the diameter of a body directly observed near erculina

() the distance between erculina and planet nearest to it

(") the shortest possible time in which satellites of erculina, if any, could complete a singleorbit

(#) the occultation that occurred shortly before the predicted occultation by erculina

(%) the precise e0tent to which observed brightness dropped during the occultation byerculina

+. According to the passage, the attitude of astronomers toward asteroid satellites since theerculina event can best described as

(A) openmindedness combined with a concern for rigorous standards of proof

() contempt for and impatience with the position held by theoreticians

(") bemusement at a chaotic mi0 of theory, inade4uate or spurious data, and calls forscientific rigor

(#) hardheaded s!epticism, implying re$ection of all data not recorded automatically bystateoftheart instruments

(%) admiration for the methodical process by which science progresses from initialhypothesis to incontrovertible proof

. 'he author implies that which one of the following was true prior to reports of the erculinaevent8

(A) Since no good theoretical model e0isted, all claims that reports of secondaryoccultations were common were disputed.

() Some of the reported observations of secondary occultations were actually observationsof collisions of satellites with one another.

(") If there were observations of phenomena e0actly li!e the phenomena now labeledsecondary occultations, astronomers were less li!ely than to have reported suchobservations.

(#) 'he prevailing standards concerning what to classify as a wellbehaved secondary eventwere less stringent than they are now.

(%) Astronomers were eager to publish their observations of occultations of stars by satellitesof asteroids.

3. 'he information presented in the passage implies which one of the following about the



fre4uency of reports of secondary occultations after the erculina event8

(A) 'he percentage of reports of primary occultations that also included reports of secondaryoccultations increased tenfold compared to the time before the erculina event.

() =rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to have been accompanied by secondaryoccultations in about one out of every thousand cases.

(") 'he absolute number of reports of secondary occultations increased tenfold compared tothe time before the erculina event.

(#) =rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to have been accompanied by secondaryoccultations in more than one out of every hundred cases.

(%) In more than one out of every hundred cases, primary occultations were reported to have been accompanied by more than one secondary occultation.


(A) cast doubts on e0isting reports of secondary occultations of stars

() describe e0perimental efforts by astronomers to separate theoretically believableobservations of satellites of asteroids from spurious ones

(") review the development of ideas among astronomers about whether or not satellites ofasteroids e0ist

(#) bring a theoretician6s perspective to bear on an incomplete discussion of satellites ofasteroids

(%) illustrate the limits of reasonable speculation concerning the occultation of stars

7. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following would most help to resolve the4uestion of whether asteroids have satellites8

(A) a review of pre1-7 reports of secondary occultations

() an improved theoretical model of stable satellite systems

(") a photoelectric record of a wellbehaved secondary occultation(#) a more stringent definition of what constitutes a wellbehaved secondary occultation

(%) a powerful telescope that would permit a comparison of groundbased observation withthose made from airplanes

Historians attempting to e-plain ho% scientic %or( %as done in the la#oratory of theseventeenth'century chemist and natural philosopher Do#ert oyle must address afundamental discrepancy #et%een ho% such e-perimentation %as actually performed andthe seventeenth'century rhetoric descri#ing it. $eaders of the ne% Doyal Society of $ondonin the /112s insisted that authentic science depended upon actual e-periments performed,o#served, and recorded #y the scientists themselves. Dejecting the traditional contempt formanual operations, these scientists, all mem#ers of the English upper class, %ere not tothin( themselves demeaned #y the muc(ing a#out %ith chemicals, furnaces, and pumps>

rather, the %illingness of each of them to #ecome, as oyle himself said, a mere +drudgeand +under'#uilder in the search for God’s truth in nature %as ta(en as a sign of theirno#ility and Ahristian piety.

!his rhetoric has #een so eective that one modern historian assures us that oylehimself actually performed all of the thousand or more e-periments he reported. In fact, dueto poor eyesight, fragile health, and fre"uent a#sences from his la#oratory, oyle turnedover much of the la#or of o#taining and recording e-perimental results to paid technicians,although pu#lished accounts of the e-periments rarely, if ever, ac(no%ledged thetechnicians’ contri#utions. :or %as oyle uni"ue in relying on technicians %ithout pu#licly



crediting their %or(.

8hy %ere the contri#utions of these technicians not recogni&ed #y their employersL nereason is the historical tendency, %hich has persisted into the t%entieth century, to vie%scientic discovery as resulting from momentary 4ashes of individual insight rather thanfrom e-tended periods of cooperative %or( #y individuals %ith varying levels of (no%ledgeand s(ill. )oreover, despite the clamor of seventeenth'century scientic rhetoric

commending a hands'on approach, science %as still over%helmingly an activity of theEnglish upper class, and the traditional contempt that genteel society maintained for manualla#or %as pervasive and deeply rooted. 5inally, all of oyle’s technicians %ere +servants,%hich in seventeenth'century usage meant anyone %ho %or(ed for pay. !o seventeenth'century sensi#ilities, the %age relationship %as charged %ith political signicance. Servants,meaning %age earners, %ere e-cluded from the franchise #ecause they %ere perceived asultimately dependent on their %ages and thus controlled #y the %ill of their employers.

!echnicians remained invisi#le in the political economy of science for the same reasons thatunderlay servants’ general political e-clusion. !he technicians’ contri#ution, theiro#servations and judgment, if ac(no%ledged, %ould not have #een perceived in the largerscientic community as o#jective #ecause the technicians %ere dependent on the %agespaid to them #y their employers. Servants might have made the apparatus %or(, #ut theircontri#utions to the ma(ing of scientic (no%ledge %ere largely3and conveniently3ignored

#y their employers.. ;hich one of the following best summari*es the main idea of the passage8

(A) Seventeenthcentury scientific e0perimentation would have been impossible without thewor! of paid laboratory technicians.

() Seventeenthcentury social conventions prohibited upperclass laboratory wor!ers fromta!ing public credit for their wor!.

(") Seventeenthcentury views of scientific discovery combined with social classdistinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians6 scientific wor! was never publiclyac!nowledged.

(#) Seventeenthcentury scientists were far more dependent on their laboratory technicians

than are scientists today, yet far less willing to ac!nowledge technicians6 scientificcontributions.

(%) Seventeenthcentury scientists liberated themselves from the stigma attached to manuallabor by relying heavily on the wor! of laboratory technicians.

-. It can be inferred from the passage that the seventeenthcentury rhetoric/ mentioned in line2 would have more accurately described the e0perimentation performed in oyle6slaboratory if which one of the following were true8

(A) Unli!e many seventeenthcentury scientists, oyle recogni*ed that most scientificdiscoveries resulted from the cooperative efforts of many individuals.

() Unli!e many seventeenthcentury scientists, oyle maintained a deeply rooted and

pervasive contempt for manual labor.(") Unli!e many seventeenthcentury scientists, oyle was a member of the oyal Society

of Condon.

(#) oyle generously ac!nowledged the contribution of the technicians who wor!ed in hislaboratory.

(%) oyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording e0perimentalresults.



1:. According to the author, servants of seventeenthcentury %ngland were e0cluded from thefranchised because of the belief that

(A) their interests were ade4uately represented by their employers

() their education was inade4uate to ma!e informed political decisions

(") the independence of their political $udgment would be compromised by their economic

dependence on their employers

(#) their participation in the elections would be a polari*ing influence on the political process

(%) the manual labor that they performed did not constitute a contribution to the society thatwas sufficient to $ustify their participation in elections

11. According to the author, the oyal Society of Condon insisted that scientists abandon the

(A) belief that the primary purpose of scientific discovery was to reveal the divine truth thatcould be found in nature

() view that scientific !nowledge results largely from the insights of a few brilliantindividuals rather than from the cooperative efforts of many wor!ers

(") seventeenthcentury belief that servants should be denied the right to vote because theywere dependent on wages paid to them by their employers

(#) traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of the%nglish upper class during the seventeenthcentury

(%) idea that the search for scientific truth was a sign of piety

1&. 'he author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the seventeenthand the twentieth centuries8

(A) Individual insights rather than cooperative endeavors produce most scientificdiscoveries.

() ow science is practiced is significantly influenced by the political beliefs andassumption of scientists.

(") Scientific research underta!en for pay cannot be considered ob$ective.

(#) Scientific discovery can reveal divine truth in nature.

(%) Scientific discovery often relies on the unac!nowledged contributions of laboratorytechnicians.

1+. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the last paragraph8

(A) Several alternative answers are presented to a 4uestion posed in the previous paragraph,and the last is adopted as the most plausible.

() A 4uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph

is posed, two possible e0planations are re$ected, and evidence is provided in support ofa third.

(") A 4uestion regarding the phenomenon described in the previous paragraph is posed, andseveral incompatible views are presented.

(#) A 4uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the previous paragraphis posed, and several contributing factors are then discussed.

(%) Several answers to a 4uestion are evaluated in light of recent discoveries cited earlier inthe passage.



1. 'he author6s discussion of the political significance of the wage relationship/ (line )serves to

(A) place the failure of seventeenthcentury scientists to ac!nowledge the contributions oftheir technicians in the large conte0t of relations between wor!ers and their employersin seventeenthcentury %ngland

() provide evidence in support of the author6s more general thesis regarding therelationship of scientific discovery to the economic conditions of societies in which itta!es place

(") provide evidence in support of the author6s e0planation of why scientists in seventeenthcentury %ngland were reluctant to rely on their technicians for the performance ofanything but the most menial tas!s

(#) illustrate political and economic changes in the society of seventeenthcentury %nglandthat had a profound impact on how scientific research was conduced

(%) undermine the view that scientific discovery results from individual enterprise ratherthan from the collective endeavor of many wor!ers

13. It can be inferred from the passage that the clamor of seventeenthcentury scientificrhetoric/ (lines +-:) refers to

(A) the claim that scientific discovery results largely from the insights of brilliant individualswor!ing alone

() ridicule of scientists who were members of the %nglish upper class and who werethought to demean themselves by engaging in the manual labor re4uired by theire0periments

(") criticism of scientists who publicly ac!nowledged the contributions of their technicians

(#) assertions by members of the oyal Society of Condon that scientists themselves should be responsible for obtaining and recording e0perimental results

(%) the claim by oyle and his colleagues that the primary reason for scientific research is todiscover evidence of divine truth in the natural world

ne type of violation of the antitrust la%s is the a#use of monopoly po%er. )onopolypo%er is the a#ility of a rm to raise its prices a#ove the competitive level3that is, a#ovethe level that %ould e-ist naturally if several rms had to compete3%ithout driving a%ay somany customers as to ma(e the price increase unprota#le. In order to sho% that a rm hasa#used monopoly po%er, and there#y violated the antitrust la%s, t%o essential facts must#e esta#lished. 5irst, a rm must #e sho%n to possess monopoly po%er, and second, thatpo%er must have #een used to e-clude competition in the monopoli&ed mar(et or relatedmar(ets.

!he price a rm may charge for its product is constrained #y the availa#ility of closesu#stitutes for the product. If a rm attempts to charge a higher price3a supracompetitiveprice3consumers %ill turn to other rms a#le to supply su#stitute products at competitiveprices. If a rm provides a large percentage of the products actually or potentially availa#le,ho%ever, customers may nd it di6cult to #uy from alternative suppliers. Aonse"uently, arm %ith a large share of the relevant mar(et of su#stituta#le products may #e a#le to raiseits price %ithout losing many customers. 5or this reason courts often use mar(et share as arough indicator of monopoly po%er.

Supracompetitive prices are associated %ith a loss of consumers’ %elfare #ecause suchprices force some consumers to #uy a less attractive mi- of products than they %ouldordinarily #uy. Supracompetitive prices, ho%ever, do not themselves constitute an a#use ofmonopoly po%er. *ntitrust la%s do not attempt to counter the mere e-istence of monopoly



po%er, or even the use of monopoly po%er to e-tract e-traordinarily high prots. 5ore-ample, a rm enjoying economies of scale3that is, lo% unit production costs due to highvolume3does not violate the antitrust la%s %hen it o#tains a large mar(et share #ycharging prices that are prota#le #ut so lo% that its smaller rivals cannot survive. If theantitrust la%s posed disincentives to the e-istence and gro%th of such rms, the la%s couldimpair consumers’ %elfare. Even if the rm, upon ac"uiring monopoly po%er, chose to raise

prices in order to increase prots, it %ould not #e in violation of the antitrust la%s. !he antitrust prohi#itions focus instead on a#uses of monopoly po%er that e-cludecompetition in the monopoli&ed mar(et or involve leverage3the use of po%er in one mar(etto reduce competition in another. ne such for#idden practice is a tying arrangement, in%hich a monopolist conditions the sale of a product in one mar(et on the #uyer’s purchaseof another product in a dierent mar(et. 5or e-ample, a rm enjoying a monopoly in thecommunications systems mar(et might not sell its products to a consumer unless thatcustomer also #uys its computer systems, %hich are competing %ith other rms’ computersystems.

!he focus on the a#use of monopoly po%er, rather than on monopoly itself, follo%s fromthe primary purpose of the antitrust la%sC to promote consumers’ %elfare through assuranceof the "uality and "uantity of products availa#le to consumers.

12. ;hich one of the following distinctions between monopoly power and the abuse ofmonopoly power would the author say underlies the antitrust laws discussed in the passage8

(A) <onopoly power is assessed in term of mar!et share, whereas abuse of monopoly power is assessed in term of mar!et control.

() <onopoly power is easy to demonstrate, whereas abuse of monopoly power is difficultto demonstrate.

(") <onopoly power involves only one mar!et, whereas abuse of monopoly power involvesat least two or more related mar!ets.

(#) <onopoly power is the ability to charge supracompetitive prices, whereas abuse ofmonopoly power is the use of that ability.

(%) <onopoly power does not necessarily hurt consumer welfare, whereas abuse ofmonopoly power does.

17. ;ould the use of leverage meet the criteria for abuse of monopoly power outlined in the first paragraph8

(A) >o, because leverage involves a nonmonopoli*ed mar!et.

() >o, unless the leverage involves a tying arrangement.

(") Fes, because leverage is a characteristic of monopoly power.

(#) Fes, unless the firm using leverage is charging competitive prices.

(%) Fes, because leverage is used to eliminate competition in a related mar!et.

1. ;hat is the main purpose of the third paragraph (lines &H7)8

(A) to distinguish between supracompetitive prices and supracompetitive profits

() to describe the positive use of monopoly power

(") to introduce the concept of economies of scale

(#) to distinguish what is not covered by the antitrust law under discussion from what iscovered

(%) to remind the reader of the issue of consumers welfare



1-. 9iven only the information in the passage, with which one of the following statements aboutcompetition would those responsible for the antitrust laws most li!ely agree8

(A) "ompetition is essential to consumers6 welfare.

() 'here are acceptable and unacceptable ways for firms to reduce their competition.

(") 'he preservation of competition is the principal aim of the antitrust laws.

(#) Supracompetitive prices lead to reductions in competition.

(%) "ompetition is necessary to ensure high4uality products at low prices.

&:. ;hich one of the following sentences would best complete the last paragraph of the passage8

(A) y limiting consumers6 choices, abuse of monopoly power reduces consumers6 welfare, but monopoly alone can sometimes actually operate in the consumers6 best interest.

() ;hat is needed now is a set of related laws to deal with the negative impacts thatmonopoly itself has on consumers6 ability to purchase products at reasonable cost.

(") 5ver time, the antitrust laws have been very effective in ensuring competition and,conse4uently, consumers6 welfare in the volatile communications and computer systemsindustries.

(#) y controlling supracompetitive prices and corresponding supracompetitive profits, theantitrust laws have, indeed, gone a long way toward meeting that ob$ective.

(%) As noted above, the necessary restraints on monopoly itself have been left to the mar!et,where competitive prices and economies of scale are rewarded through increasedmar!et share.

*msden has divided :avajo %eaving into four distinct styles. He argues that three ofthem can #e identied #y the type of design used to form hori&ontal #andsC colored strips,&ig&ags, or diamonds. !he fourth, or #ordered, style he identies #y a distinct #ordersurrounding centrally placed, dominating gures.

*msden #elieves that the diamond style appeared after /B10 %hen, under *ngloin4uence and encouragement, the #lan(et #ecame a rug %ith larger designs and #olderlines. !he #ordered style appeared a#out /B02, and, *msden argues, it re4ects the greatestnum#er of *nglo in4uences on the ne%ly emerging rug #usiness. !he *nglo desire thatanything %ith a graphic designs have a top, #ottom, and #order is a cultural preference thatthe :avajo a#horred, as evidenced, he suggests, #y the fact that in early #orderedspecimens strips of color une-pectedly #rea( through the enclosing pattern.

*msden argues that the #ordered rug represents a radical #rea( %ith previous styles. Heasserts that the #order changed the artistic pro#lem facing %eaversC a #lan( area suggeststhe use of isolated gures, %hile traditional, #anded :avajo designs %ere continuous and didnot use isolated gures. !he old patterns alternated hori&ontal decorative &ones in a regularorder.

*msden’s vie% raises several "uestions. 5irst, %hat is involved in altering artistic stylesL

Some studies suggest that artisans’ motor ha#its and thought processes must #e revised%hen a style changes precipitously. In the evolution of :avajo %eaving, ho%ever, no radicalrevisions in the %ay articles are produced need #e assumed. *fter all, all %eavingsu#ordinates design to the physical limitations created #y the process of %eaving, %hichincludes creating an edge or #order. !he ha#its re"uired to ma(e decorative #orders are,therefore, latent and easily #rought to the surface.

Second, is the relationship #et%een the #anded and #ordered styles as simple as*msden suggestsL He assumes that a #rea( in style is a #rea( in psychology. ut if styleresults from constant "uests for invention, such stylistic #rea(s are inevita#le. 8hen a style



has e-hausted the possi#ilities inherent in its principles, artists cast a#out for ne%, #ut notnecessarily alien, principles. :avajo %eaving may have reached this turning point prior to/B02.

!hird, is there really a signicant stylistic gapL !%o other styles lie #et%een the #andedstyles and the #ordered styles. !hey suggest that disintegration of the #ands may havealtered visual and motor ha#its and prepared the %ay for a #order lled %ith separate units.

In the Ahief 8hite *ntelope #lan(et, dated prior to /B1<, ten years #efore the rst *nglotrading post on the :avajo reservation, %hole and partial diamonds interrupt the 4o%ingdesign and #ecome separate forms. 7arts of diamonds arranged vertically at each side may#e seen to anticipate the #order.

&1. 'he author6s central thesis is that

(A) the >ava$o re$ected the stylistic influences of Anglo culture

() >ava$o weaving cannot be classified by Amsden6s categories

(") the >ava$o changed their style of weaving because they sought the challenge of newartistic problems

(#) original motor habits and thought processes limit the e0tent to which a style can berevised

(%) the casual factors leading to the emergence of the bordered style are not as clearcut asAmsden suggests

&&. It can be inferred from the passage that Amsden views the use of strips of color/ (line 1)in the early bordered style as

(A) a sign of resistance to a change in style

() an echo of the diamond style

(") a feature derived from Anglo culture

(#) an attempt to disintegrate the rigid form of the banded style

(%) a means of differentiating the top of the weaving from the bottom

&+. 'he author6s view of >ava$o weaving suggests which one of the following8

(A) 'he appearance of the first trading post on the >ava$o reservation coincided with theappearance of the diamond style.

() 'races of thought processes and motor habits of one culture can generally be found inthe art of another culture occupying the same period and region.

(") 'he bordered style may have developed gradually from the banded style as a result of >ava$o e0periencing with design.

(#) 'he influence of Anglo culture was not the only non>ative American influence on >ava$o weaving.

(%) ori*ontal and vertical rows of diamond forms were transformed by the >ava$os into

solid lines to create the bordered style.

&. According to the passage, >ava$o weavings made prior to 1-: typically were characteri*ed by all of the following %?"%='

(A) repetition of forms

() overall patterns

(") hori*ontal bands

(#) isolated figures



(%) use of color

&3. 'he author would most probably agree with which one of the following conclusions aboutthe stylistic development of >ava$o weaving8

(A) 'he styles of >ava$o weaving changed in response to changes in >ava$o motor habitsand thought processes.

() 'he *ig*ag style was the result of stylistic influences from Anglo culture.

(") >ava$o weaving used isolated figures in the beginning, but combined naturalistic andabstract designs in later styles.

(#) >ava$o weaving changed gradually from a style in which the entire surface was covered by hori*ontal bands to one in which central figures dominated the surface.

(%) 'he styles of >ava$o weaving always contained some type of isolated figure.

&2. 'he author suggests that Amsden6s claim that borders in >ava$o weaving were inspired byAnglo culture could be

(A) conceived as a response to imagined correspondences between Anglo and >ava$o art

() biased by Amsden6s feelings about Anglo culture(") a result of Amsden6s failing to ta!e into account certain aspects of >ava$o weaving

(#) based on a limited number of specimens of the styles of >ava$o weaving

(%) based on a confusion between the stylistic features of the *ig*ag and diamond styles

&7. 'he author most probably mentions the "hief ;hite Antelope blan!et in order to

(A) establish the credit influence of Anglo culture on the bordered style

() cast doubts on the claim that the bordered style arose primarily from Anglo influence

(") cite an e0ample of a blan!et with a central design and no border

(#) suggest that the Anglo influence produced significant changes in the two earliest stylesof >ava$o weaving

(%) illustrate how the >ava$o had e0hausted the stylistic possibilities of the diamond style

&. 'he passage is primarily concerned with

(A) comparing and contrasting different styles

() 4uestioning a view of how a style came into being

(") proposing alternative methods of investigating the evolution of styles

(#) discussing the influence of one culture on another

(%) analy*ing the effect of the interaction between two different cultures

LSAT 06 SECTION I





sheet.

!he !aft'Hartley *ct, passed #y the United States Aongress in /0J, gave states thepo%er to enact +right'to'%or( legislation that prohi#its union shop agreements. *ccordingto such an agreement, a la#or union negotiates %ages and %or(ing conditions for all %or(ers



in a #usiness, and all %or(ers are re"uired to #elong to the union. Since /0J, @2 stateshave adopted right'to'%or( la%s. )uch of the literature concerning right'to'%or( la%simplies that such legislation has not actually had a signicant impact. !his point of vie%,ho%ever, has not gone uncritici&ed. !homas Aarroll has proposed that the conclusionsdra%n #y previous researchers are attri#uta#le to their myopic focus on the premise that,unless right'to'%or( la%s signicantly reduce union mem#ership %ithin a state, they have no

eect. Aarroll argues that the right'to'%or( la%s +do matter in that such la%s generatedierences in real %ages across states. Specically, Aarroll indicates that %hile right'to'%or(la%s may not +destroy unions #y reducing the a#solute num#er of unioni&ed %or(ers, theydo impede the spread of unions and there#y reduce %ages %ithin right'to'%or( states.ecause the countervailing po%er of unions is %ea(ened in right'to'%or( states,manufacturers and their suppliers can act cohesively in competitive la#or mar(ers, thuslo%ering %ages in the aected industries.

Such a nding has important implications regarding the demographics of employmentand %ages in right'to'%or( states. Specically, if right'to'%or( la%s lo%er %ages #y%ea(ening union po%er, minority %or(ers can #e e-pected to suer a relatively greatereconomic disadvantage in right'to'%or( states than in union shop states. !his is so #ecause,contrary to %hat %as once thought, union tend to have a signicant positive impact on theeconomic position of minority %or(ers, especially lac( %or(ers, relative to 8hite %or(ers.

)ost studies concerned %ith the impact of unionism on the lac( %or(er’s economic positionrelative to the 8hite %or(er’s have concentrated on the changes in lac( %ages due tounion mem#ership. !hat is, they have concentrated on union $ersus nonunion groups. In apioneering study, ho%ever, *shenfelter nds that these studies overloo( an important factCalthough craft unionism increase the dierential #et%een the %ages of 8hite %or(ers andlac( %or(ers due to the traditional e-clusion of minority %or(ers from unions in the craftsectors of the la#or mar(et, strong positive %age gains are made #y lac( %or(ers %ithinindustrial unions. In fact, *shenfelter estimates that industrial unionism decreases thedierential #et%een the %ages of lac( %or(ers and 8hite %or(ers #y a#out percent. Ifstate right'to'%or( la%s %ea(en the economic po%er of unions to raise %ages, lac( %or(ers%ill e-perience a disproportionate decline in their relative %age positions. lac( %or(ers inright'to'%or( states %ould therefore e-perience a decline in their relative economic positionsunless there is strong economic gro%th in right'to'%or( states, creating la#or shortages and

there#y driving up %ages.1. 'he reasoning behind the literature/ (line -), as that reasoning is presented in the passage,

is most analogous to the reasoning behind which one of the following situations8

(A) A law is proposed that benefits many but disadvantages a few@ those advocating passageof the law argue that the disadvantages to few are not so serious that the benefits should be denied to many.

() A new ta0 on certain categories of consumer items is proposed@ those in favor of the ta0argue that those affected by the ta0 are well able to pay it, since the items ta0ed arelu0ury items.

(") A college sets strict course re4uirements that every student must complete beforegraduating students already enrolled argue that it is unfair for the new re4uirements toapply to those enrolled before the change.

(#) 'he personnel office of a company designs a promotions become effective on Banuary 1@the managers protest that such a policy means that they cannot respond fast enough tochanges in staffing needs.

(%) A fare increase in a public transportation system does not significantly reduce thenumber of fares sold@ the management of the public transportation system asserts,therefore, that the fare hi!e has had no negative effects.



&. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of "arroll6s study8

(A) It implies that righttowor! laws have had a negligible effect on wor!ers in righttowor! states.

() It demonstrates that righttowor! laws have significantly decreased union membershipfrom what it once was in righttowor! states.

(") It argues that righttowor! laws have affected wages in righttowor! states.

(#) It supports the findings of most earlier researchers.

(%) It e0plains the mechanisms by which collusion between manufacturers and suppliers isaccomplished.

+. It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes which one of following aboutcraft unions8

(A) "raft unions have been successful in ensuring that the wages of their members remainhigher than the wages of nonunion wor!ers in the same occupational groups.

() 'he number of minority wor!ers $oining craft unions has increased sharply in states thathave not adopted righttowor! legislation.

(") ;ages for wor!ers belonging to craft unions have generally risen faster and moresteadily than wages for wor!ers belonging to industrial unions.

(#) 'he wages of wor!ers belonging to craft unions have not been significantly affected byrighttowor! legislation, although the wages of wor!ers belonging to industrial unionshave been negatively affected.

(%) 'he wages of wor!ers belonging to craft unions are more li!ely to be driven up in theevent of labor shortages than are the wages of wor!ers belonging to industrial unions.

. ;hich one of the following best describes the effect industrial unionism has had on thewages of lac! wor!ers relative to those of ;hite wor!ers, as that effect is presented in the passage8

(A) =rior to 1-7, industrial unionism had little effect on the wages of lac! wor!ersrelative to those of ;hite wor!ers@ since 1-7, it has had a slight positive effect.

() =rior to 1-7, industrial unionism had a strong positive effect on the wages of lac!wor!ers relative to those of ;hite wor!ers@ since 1-7, it has had little effect.

(") =rior to 1-7, industrial unionism had a negative effect on the wages of lac! wor!ersrelative to those of ;hite wor!ers@ since 1-7, it has had a significant positive effect.

(#) Industrial unionism has contributed moderately to an increase in the wage differential between lac! wor!ers and ;hite wor!ers.

(%) Industrial unionism has contributed strongly to a + percent decrease in the wagedifferential between lac! wor!ers and ;hite wor!ers.

3. According to the passage, which one of the following could counteract the effects of adecrease in unions6 economic power to raise wages in righttowor! states8

(A) a decease in the number of union shop agreements

() strong economic growth that creates labor shortages

(") a decrease in membership in craft unions

(#) the merging of large industrial unions

(%) a decline in the craft sectors of the labor mar!et



2. ;hich one of the following best describes the passage as a whole8

(A) an overview of a problem in research methodology and a recommended solution to that problem

() a comparison of two competing theories and a suggestion for reconciling them

(") a criti4ue of certain legislation and a proposal for modification of that legislation

(#) a review of research that challenges the conclusions of earlier researchers

(%) a presentation of a specific case that confirms the findings of an earlier study

In the late nineteenth century, the need for %omen physicians in missionary hospitals inAanton, Ahina, led to e-panded opportunities for #oth 8estern %omen and Ahinese %omen.

!he presence of 8estern %omen as medical missionaries in Ahina %as made possi#le #ycertain changes %ithin the 8estern missionary movement. eginning in the /B2s,increasingly large num#ers of %omen %ere forming %omen’s foreign mission societiesdedicated to the support of %omen’s foreign mission %or(. eyond giving the %omen %hoorgani&ed the societies a formal activity outside their home circles, these organi&ationsena#led an increasing num#er of single %omen missionaries ;as opposed to %omen %ho%ere part of the more typical hus#and'%ife missionary teams= to %or( a#road. efore theformation of these %omen’s organi&ations, mission funds had #een collected #y ministers

and other church leaders, most of %hom emphasi&ed local parish %or(. 8hat money %asspent on foreign missions %as under the control of e-clusively male foreign mission #oards%hose mem#ers %ere uniformly uneasy a#out the ne% idea of sending single %omen outinto the mission eld. ut as %omen’s groups #egan raising impressive amounts of moneydonated specically in support of single %omen missionaries, the home churches #o%ed#oth to %omen’s changing roles at home and to increasing num#ers of single professionalmissionary %omen a#road.

*lthough the idea of employing a %oman physician %as a daring one for most 8esternmissionaries in Ahina, the advantages of a %ell'trained 8estern %oman physician could not#e ignored #y Aanton mission hospital administrators. * %oman physician could attend%omen patients %ithout oending any of the accepted conventions of female modesty.Eventually, some of these %omen %ere a#le to found and head separate %omen’s medicalinstitutions, there#y gaining access to professional responsi#ilities far #eyond those

availa#le to them at home. !hese developments also led to the attainment of valua#le training and status #y a

signicant num#er of Ahinese %omen. !he presence of %omen physicians in Aanton missionhospitals led many Ahinese %omen to avail themselves of 8estern medicine %ho mightother%ise have failed to do so #ecause of their culture’s emphasis on physical modesty. Inorder to provide enough %omen physicians for these patients, gro%ing num#ers of youngAhinese %omen %ere given instruction in medicine. !his ena#led them to earn anindependent income, something that %as then largely unavaila#le to %omen %ithintraditional Ahinese society. )any %omen graduates %ere eventually a#le to go out on theiro%n into private practice, freeing themselves of dependence upon the mission community.

!he most important result of these opportunities %as the esta#lishment of clearevidence of %omen’s a#ilities and strengths, clear reasons for aording %omen e-panded

opportunities, and clear role models for ho% these a#ilities and responsi#ilities might #ee-ercised.

7. ;hich one of the following statements about ;estern women missionaries wor!ing abroadcan be inferred from the passage8

(A) 'here were very few women involved in foreign missionary wor! before the 17:s.

() <ost women wor!ing abroad as missionaries before the 17:s were financed bywomen6s foreign mission societies.

(") <ost women employed in mission hospitals abroad before the 17:s were trained as



nurses rather than as physicians.

(#) 'he ma$ority of professional women missionaries wor!ing abroad before the 17:s werelocated in "anton, "hina.

(%) <ost women missionaries wor!ing abroad before the 17:s were married to men whowere also missionaries.

. 'he author mentions that most foreign mission boards were e0clusively male most probablyin order to

(A) "ontrast foreign mission boards with the boards of secular organi*ations sending aid to"hina.

() %0plain the policy of foreign mission boards toward training "hinese women inmedicine.

(") Bustify the preference of foreign mission boards for professionally 4ualifiedmissionaries.

(#) elp account for the attitude of foreign mission boards towards sending single womenmissionaries abroad.

(%) #ifferentiate foreign mission boards from boards directing parish wor! at home.

-. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A situation is described, conditions that brought about the situation are e0plained, andresults of the situation are enumerated.

() An assertion is made, statements supporting and refuting the assertion are e0amined, anda conclusion is drawn.

(") An obstacle is identified, a variety of possible ways to overcome the obstacle are presented, and an opinion is ventured.

(#) A predicament is outlined, factors leading up to the predicament are scrutini*ed, and atentative resolution of the predicament is recommended.

(%) A development is analy*ed, the drawbac!s and advantages accompanying thedevelopment are contrasted, and an eventual outcome is predicted.

1:. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most undermine the author6s analysis of thereason for the increasing number of single women missionaries sent abroad beginning in the17:s8

(A) 'he ;estern church boards that sent the greatest number of single women missionariesabroad had not received any financial support from women6s au0iliary groups.

() 'he women who were sent abroad as missionary physicians had been raised in familieswith a strong history of missionary commitment.

(") <ost of the single missionary women sent abroad were trained as teachers andtranslators rather than as medical practitioners.

(#) 'he western church boards tended to send abroad single missionary women who had previously been active in local parish wor!.

(%) >one of the single missionary women who were sent abroad were active members offoreign mission boards.

11. According to the passage, which one of the following was a factor in the acceptance of;estern women as physicians in mission hospitals in "anton, "hina8





composition of eethoven6s first piano concerto, the author means the !ind of piano that was

(A) #esigned to be inaudible to the audience when used by conductors of orchestras.

() Incapable of playing the high Dnatural that is in the score of eethoven6s originalversion of the concerto.

(") Unavailable to <o*art and aydn.

(#) Incapable of playing the high Dsharp that the melody of the concerto calls for.

(%) Influential in eethoven6s decision to revise his early compositions.


(A) 'he early music movement has yet to resolve a number of troubling 4uestions regardingits approach to the performance of music.

() 'he early music movement, while largely successful in its approach to the performanceof medieval and baro4ue music, has yet to $ustify its use of obsolete instruments in the performance of music by eethoven and <o*art.

(") 'he early music approach to performance often assumes that composers write music thatis perfectly tailored to the limitations of the instruments on which it will be performedduring their lifetimes.

(#) Although advocates of early music !now much about the instruments used to performmusic at the time it was composed, they lac! information regarding how the style ofsuch performances has changed since such music was written.

(%) 'he early music movement has not yet fully e0ploited the !nowledge that it has gainedfrom playing music on instruments available at the time such music was composed.

13. In the second paragraph, the author discusses eethoven6s first piano concerto primarily inorder to

(A) Illustrate how piano music began to change in response to the e0tended range of pianosthat became available during eethoven6s lifetime.

() Illustrate how eethoven6s wor! failed to anticipate the changes in the design ofinstruments that were about to be made during his lifetime.

(") Suggest that early music advocates commonly perform music using scores that do notreflect revisions made to the music years after it was originally composed.

(#) Illustrate how composers li!e eethoven sometimes composed music that called fornotes that could not be played on instruments that were currently available.

(%) =rovide an e0ample of a piano composition that is especially amenable to being playedon piano available at the time the music was composed.

12. 'he author suggests that the final movements of symphonies by <o*art and eethovenmight be played more slowly by today6s orchestras if which one of the following were tooccur8

(A) 5rchestras were to use instruments no more advanced in design than those used byorchestras at the time <o*art and eethoven composed their symphonies.

() Audiences were to return to the custom of applauding at the end of each movement of asymphony.

(") Audiences were to reserve their most enthusiastic applause for the most brilliantly played finales.



(#) "onductors were to return to the practice of playing the chords on an orchestral piano to!eep the orchestra together.

(%) "onductors were to conduct the symphonies in the manner in which eethoven and<o*art had conducted them.

17. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the last paragraph8

(A) A generali*ation is made evidence undermining it is presented, and a conclusionre$ecting it is then drawn.

() A criticism is stated and then elaborated with two supporting e0amples.

(") An assumption is identified and then evidence undermining its validity is presented.

(#) An assumption is identified and then evidence fre4uently provided in support of it isthen critically evaluated.

(%) 'wo specific cases are presented and then a conclusion regarding their significance isdrawn.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author6s e0planation in lines 3:3 would be

most wea!ened if which one of the following were true8(A) <usicians who perform in modern orchestras generally receive more e0tensive trainingthan did their nineteenthcentury counterparts.

() rea!s between the movements of symphonies performed during the early nineteenthcentury often lasted longer than they do today because nineteenthcentury musiciansneeded to retune their instruments between each movement.

(") %arly nineteenthcentury orchestral musicians were generally as concerned with theaudience6s response to their music as are the musicians who perform today in modernorchestras.

(#) %arly nineteenthcentury audience applauded only perfunctorily after the first threemovements of symphonies and conventionally withheld their most enthusiastic

applause until the final movement was completed.

(%) %arly nineteenthcentury audiences were generally more !nowledgeable about musicthan are their modern counterparts.

1-. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following assertions regarding the early music recordings mentioned in the third paragraph8

(A) 'hese recordings fail to recogni*e that the last movements of aydn6s and <o*art6ssymphonies were often played slower in the eighteenth century than they are playedtoday.

() 'hese recordings betray the influence of baro4ue musical style on those early music

advocates who have recently turned their attention to the music of aydn and <o*art.(") y ma!ing audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenth

century performances, these recordings attempt to achieve aesthetic integrity at thee0pense of historical authenticity.

(#) y ma!ing audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenthcentury performances, these recordings unwittingly create music that is unli!e whateighteenth century audiences heard.



(%) 'hese recordings suggest that at least some advocates of early music recogni*e thatconcepts of musical intensity and e0citement have changed since aydn and <o*artcomposed their symphonies.

&:. 'he author suggests that the modern audience6s tendency to withhold applause until the endof a symphony6s performance is primarily related to which one of the following8

(A) 'he replacement of the orchestral piano as a method of !eeping the orchestra together.

() A gradual increase since the time of <o*art and eethoven in audiences6 e0pectationsregarding the ability of orchestral musicians.

(") A change since the early nineteenth century in audiences6 concepts of musicale0citement and intensity.

(#) A more sophisticated appreciation of the structural integrity of the symphony as a pieceof music.

(%) 'he tendency of orchestral musicians to employ their most brilliant effects in the early.

*lthough the United States steel industry faces %idely pu#lici&ed economic pro#lemsthat have eroded its steel production capacity, not all #ranches of the industry have #een

e"ually aected. !he steel industry is not monolithicC it includes integrated producers,minimills, and specialty'steel mills. !he integrated producers start %ith iron ore and coal andproduce a %ide assortment of shaped steels. !he minimills reprocess scrap steel into alimited range of lo%'"uality products, such as reinforcing rods for concrete. !he specialty'steel mills are similar to minimills in that they tend to #e smaller than the integratedproducers and are #ased on scrap, #ut they manufacture much more e-pensive productsthan minimills do and commonly have an active in'house research'and'development eort.

oth minimills and specialty'steel mills have succeeded in avoiding the %orst of theeconomic di6culties that are aMicting integrated steel producers, and some of the mills are"uite prota#le. oth ta(e advantage of ne% technology for rening and casting steel, suchas continuous casting, as soon as it #ecomes availa#le. !he minimills concentrate onproducing a narro% range of products for sale in their immediate geographic area, %hereasspecialty'steel mills preserve 4e-i#ility in their operations in order to fulll a customer’s

particular specications.*mong the factors that constrain the competitiveness of integrated producers are

e-cessive la#or, energy, and capital costs, as %ell as manufacturing in4e-i#ility. !heire"uipment is old and less automated, and does not incorporate many of the latestrenement in steelma(ing technology. ;5or e-ample, only a#out half of the United Statesintegrated producers have continuous casters, %hich com#ine pouring and rolling into oneoperation and thus save the cost of separate rolling e"uipment.= ne might conclude thatthe older la#or'intensive machinery still operating in United States integrated plants is atfault for the poor performance of the United States industry, #ut this cannot e-plain %hy

Fapanese integrated producers, %ho produce a higher'"uality product using less energy andla#or, are also e-periencing economic trou#le. !he fact is that the common technologicaldenominator of integrated producers is an inherently ine6cient process that is still rooted inthe nineteenth century.

Integrated producers have #een una#le to compete successfully %ith minimills #ecausethe minimills, li(e specialty'steel mills, have dispensed almost entirely %ith the archaicenergy and capital'intensive front end of integrated steelma(ingC the iron'smelting process,including the mining and preparation of the ra% materials and the #last'furnace operation. Inaddition, minimills have found a prota#le %ay to mar(et steel productsC as indicated a#ove,they sell their nished products locally, there#y reducing transportation costs, andconcentrate on a limited range of shapes and si&es %ithin a narro% group of products thatcan #e manufactured economically. 5or these reasons, minimills have #een a#le to avoid theeconomic decline aecting integrated steel producers.



&1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) United States steel producers face economic problems that are shared by producers inother nations.

() <inimills are the most successful steel producers because they best meet mar!etdemands for cheap steel.

(") <inimills and specialtysteel mills are more economically competitive than integrated producers because they use new technology and avoid the costs of the ironsmelting process.

(#) United States steel producers are e0periencing an economic decline that can be traced bac! to the nineteenth century.

(%) >ew steelma!ing technologies such as continuous casting will replace blastfurnaceoperations to reverse the decline in United States steel production.

&&. 'he author mentions all of the following as features of minimills %?"%='

(A) fle0ibility in their operations

() local sale of their products

(") avoidance of mining operations

(#) use of new steelrefining technology

(%) a limited range of low4uality products

&+. 'he author of the passage refers to Bapanese integrated producers/ (line +) primarily inorder to support the view that

(A) different economic difficulties face the steel industries of different nations

() not all integrated producers share a common technological denominator

(") laborintensive machinery cannot be blamed for the economic condition of United Statesintegrated steel producers

(#) modern steelma!ing technology is generally laborand energyefficient(%) laborintensive machinery is an economic burden on United States integrated steel

producers

&. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the third paragraph8

(A) A hypothesis is proposed and supported then an opposing view is presented andcritici*ed.

() A debate is described and illustrated@ then a contrast is made and the debate is resolved.

(") A dilemma is described and cited as evidence for a broader criticism.

(#) A proposition is stated and argued, then re$ected in favor of a more general statement,which is supported with additional evidence.

(%) 9eneral statements are made and details given then an e0planation is proposed andre$ected, and an alternative is offered.

&3. It can be inferred from the passage that United States specialtysteel mills generally differfrom integrated steel producers in that the specialtysteel mills

(A) sell products in a restricted geographical area

() share the economic troubles of the minimills

(") resemble specialtysteel mills found in Bapan



(#) concentrate on producing a narrow range of products

(%) do not operate blast furnaces

&2. %ach of the following describes an industry facing a problem also e0perienced by UnitedStated integrated steel producers %?"%='

(A) a papermanufacturing company that e0periences difficulty in obtaining enough timberand other raw materials to meet its orders

() a foodcanning plant whose canning machines must constantly be tended by humanoperators

(") a te0tile firm that spends heavily on capital e4uipment and energy to process raw cotton before it is turned into fabric

(#) a windowglass manufacturer that is unable to produce 4uic!ly different varieties ofglass with special features re4uired by certain customers

(%) a leathergoods company whose handoperated cutting and stitching machines weremanufactured in Italy in the 1-&:s

&7. ;hich one of the following, if true, would best serve as supporting evidence for the author6se0planation of the economic condition of integrated steel producers8

(A) 'hose nations that derive a larger percentage of their annual steel production fromminimills than the United States does also have a smaller per capita trade deficit.

() <any integrated steel producers are as adept as the specialtysteel mills at producinghigh4uality products to meet customer specifications.

(") Integrated steel producers in the United States are rapidly adopting the productionmethods of Bapanese integrated producers.

(#) Integrated steel producers in the United States are now attempting to develop aworldwide mar!et by advertising heavily.

(%) 'hose nations in which ironsmelting operations are carried out independently of steel production must heavily subsidi*e those operations in order to ma!e them profitable.

LSAT 07 SECTION III






sheet.

!he la#or force is often organi&ed as if %or(ers had no family responsi#ilities. 7reschool'age children need full'time care> children in primary school need care after school andduring school vacations. *lthough day'care services can resolve some scheduling con4icts#et%een home and o6ce, %or(ers cannot al%ays nd or aord suita#le care. Even %henthey o#tain such care, parents must still cope %ith emergencies, such as illnesses, that (eepchildren at home. )oreover, children need more than tending> they also need meaningfultime %ith their parents. Aonventional full'time %or(days, especially %hen com#ined %ithunavoida#le household duties, are too in4e-i#le for parents %ith primary child'careresponsi#ility.

*lthough a small #ut increasing num#er of %or(ing men are single parents, those#arriers against successful participation in the la#or mar(et that are related to primary child'care responsi#ilities mainly disadvantage %omen. Even in families %here #oth parents %or(,



cultural pressures are traditionally much greater on mothers than on fathers to #ear theprimary child'rearing responsi#ilities.

In reconciling child'rearing responsi#ilities %ith participation in the la#or mar(et, many%or(ing mothers are forced to ma(e compromises. 5or e-ample, appro-imately one'third ofall %or(ing mothers are employed only part'time, even though part'time jo#s aredramatically underpaid and often less desira#le in comparison to full'time employment.

Even though part'time %or( is usually availa#le only in occupations oering minimalemployee responsi#ility and little opportunity for advancement or self'enrichment, suchemployment does allo% many %omen the time and 4e-i#ility to fulll their family duties, #utonly at the e-pense of the advantages associated %ith full'time employment.

)oreover, even mothers %ith full'time employment must compromise opportunities inorder to adjust to #arriers against parents in the la#or mar(et. )any choose jo#s entailinglittle challenge or responsi#ility or those oering 4e-i#le scheduling, often availa#le only inpoorly paid positions, %hile other %or(ing mothers, although %illing and a#le to assume asmuch responsi#ility as people %ithout children, nd that their need to spend regular andpredicta#le time %ith their children inevita#ly causes them to lose career opportunities tothose %ithout such demands. !hus, %omen in education are more li(ely to #ecome teachersthan school administrators, %hose more conventional full'time %or( schedules do notcorrespond to the schedules of school'age children, %hile female la%yers are more li(ely to

practice la% in trusts and estates, %here they can control their %or( schedules, than inlitigation, %here they cannot. :onprofessional %omen are concentrated in secretarial %or(and department store sales, %here their a#sences can #e covered easily #y su#stitutes and%here they can enter and leave the %or( force %ith little loss, since the jo#s oer so littlepersonal gain. Indeed, as long as the la#or mar(et remains hostile to parents, and familyroles continue to #e allocated on the #asis of gender, %omen %ill #e seriously disadvantagedin that la#or mar(et.

1. ;hich one of the following best summari*es the main idea of the passage8

(A) "urrent trends in the labor force indicate that wor!ing parents, especially women, maynot always need to choose between occupational and childcare responsibilities.

() In order for mothers to have an e4ual opportunity for advancement in the labor force,

traditional family roles have to be ree0amined and revised.(") Although single parents who wor! have to balance parental and career demands, single

mothers suffer resulting employment disadvantages that single fathers can almostalways avoid.

(#) Although childcare responsibilities disadvantage many women in the labor force, professional women (such as teachers and lawyers) are better able to overcome this problem than are nonprofessional women.

(%) 'raditional wor! schedules are too infle0ible to accommodate the childcareresponsibilities of many parents, a fact that severely disadvantages women in the laborforce.

&. ;hich one of the following statements about parttime wor! can be inferred from theinformation presented in the passage8

(A) 5nethird of all parttime wor!ers are wor!ing mothers.

() =arttime wor! generally offers fewer opportunities for advancement to wor!ing mothersthan to women generally.

(") =arttime wor!, in addition to having relatively poor wages, often re4uires thatemployees wor! during holidays, when their children are out of school.

(#) =arttime employment, despite its disadvantages, provides wor!ing mothers with an



opportunity to address some of the demands of caring for children.

(%) <any mothers with primary childcare responsibility choose parttime $obs in order to better e0ploit fulltime career opportunities after their children are grown.

+. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following statements about wor!ing fathers in twoparent families8

(A) 'hey are e4ually burdened by the employment disadvantages placed upon all parentsH male and femaleHin the labor mar!et.

() 'hey are so absorbed in their $obs that they often do not see the in$ustice going onaround them.

(") 'hey are shielded by the traditional allocation of family roles from many of the pressures associated with childrearing responsibilities.

(#) 'hey help compound the ine4uities in the labor mar!et by !eeping women formcompeting with men for career opportunities.

(%) 'hey are responsible for many of the problems of wor!ing mothers because of theirinsistence on traditional roles in the family.

. 5f the following, which one would the author most li!ely say is the most troublesome barrier facing wor!ing parents with primary childcare responsibility8

(A) the lac! of fulltime $obs open to women

() the infle0ibility of wor! schedules

(") the low wages of parttime employment

(#) the limited advancement opportunities for nonprofessional employees

(%) the practice of allocating responsibilities in the wor!place on the basis of gender

3. 'he passage suggests that day care is at best a limited solution to the pressures associatedwith child rearing for all of the following reasons %?"%='@

(A) %ven the best day care available cannot guarantee that children will have meaningfultime with their parents.

() Some parents cannot afford daycare services.

(") ;or!ing parents sometimes have difficulty finding suitable day care for their children.

(#) =arents who send their children to day care still need to provide care for their childrenduring vacations.

(%) %ven children who are in day care may have to stay home when they are sic!.

2. According to the passage, many wor!ing parents may be forced to ma!e any of thefollowing types of career decisions %?"%='

(A) declining professional positions for nonprofessional ones, which typically have less

conventional wor! schedules

() accepting parttime employment rather than fulltime employment

(") ta!ing $obs with limited responsibility, and thus more limited career opportunities, inorder to have a more fle0ible schedule

(#) pursuing career speciali*ations that allow them to control their wor! schedules instead of pursuing a more desirable speciali*ation in the same field

(%) limiting the career potential of one parent, often the mother, who assumes greater child



care responsibility

7. ;hich one of the following statements would most appropriately continue the discussion atthe end of the passage8

(A) At the same time, most men will remain better able to en$oy the career and salaryopportunities offered by the labor mar!et.

() 5f course, men who are married to wor!ing mothers !now of these employment barriers but seem unwilling to do anything about them.

(") 5n the other hand, salary levels may become more e4uitable between men and womeneven if the other career opportunities remain more accessible to men than to women.

(#) 5n the contrary, men with primary childrearing responsibilities will continue to en$oymore advantages in the wor!place than their female counterparts.

(%) 'hus, institutions in society that favor men over women will continue to widen the gap between the career opportunities available for men and for women.

Aritics have long #een pu&&led #y the inner contradictions of major characters in Fohn8e#ster’s tragedies. In his The Duchess of %al, for instance, the 9uchess is +good in

demonstrating the o#vious tenderness and sincerity of her love for *ntonio, #ut +#ad inignoring the %ishes and %elfare of her family and in ma(ing religion a +cloa( hiding %orldlyself'indulgence. osola is +#ad in serving 5erdinand, +good in turning the 9uchess’thoughts to%ard heaven and in planning to avenge her murder. !he ancient Gree(philosopher *ristotle implied that such contradictions are virtually essential to the tragicpersonality, and yet critics (eep coming #ac( to this element of inconsistency as though it%ere an eccentric feature of 8e#ster’s o%n tragic vision.

!he pro#lem is that, as an Eli&a#ethan play%right, 8e#ster has #ecome a prisoner of ourcritical presuppositions. 8e have, in recent years, #een da&&led #y the %ay the earlierDenaissance and medieval theater, particularly the morality play, illuminates Eli&a#ethandrama. 8e no% understand ho% the ha#it of mind that sa% the %orld as a #attleground#et%een good and evil produced the morality play. )orality plays allegori&ed that con4ict #ypresenting characters %hose actions %ere dened as the em#odiment of good or evil. !his

model of reality lived on, overlaid #y dierent conventions, in the most sophisticatedEli&a#ethan %or(s of the follo%ing age. ?et 8e#ster seems not to have #een as heavilyin4uenced #y the morality play’s model of reality as %ere his Eli&a#ethan contemporaries>he %as apparently more sensitive to the more morally complicated Italian drama than tothese English sources. Aonse"uently, his characters cannot #e evaluated according toreductive formulas of good and evil, %hich is precisely %hat modern critics have tried to do.

!hey choose %hat seem to #e the most promising of the contradictor values that aredramati&ed in the play, and treat those values as if they %ere the only #asis for analy&ingthe moral development of the play’s major characters, attri#uting the inconsistencies in acharacter’s #ehavior to artistic incompetence on 8e#ster’s part. !he lac( of consistency in8e#ster’s characters can #e #etter understood if %e recogni&e that the am#iguity at theheart of his tragic vision lies not in the e-ternal %orld #ut in the duality of human nature.8e#ster esta#lishes tension in his plays #y setting up con4icting systems of value that

appear immoral only %hen one value system is vie%ed e-clusively from the perspective ofthe other. He presents us not only %ith characters that %e condemn intellectually or ethicallyand at the same time impulsively approve of, #ut also %ith judgments %e must accept aslogically sound and yet nd emotionally repulsive. !he dilemma is not only dramaticC it istragic, #ecause the con4ict is irreconcila#le, and #ecause it is ours as much as that of thecharacters.

. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) clarify an ambiguous assertion



() provide evidence in support of a commonly held view

(") analy*e an unresolved 4uestion and propose an answer

(#) offer an alternative to a flawed interpretation

(%) describe and categori*e opposing viewpoints

-. 'he author suggests which one of the following about the dramatic wor!s that mostinfluenced ;ebster6s tragedies8

(A) 'hey were not concerned with dramati*ing the conflict between good and evil that was presented in morality plays.

() 'hey were not as sophisticated as the Italian sources from which other %li*abethantragedies were derived.

(") 'hey have never been ade4uately understood by critics.

(#) 'hey have only recently been used to illuminate the conventions of %li*abethan drama.

(%) 'hey have been considered by many critics to be the reason for ;ebster6s apparentartistic incompetence.

1:. 'he author6s allusion to Aristotle6s view of tragedy in lines 111+ serves which one of thefollowing functions in the passage8

(A) It introduces a commonly held view of ;ebster6s tragedies that the author plans todefend.

() It supports the author6s suggestion that ;ebster6s conception of tragedy is notidiosyncratic.

(") It provides an e0ample of an approach to ;ebster6s tragedies that the author critici*es.

(#) It establishes the similarity between classical and modern approaches to tragedy.

(%) It supports the author6s assertion that %li*abethan tragedy cannot be fully understoodwithout the help of recent scholarship.

11. It can be inferred from the passage that modern critics6 interpretations of ;ebster6s tragedieswould be more valid if

(A) the ambiguity inherent in ;ebster6s tragic vision resulted from the duality of humannature

() ;ebster6s conception of the tragic personality were similar to that of Aristotle

(") ;ebster had been heavily influenced by the morality play

(#) %li*abethan dramatists had been more sensitive to Italian sources of influence

(%) the inner conflicts e0hibited by ;ebster6s characters were similar to those of modernaudiences

1&. ;ith which one of the following statements regarding %li*abethan drama would the author be most li!ely to agree8

(A) 'he s!ill of %li*abethan dramatists has in recent years been overestimated.

() 'he conventions that shaped %li*abethan drama are best e0emplified by ;ebster6sdrama.

(") %li*abethan drama, for the most part, can be viewed as being heavily influenced by themorality play.

(#) 5nly by carefully e0amining the wor! of his %li*abethan contemporaries can ;ebster6s



achievement as a dramatist be accurately measured.

(%) %li*abethan drama can best be described as influenced by a composite of Italian andclassical sources.

1+. It can be inferred from the passage that most modern critics assume which one of thefollowing in their interpretation of ;ebster6s tragedies8

(A) ;ebster6s play tended to allegori*e the conflict between good and evil more than didthose of his contemporaries.

() ;ebster6s plays were derived more from Italian than from %nglish sources.

(") 'he artistic flaws in ;ebster6s tragedies were largely the result of his ignorance of theclassical definition of tragedy.

(#) ;ebster6s tragedies provide no relevant basis for analy*ing the moral development oftheir characters.

(%) In writing his tragedies, ;ebster was influenced by the same sources as hiscontemporaries.

1. 'he author implies that ;ebster6s conception of tragedy was(A) artistically flawed

() highly conventional

(") largely derived from the morality play

(#) somewhat different from the conventional %li*abethan conception of tragedy

(%) uninfluenced by the classical conception of tragedy

Aultivation of a single crop on a given tract of land leads eventually to decreased yields.ne reason for this is that harmful #acterial phytopathogens, organisms parasitic on planthosts, increase in the soil surrounding plant roots. !he pro#lem can #e cured #y croprotation, denying the pathogens a suita#le host for a period of time. Ho%ever, even if cropsare not rotated, the severity of diseases #rought on #y such phytopathogens often

decreases after a num#er of years as the micro#ial population of the soil changes and thesoil #ecomes +suppressive to those diseases. 8hile there may #e many reasons for thisphenomenon, it is clear that levels of certain #acteria, such as &seudomonas 'uorescens, a#acterium antagonistic to a num#er of harmful phytopathogens, are greater in suppressivethan in nonsuppressive soil. !his suggests that the presence of such #acteria suppressesphytopathogens. !here is no% considera#le e-perimental support for this vie%. 8heat yieldincreases of @ percent have #een o#tained in eld trials #y treatment of %heat seeds %ith4uorescent pseudomonads. Similar treatment of sugar #eets, cotton, and potatoes has hadsimilar results.

!hese improvements in crop yields through the application of &seudomonas 'uorescens suggest that agriculture could #enet from the use of #acteria genetically altered for specicpurposes. 5or e-ample, a form of phytopathogen altered to remove its harmful propertiescould #e released into the environment in "uantities favora#le to its competing %ith and

eventually e-cluding the harmful normal strain. Some e-periments suggest that deli#eratelyreleasing altered nonpathogenic &seudomonas syringae could cro%d out the nonalteredvariety that causes frost damage. pponents of such research have o#jected that thedeli#erate and large'scale release of genetically altered #acteria might have deleteriousresults. 7roponents, on the other hand, argue that this particular strain is altered only #y theremoval of the gene responsi#le for the strain’s propensity to cause frost damage, there#yrendering it safer than the phytopathogen from %hich it %as derived.

Some proponents have gone further and suggest that genetic alteration techni"uescould create organisms %ith totally ne% com#inations of desira#le traits not found in nature.



5or e-ample, genes responsi#le for production of insecticidal compounds have #eentransposed from other #acteria into pseudomonads that coloni&e corn roots. E-periments ofthis (ind are di6cult and re"uire great careC such #acteria are developed in highly articialenvironments and may not compete %ell %ith natural soil #acteria. :evertheless,proponents contend that the prospects for improved agriculture through such methods seeme-cellent. !hese prospects lead many to hope that current eorts to assess the ris(s of

deli#erate release of altered microorganisms %ill successfully ans%er the concerns ofopponents and create a climate in %hich such research can go for%ard %ithout undueimpediment.


(A) ecent field e0periments with genetically altered =seudomonas bacteria have shown thatreleasing genetically altered bacteria into the environment would not involve anysignificant danger.

() %ncouraged by current research, advocates of agricultural use of genetically altered bacteria are optimistic that such use will eventually result in improved agriculture,though opponents remain wary.

(") "urrent research indicates that adding genetically altered Pseudomonas syringae

bacteria to the soil surrounding crop plant roots will have many beneficial effects, suchas the prevention of frost damage in certain crops.

(#) 9enetic alteration of a number of harmful phytopathogens has been advocated by manyresearchers who contend that these techni4ues will eventually replace such outdatedmethods as crop rotation.

(%) 9enetic alteration of bacteria has been successful in highly artificial laboratoryconditions, but opponents of such research have argued that these techni4ues areunli!ely to produce organisms that are able to survive in natural environments.

12. 'he author discusses naturally occurring Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria in the first paragraph primarily in order to do which one of the following8

(A) prove that increases in the level of such bacteria in the soil are the sole cause of soilsuppressivity

() e0plain why yields increased after wheat fields were sprayed with altered Pseudomonas

fluorescens bacteria

(") detail the chemical processes that such bacteria use to suppress organisms parasitic tocrop plants, such as wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes

(#) provide bac!ground information to support the argument that research into theagricultural use of genetically altered bacteria would be fruitful

(%) argue that crop rotation is unnecessary, since diseases brought on by phytopathogensdiminish in severity and eventually disappear on their own

17. It can be inferred from the author6s discussion of Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria thatwhich one of the following would be true of crops impervious to parasitical organisms8

(A) Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria would be absent from the soil surrounding their roots.

() 'hey would crowd out and eventually e0clude other crop plants if their growth were notcarefully regulated.

(") 'heir yield would not be li!ely to be improved by adding Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria to the soil.



(#) 'hey would mature more 4uic!ly than crop plants that were susceptible to parasiticalorganisms.

(%) Cevels of phytopathogenic bacteria in the soil surrounding their roots would be highercompared with other crop plants.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that crop rotation can increase yields in part because

(A) moving crop plants around ma!es them hardier and more resistant to disease

() the number of Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria in the soil usually increases whencrops are rotated

(") the roots of many crop plants produce compounds that are antagonistic to phytopathogens harmful to other crop plants

(#) the presence of phytopathogenic bacteria is responsible for the ma$ority of plant diseases

(%) phytopathogens typically attac! some plant species but find other species to beunsuitable hosts

1-. According to the passage, proponents of the use of genetically altered bacteria in agriculture

argue that which one of the following is true of the altered bacteria used in the frostdamagee0periments8

(A) 'he altered bacteria had a genetic constitution differing from that of the normal strainonly in that the altered variety had one less gene.

() Although the altered bacteria competed effectively with the nonaltered strain in thelaboratory, they were not as viable in natural environments.

(") 'he altered bacteria were much safer and more effective than the naturally occurring Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria used in earlier e0periments.

(#) 'he altered bacteria were antagonistic to several types of naturally occurring phytopathogens in the soil surrounding the roots of frostdamaged crops.

(%) 'he altered bacteria were released into the environment in numbers sufficient toguarantee the validity of e0perimental results.

&:. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most seriously wea!en the proponents6 argumentregarding the safety of using altered Pseudomonas syringae bacteria to control frostdamage8

(A) Pseudomonas syringae bacteria are primitive and have a simple genetic constitution.

() 'he altered bacteria are derived from a strain that is parasitic to plants and can causedamage to crops.

(") "urrent geneticengineering techni4ues permit the largescale commercial production ofsuch bacteria.

(#) 5ften genes whose presence is responsible for one harmful characteristic must be present in order to prevent other harmful characteristics.

(%) 'he frostdamage e0periments with Pseudomonas syringae bacteria indicate that thealtered variety would only replace the normal strain if released in sufficient numbers.

In /BB the 9a%es *ct legislated %ide'scale private o%nership of reservation lands inthe United States for :ative *mericans. !he act allotted plots of B2 acres to each :ative*merican adult. Ho%ever, the :ative *mericans %ere not granted outright title to theirlands. !he act dened each grant as a +trust patent, meaning that the ureau of Indian*airs ;I*=, the governmental agency in charge of administering policy regarding :ative



*mericans, %ould hold the allotted land in trust for @< years, during %hich time the :ative*merican o%ners could use, #ut not alienate ;sell= the land. *fter the @<'year period, the:ative *merican allottee %ould receive a +fee patent a%arding full legal o%nership of theland.

!%o main reasons %ere advanced for the restriction on the :ative *mericans’ a#ility tosell their lands. 5irst, it %as claimed that free aliena#ility %ould lead to immediate transfer of

large amounts of former reservation land to non':ative *mericans, conse"uentlythreatening the traditional %ay of life on those reservations. * second o#jection to freealienation %as that :ative *mericans %ere unaccustomed to, and did not desire, a system of private lando%nership. !heir custom, it %as said, favored communal use of land.

Ho%ever, #oth of these arguments #ear only on the transfer of :ative *merican lands tonon':ative *mericansC neither oers a reason for prohi#iting :ative *mericans fromtransferring land among themselves. Selling land to each other %ould not threaten the:ative *merican culture. *dditionally, if communal land use remained prefera#le to :ative*mericans after allotment, free aliena#ility %ould have allo%ed allottees to sell their lands#ac( to the tri#e.

8hen stated rationales for government policies prove empty, using an interest'groupmodel often provides an e-planation. 8hile neither :ative *mericans nor the potential non':ative *merican purchasers #eneted from the restraint on alienation contained in the

9a%es *ct, one clearly dened group did #enetC the I* #ureaucrats. It has #eenconvincingly demonstrated that #ureaucrats see( to ma-imi&e the si&e of their stas andtheir #udgets in order to compensate for the lac( of other sources of fulllment, such aspo%er and prestige. *dditionally, politicians tend to favor the gro%th of governmental#ureaucracy #ecause such gro%th provides increased opportunity for the e-ercise of politicalpatronage. !he restraint on alienation vastly increased the amount of %or(, and hence the#udgets, necessary to implement the statute. Until allotment %as ended in /0J, grantingfee patents and leasing :ative *merican lands %ere among the principal activities of theUnited States government. ne hypothesis, then, for the temporary restriction on alienationin the 9a%es *ct is that it re4ected a compromise #et%een non':ative *mericans favoringimmediate aliena#ility so they could purchase land and the I* #ureaucrats %hoadministered the privati&ation system.

&1. ;hich one of the following best summari*es the main idea of the passage8(A) United States government policy toward >ative Americans has tended to disregard their

needs and consider instead the needs of non>ative American purchasers of land.

() In order to preserve the uni4ue way of life on >ative American reservations, use of >ative American lands must be communal rather than individual.

(") 'he #awes Act6s restriction on the right of >ative Americans to sell their land may have been implemented primarily to serve the interests of politicians and bureaucrats.

(#) 'he clause restricting free alienability in the #awes Act greatly e0panded United Statesgovernmental activity in the area of land administration.

(%) Since passage of the #awes Act in 17, >ative Americans have not been able to sell or

transfer their former reservation land freely.&&. ;hich one of the following statements concerning the reason for the end of allotment, if

true, would provide the most support for the author6s view of politicians8

(A) =oliticians reali*ed that allotment was damaging the >ative American way of life.

() =oliticians decided that allotment would be more congruent with the >ative Americancustom of communal land use.

(") =oliticians believed that allotment6s continuation would not enhance their opportunities



to e0ercise patronage.

(#) =oliticians felt that the staff and budgets of the IA had grown too large.

(%) =oliticians were concerned that too much >ative American land was falling into thehands of non>ative Americans.

&+. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) 'he passage of a law is analy*ed in detail, the benefits and drawbac!s of one of itsclauses are studied, and a final assessment of the law is offered.

() 'he history of a law is narrated, the effects of one of its clauses on various populationsare studied, and repeal of the law is advocated

(") A law is e0amined, the political and social bac!grounds of one of its clauses arecharacteri*ed, and the permanent effects of the law are studied.

(#) A law is described, the rationale put forward for one of its clauses is outlined anddismissed, and a different rationale for the clause is presented.

(%) 'he legal status of an ethnic group is e0amined with respect to issues of landownershipand commercial autonomy, and the benefits to rival groups due to that status are

e0plained.

&. 'he author6s attitude toward the reasons advanced for the restriction on alienability in the#awes Act at the time of its passage can best be described as

(A) completely credulous

() partially approving

(") basically indecisive

(#) mildly 4uestioning

(%) highly s!eptical

&3. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of >ative

American life immediately before passage of the #awes Act8(A) <ost >ative Americans supported themselves through farming.

() >ot many >ative Americans personally owned the land on which they lived.

(") 'he land on which most >ative Americans lived had been bought from their tribes.

(#) Dew >ative Americans had much contact with their non>ative American neighbors.

(%) Dew >ative Americans were willing to sell their land to non>ative Americans.

&2. According to the passage, the type of landownership initially obtainable by >ativeAmericans under the #awes Act differed from the type of ownership obtainable after a &3year period in that only the latter allowed

(A) owners of land to farm it

() owners of land to sell it

(") government some control over how owners disposed of land

(#) owners of land to build on it with relatively minor governmental restrictions

(%) government to charge owners a fee for developing their land

&7. ;hich of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author6s argument regarding thetrue motivation for the passage of the #awes Act8



(A) 'he legislators who voted in favor of the #awes Act owned land ad$acent to >ativeAmerican reservations.

() 'he ma$ority of >ative Americans who were granted fee patents did not sell their land bac! to their tribes.

(") >ative Americans managed to preserve their traditional culture even when they were

geographically dispersed.(#) 'he legislators who voted in favor of the #awes Act were heavily influenced by IA

bureaucrats.

(%) >on>ative Americans who purchased the ma$ority of >ative American landsconsolidated them into larger farm holdings.

LSAT 08 SECTION III





accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answersheet.

!he la%'and'literature movement claims to have introduced a valua#le pedagogicalinnovation into legal studyC instructing students in techni"ues of literary analysis for thepurpose of interpreting la%s and in the reciprocal use of legal analysis for the purpose ofinterpreting literary te-ts. !he results, according to advocates, are not only conceptual#rea(throughs in #oth la% and literature #ut also more sensitive and humane la%yers.8hatever the truth of this last claim, there can #e no dou#t that the movement is a successCla%'and'literature is an accepted su#ject in la% journals and in leading la% schools. Indeed,one indication of the movement’s strength is the fact that its most distinguished critic,Dichard *. 7osner, parado-ically ends up e-pressing "ualied support for the movement in arecent study in %hich he systematically refutes the %ritings of its leading legal scholars andcooperating literary critics.

Ariti"uing the movement’s assumption that la%yers can oer special insights intoliterature that deals %ith legal matters, 7osner points out that %riters of literature use thela% loosely to convey a particular idea or as a metaphor for the %or(ings of the societyenvisioned in their ction. $egal "uestions per se, a#out %hich a la%yer might instructreaders, are seldom at issue in literature. !his is %hy practitioners of la%'and'literature endup discussing the la% itself far less than one might suppose. )ovement leader Fames 8hite,for e-ample, in his discussion of arguments in the Iliad, #arely touches on la%, and then sogenerally as to render himself vulnera#le to 7osner’s devastating remar( that +anyargument can #e analogi&ed to a legal dispute.

Similarly, the notion that literary criticism can #e helpful in interpreting la% ispro#lematic. 7osner argues that literary criticism in general aims at e-ploring richness andvariety of meaning in te-ts, %hereas legal interpretation aims at discovering a singlemeaning. * literary approach can thus only confuse the tas( of interpreting the la%,especially if one adopts current fashions li(e deconstruction, %hich holds that all te-ts areinherently uninterpreta#le.

:evertheless, 7osner %rites that la%'and'literature is a eld %ith +promise. 8hyL7erhaps, recogni&ing the success of a movement that, in the past, has singled him out fora#use, he is attempting to appease his detractors, paying o#eisance to the movementsinstitutional success #y declaring that it +deserves a place in legal research %hile leaving itto others to dra% the conclusion from his cogent analysis that it is an entirely factitiousunderta(ing, deserving of no intellectual respect %hatsoever. *s a result, his %or( stands#oth as a re#uttal of la%'and'literature and as a tri#ute to the po%er it has come to e-ercise



in academic circles.


(A) assess the lawandliterature movement by e0amining the position of one of its most prominent critics

() assert that a mutually beneficial relationship e0ists between the study of law and the

study of literature

(") provide e0amples of the lawandliterature movement in practice by discussing the wor!of its proponents

(#) dismiss a prominent critics recent study of the lawandliterature movement

(%) describe the role played by literary scholars in providing a broader conte0t for legalissues

&. =osner6s stated position with regard to the lawandliterature movement is most analogous towhich one of the following8

(A) a musician who is trained in the classics but fre4uently plays modern music while performing on stage

() a partisan who transfers allegiance to a new political party that demonstrates more promise but has fewer documented accomplishments

(") a sports fan who wholeheartedly supports the team most li!ely to win rather than his orher personal favorite

(#) an ideologue who remains committed to his or her own view of a sub$ect in spite ofcompelling evidence to the contrary

(%) a salesperson who describes the faults in a fashionable product while conceding that itmay have some value

+. 'he passage suggests that =osner regards legal practitioners as using an approach tointerpreting law that

(A) eschews discovery of multiple meanings

() employs techni4ues li!e deconstruction

(") interprets laws in light of varying community standards

(#) is informed by the positions of literary critics

(%) deemphasi*es the social relevance of the legal tradition

. 'he =assage suggests that =osner might find legal training useful in the interpretation of aliterary te0t in which

(A) a legal dispute symboli*es the relationship between two characters

() an oppressive law is used to symboli*e an oppressive culture

(") one of the !ey issues involves the answer to a legal 4uestion

(#) a legal controversy is used to represent a moral conflict

(%) the wor!ing of the legal system suggests something about the political character of asociety

3. 'he author uses the word success/ in line 11 to refer to the lawandliterature movement6s

(A) positive effect on the sensitivity of lawyers

() widespread acceptance by law schools and law $ournals



(") ability to offer fresh insights into literary te0ts

(#) ability to encourage innovative approaches in two disciplines

(%) response to recent criticism in law $ournals

2. According to the passage, =osner argues that legal analysis is not generally useful ininterpreting literature because

(A) use of the law in literature is generally of a 4uite different nature than use of the law inlegal practice

() law is rarely used to convey important ideas in literature

(") lawyers do not have enough literary training to analy*e literature competently

(#) legal interpretations of literature tend to focus on legal issues to the e0clusion of otherimportant elements

(%) legal interpretations are only relevant to contemporary literature

7. According to =osner, the primary difficulty in using literary criticism to interpret law is that

(A) the goals of the two disciplines are incompatible

() there are few advocates for the lawandliterature movement in the literary profession(") the tas! of interpreting law is too comple0 for the techni4ues of literary criticism

(#) the interpretation of law relies heavily on legal precedent

(%) legal scholars are reluctant to adopt the practice in the classroom

* recent generation of historians of science, far from portraying accepted scienticvie%s as o#jectively accurate re4ections of a natural %orld, e-plain the acceptance of suchvie%s in terms of the ideological #iases of certain in4uential scientists or the institutionaland rhetorical po%er such scientists %ield. *s an e-ample of ideological #ias, it has #eenargued that 7asteur rejected the theory of spontaneous generation not #ecause ofe-perimental evidence #ut #ecause he rejected the materialist ideology implicit in thatdoctrine. !hese historians seem to nd allies in certain philosophers of science %ho arguethat scientic vie%s are not imposed #y reality #ut are free inventions of creative minds, andthat scientic claims are never more than #rave conjectures, al%ays su#ject to inevita#lefuture falsication. 8hile these philosophers of science themselves %ould not #e li(ely tohave much truc( %ith the recent historians, it is an easy step from their vie%s to thee-tremism of the historians.

8hile this rejection of the traditional #elief that scientic vie%s are o#jective re4ectionsof the %orld may #e fashiona#le, it is deeply implausi#le. 8e no% (no%, for e-ample, that%ater is made of hydrogen and o-ygen and that parents each contri#ute one'half of theirchildren’s complement of genes. I do not #elieve any serious'minded and informed personcan claim that these statements are not factual descriptions of the %orld or that they %illinevita#ly #e falsied.

Ho%ever, science’s accumulation of lasting truths a#out the %orld is not #y any means astraightfor%ard matter. 8e certainly need to get #eyond the naive vie% that the truth %ill

automatically reveal itself to any scientist %ho loo(s in the right direction> most often, infact, a %hole series of prior discoveries is needed to tease reality’s truths from e-perimentand o#servation. *nd the philosophers of science mentioned a#ove are "uite right to arguethat ne% scientic ideas often correct old ones #y indicating errors and imprecision ;as, say,:e%ton’s ideas did to Kepler’s=. :or %ould I deny that there are interesting "uestions to #eans%ered a#out the social processes in %hich scientic activity is em#edded. !he persuasiveprocesses #y %hich particular scientic groups esta#lish their e-perimental results asauthoritative are themselves social activities and can #e re%ardingly studied as such.Indeed, much of the ne% %or( in the history of science has #een e-tremely revealing a#out



the institutional interactions and rhetorical devices that help determine %hose resultsachieve prominence.

ut one can accept all this %ithout accepting the thesis that natural reality never playsany part at all in determining %hat scientists #elieve. 8hat the ne% historians ought to #esho%ing us is ho% those doctrines that do in fact t reality %or( their %ay through thecomple- social processes of scientic activity to eventually receive general scientic

acceptance.

. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following characteri*ations of scientific truth8

(A) It is often implausible.

() It is sub$ect to inevitable falsification.

(") It is rarely obvious and transparent.

(#) It is rarely discovered by creative processes.

(%) It is less often established by e0perimentation than by the rhetorical power of scientists.

-. According to the passage, Gepler6s ideas provide an e0ample of scientific ideas that were

(A) corrected by subse4uent in4uiries() dependent on a series of prior observations

(") originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed

(#) established primarily by the force of an individuals rhetorical power

(%) specifically ta!en up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists

1:. In the third paragraph of the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) presenting conflicting e0planations for a phenomenon

() suggesting a field for possible future research

(") 4ualifying a previously e0pressed point of view

(#) providing an answer to a theoretical 4uestion

(%) attac!ing the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs

11. 'he use of the words any seriousminded and informed person6 (lines &&-) serves whichone of the following functions in the conte0t of the passage8

(A) to satiri*e chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water

() to reinforce a previously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science

(") to suggest the author6s reservations about the traditional belief/ mentioned in line &&

(#) to anticipate ob$ections from someone who would argue for an ob$ectively accuratedescription of the world

(%) to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not factually

describe reality1&. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most li!ely agree with which one

of the following statements about the relationship between the views of certain philosophers of science/ (lines l&1+) and those of the recent historians8

(A) 'hese two views are difficult to differentiate.

() 'hese two views share some similarities.

(") 'he views of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians6 views.



(#) oth views emphasi*e the rhetorical power of scientists.

(%) 'he historians e0plicitly ac!nowledge that their views are indebted to those of the philosophers.

1+. ;hich one of the following best characteri*es the author6s assessment of the opinions of thenew historians of science, as these opinions are presented in the passage8

(A) 'hey lac! any credibility.

() 'hey themselves can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena.

(") 'hey are least convincing when they concern the actions of scientific groups.

(#) Although they are gross overstatements, they lead to some valuable insights.

(%) Although they are now popular, they are li!ely to be refused soon.

1. In concluding the passage, the author does which one of the following8

(A) offers a prescription

() presents a parado0

(") ma!es a prediction

(#) concedes an argument

(%) anticipates ob$ections

13. 'he authors attitude toward the thesis/ mentioned in line 32 is revealed in which one of thefollowing pairs of words8

(A) biases/ (line 3) and rhetorical/ (line 2)

() wield/ (line 7) and falsification/ (line 17)

(") con$ectures/ (line l2) and truc! with/ (line 1-)

(#) e0tremism/ (line &:) and implausible/ (line &)

(%) naive/ (line +3) and errors6 (line &)

Until recently, it %as thought that the Ahero(ee, a :ative *merican tri#e, %erecompelled to assimilate Euro'*merican culture during the /B@2s. 9uring that decade, it %assupposed, 8hite missionaries arrived and, together %ith their part'Ahero(ee intermediaries,imposed the #enets of +civili&ation on Ahero(ee tri#es %hile the United States governmentactively promoted acculturali&ation #y encouraging the Ahero(ee to s%itch from hunting tosettled agriculture. !his vie% %as #ased on the assumption that the end of a :ative*merican group’s economic and political autonomy %ould automatically mean the end of itscultural autonomy as %ell.

8illiam G. )c$aughlin has recently argued that not only did Ahero(ee culture 4ourishduring and after the /B@2s, #ut the Ahero(ee themselves actively and continually reshapedtheir culture. )issionaries did have a decisive impact during these years, he argues, #ut thatimpact %as far from %hat it %as intended to #e. !he missionaries’ tendency to cater to theinterests of an acculturating part'Ahero(ee elite ;%ho comprised the #ul( of their converts=

at the e-pense of the more traditionalist full'Ahero(ee majority created great intratri#altensions. *s the elite initiated reforms designed to legitimi&e their o%n and the Ahero(ee:ation’s place in the ne% repu#lic of the United States, antimission Ahero(ee reacted #yfostering revivals of traditional religious #eliefs and practices. Ho%ever, these revivals didnot, according to )c$aughlin, undermine the elitist reforms, #ut supplemented them %ithpopular traditionalist counterparts.

!raditionalist Ahero(ee did not reject the elitist reforms outright, )c$aughlin argues,simply #ecause they recogni&ed that there %as more than one %ay to use the s(ills themissionaries could provide them. *s he "uotes one group as saying, +8e %ant our children



to learn English so that the 8hite man cannot cheat us. )any traditionalists Ahero(ee%elcomed the missionaries for another reasonC they perceived that it %ould #e useful tohave 8hite allies. In the end, )c$aughlin asserts, most mem#ers of the Ahero(ee council,including traditionalists, supported a move %hich preserved many of the reforms of the part'Ahero(ee elite #ut limited the activities and in4uence of the missionaries and other 8hitesettlers. *ccording to )c$aughlin, the identity and culture that resulted %ere distinctively

Ahero(ee, yet re4ected the larger political and social setting in %hich they 4ourished.ecause his %or( concentrates on the nineteenth century, )c$aughlin unfortunatelyoverloo(s earlier sources of in4uence, such as eighteen'century 8hite resident traders andneigh#ors, thus o#scuring the relative impact of the missionaries of the /B@2s incontri#uting to #oth acculturali&ation and resistance to it among the Ahero(ee. Ho%ever,)c$aughlin is undou#tedly correct in recogni&ing that culture is an ongoing process ratherthan a static entity, and he has made a signicant contri#ution to our understanding of ho%Ahero(ee culture changed %hile retaining its essential identity after confronting themissionaries.

12. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) <cCaughlin6s studies of the impact of missionaries on "hero!ee culture during the1&:s are fundamentally flawed, since <cCaughlin ignores the greater impact of ;hite

resident traders in the eighteenth century.() 'hough his wor! is limited in perspective, <cCaughlin is substantially correct that

changes in "hero!ee culture in the 1&:s were mediated by the "hero!ee themselvesrather than simply imposed by the missionaries.

(") Although <cCaughlin is correct in asserting that cultural changes among the "hero!eewere autonomous and so not a result of the presence of missionaries, heoveremphasi*es the role of intertribal conflicts.

(#) <cCaughlin has shown that "hero!ee culture not only flourished during and after the1&:s, but that changes in "hero!ee culture during this time developed naturally fromelements already present in "hero!ee culture.

(%) Although <cCaughlin overloo!s a number of relevant factors in "hero!ee culturalchange in the 1&:s, he convincingly demonstrates that these changes were fostered primarily by missionaries.

17. ;hich one of the following statements regarding the "hero!ee council in the 1&:s can beinferred from the passage8

(A) <embers of the "hero!ee council were elected democratically by the entire "hero!ee >ation.

() In order for a policy to come into effect for the "hero!ee >ation, it had to have beenapproved by a unanimous vote of the "hero!ee council.

(") #espite the fact that the "hero!ee were dominated politically and economically by the

United States in the 1&:s, the "hero!ee council was able to override policies set bythe United States government.

(#) 'hough it did not have complete autonomy in governing the "hero!ee >ation, it wasable to set some policies affecting the activities of ;hite people living in tribal areas.

(%) 'he proportions of traditionalist and acculturating "hero!ee in the "hero!ee councilwere determined by the proportions of traditionalist and acculturating "hero!ee in the"hero!ee population.



1. ;hich one of the following statements regarding the attitudes of traditionalist "hero!eetoward the reforms that were instituted in the 1&:s can be inferred from the passage8

(A) 'hey supported the reforms merely as a way of placating the increasingly vocalacculturating elite.

() 'hey thought that the reforms would lead to the destruction of traditional "hero!ee

culture but felt powerless to stop the reforms.(") 'hey supported the reforms only because they thought that they were inevitable and it

was better that the reforms appear to have been initiated by the "hero!ee themselves.

(#) 'hey believed that the reforms were a natural e0tension of already e0isting "hero!eetraditions.

(%) 'hey viewed the reforms as a means of preserving the "hero!ee >ation and protecting itagainst e0ploitation.

1-. According to the passage, <cCaughlin cites which one of the following as a contributingfactor in the revival of traditional religious beliefs among the "hero!ee in the 1&:s8

(A) <issionaries were gaining converts at an increasing rate as the 1&:s progressed.

() 'he traditionalist "hero!ee ma$ority thought that most of the reforms initiated by themissionaries6 converts would corrupt "hero!ee culture.

(") <issionaries unintentionally created conflict among the "hero!ee by favoring theinterests of the acculturating elite at the e0pense of the more traditionalist ma$ority.

(#) 'raditionalist "hero!ee recogni*ed that only some of the reforms instituted by a small"hero!ee elite would be beneficial to all "hero!ee.

(%) A small group of "hero!ee converted by missionaries attempted to institute reformsdesigned to ac4uire political supremacy for themselves in the "hero!ee council.

&:. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine <cCaughlin6s accountof the course of reform among the "hero!ee during the 1&:s8

(A) 'raditionalist "hero!ee gained control over the ma$ority of seats on the "hero!eecouncil during the 1&:s.

() 'he United States government too! an active interest in political and culturaldevelopments within >ative American tribes.

(") 'he missionaries living among the "hero!ee in the 1&:s were strongly in favor of thecultural reforms initiated by the acculturating elite.

(#) evivals of traditional "hero!ee religious beliefs and practices began late in theeighteenth century, before the missionaries arrived.

(%) 'he acculturating "hero!ee elite of the 1&:s did not view the reforms they initiated as beneficial to all "hero!ee.

&1. It can be inferred from the author6s discussion of <cCaughlin6s views that the author thin!sthat "hero!ee acculturali*ation in the 1&:s

(A) was reversed in the decades following the 1&:s

() may have been part of an alreadye0isting process of acculturali*ation

(") could have been the result of earlier contacts with missionaries

(#) would not have occurred without the encouragement of the United States government

(%) was primarily a result of the influence of ;hite traders living near the "hero!ee



In the history of nineteenth'century landscape painting in the United States, the$uminists are distinguished #y their focus on atmosphere and light. !he accepted vie% of$uminist paintings is that they are #asically spiritual and imply a tran"uil mysticism thatcontrasts %ith earlier *merican artists’ concept of nature as dynamic and energetic.*ccording to this vie%, the $uminist atmosphere, characteri&ed #y +pure and constant light,guides the onloo(er to%ard a lucid transcendentalism, an ideali&ed vision of the %orld.

8hat this vie% fails to do is to identify the true signicance of this transcendentalatmosphere in $uminist paintings. !he prosaic factors that are revealed #y a closere-amination of these %or(s suggest that the glo%ing appearance of nature in $uminism isactually a sign of nature’s domestication, its adaptation to human use. !he ideali&ed$uminist atmosphere thus seems to convey, not an intensication of human responses tonature, #ut rather a muting of those emotions, li(e a%e and fear, %hich untamed natureelicits.

ne critic, in descri#ing the spiritual "uality of har#or scenes #y 5it& Hugh $ane, animportant $uminist, carefully notes that +at the pea( of $uminist development in the /B<2sand /B12s, spiritualism in *merica %as e-tremely %idespread. It is also true, ho%ever, thatthe /B<2s and /B12s %ere a time of trade e-pansion. 5rom /BJB until his death in /B1<,

$ane lived in a house %ith a vie% of the har#or of Gloucester, )assachusetts, and hemade short trips to )aine, :e% ?or(, altimore, and pro#a#ly 7uerto Dico. In all of these

places he painted the har#ors %ith their ships3the instruments of e-panding trade.$ane usually depicts places li(e :e% ?or( Har#or, %ith ships at anchor, #ut even %hen

he depicts more remote, less commercially active har#ors, nature appears pastoral anddomesticated rather than primitive or une-plored. !he ships, rather than the surroundinglandscapes3including the sea3are generally the active element in his pictures. 5or $ane thesea is, in eect, a canal or a trade route for commercial activity, not a free po%erfulelement, as it is in the early pictures of his predecessor, Aole. 5or $ane nature is su#dued,even %hen storms are approaching> thus, the sea is al%ays a via#le high%ay for thetransport of goods. In sum, I consider $ane’s sea simply an environment for human activity3nature no longer inviolate. !he luminescence that $ane paints sym#oli&es nature’s hum#ledstate, for the light itself is as docile as the $uminist sea, and its tran"uility in a sensesignies no more than good conditions on the high%ay to progress. 7rogress, pro#a#ly evenmore than transcendence, is the secret message of $uminism. In a sense, $uminist pictures

are an ideological justication of the atmosphere necessary for #usiness, if also ane-aggerated, idealistic rendering of that atmosphere.

&&. 'he passage is primarily concerned with discussing

(A) the importance of religion to the art of a particular period

() the way one artist6s wor! illustrates a tradition of painting

(") the significance of the sea in one artist6s wor!

(#) differences in the treatment of nature as a more active or a less active force

(%) variations in the artistic treatment of light among nineteenthcentury landscape painters

&+. 'he author argues that nature is portrayed in Cane6s pictures as

(A) wild and une0plored() ideali*ed and distant

(") continually changing

(#) difficult to understand

(%) subordinate to human concerns

&. 'he passage contains information to suggest that the author would most probably agree withwhich one of the following statements8



(A) 'he prevailing religious principles of a given time can be reflected in the art of that time.

() In order to interest viewers, wor!s of art must depict familiar sub$ects in detail.

(") ecause commerce is unusual as a sub$ect in art, the painter of commercial activity musttravel and observe it widely.

(#) Gnowing about the environment in which an artist lived can aid in an understanding of a

wor! by that artist.

(%) 'he most popular wor!s of art at a given time are devoted to furthering economic orsocial progress.

&3. According to the author, a supporter of the view of Cuminism described in the first paragraph would most li!ely

(A) be unimpressed by the paintings glowing light

() consider Cuminist scenes to be undomesticated and wild

(") interpret the Cuminist depiction of nature incorrectly

(#) see Cuminist paintings as practical rather than mystical

(%) focus on the paintings6 sub$ect matter instead of an atmosphere and light&2. According to the author, the sea is significant in Cane6s paintings because of its association

with

(A) e0ploration

() commerce

(") canals

(#) idealism

(%) mysticism

&7. 'he author6s primary purpose is to

(A) refute a new theory

() replace an inade4uate analysis

(") summari*e current critics6 attitudes

(#) support another critic6s evaluation

(%) describe the history of a misinterpretation

&. 'he author 4uotes a critic writing about Cane (lines &3&7) most probably in order to

(A) suggest that Cuminism was the dominant mode of painting in the 13:s and 12:s

() support the idea that Cane was interested in spiritualism

(") provide an e0ample of the primary cultural factors that influenced the Cuminists

(#) e0plain why the development of Cuminism coincided with that of spiritualism

(%) illustrate a common misconception concerning an important characteristic of Cane6s paintings

LSAT 09 SECTION III








sheet.

*fter thirty years of investigation into cell genetics, researchers made startlingdiscoveries in the /012s and early /02s %hich culminated in the development of processes,collectively (no%n as recom#inant deo-yri#onucleic acid ;r9:*= technology, for the activemanipulation of a cell’s genetic code. !he technology has created e-citement and

controversy #ecause it involves altering 9:*3%hich contains the #uilding #loc(s of thegenetic code.

Using r9:* technology, scientists can transfer a portion of the 9:* from one organismto a single living cell of another. !he scientist chemically +snips the 9:* chain of the hostcell at a predetermined point and attaches another piece of 9:* from a donor cell at thatplace, creating a completely ne% organism.

7roponents of r9:* research and development claim that it %ill allo% scientists to ndcures for disease and to #etter understand ho% genetic information controls an organism’sdevelopment. !hey also see many other potentially practical #enets, especially in thepharmaceutical industry. Some corporations employing the ne% technology even claim that#y the end of the century all major diseases %ill #e treated %ith drugs derived frommicroorganisms created through r9:* technology. 7harmaceutical products alreadydeveloped, #ut not yet mar(eted, indicate that these predictions may #e reali&ed.

7roponents also cite nonmedical applications for this technology. Energy production and%aste disposal may #enetC genetically altered organisms could convert se%age and otherorganic material into methane fuel. *griculture might also ta(e advantage of r9:*technology to produce ne% varieties of crops that resist foul %eather, pests, and the eectsof poor soil.

* major concern of the critics of r9:* research is that genetically alteredmicroorganisms might escape from the la#oratory. ecause these microorganisms arela#oratory creations that, in all pro#a#ility, do not occur in nature, their interaction %ith thenatural %orld cannot #e predicted %ith certainty. It is possi#le that they could causepreviously un(no%n, perhaps incura#le diseases. !he eect of genetically alteredmicroorganisms on the %orld’s micro#iological predator'prey relationships is anotherpotentially serious pro#lem pointed out #y the opponents of r9:* research. Introducing a

ne% species may disrupt or even destroy the e-isting ecosystem. !he collapse ofinterdependent relationships among species, e-trapolated to its e-treme, could eventuallyresult in the destruction of humanity.

pponents of r9:* technology also cite ethical pro#lems %ith it. 5or e-ample, it givesscientists the po%er to instantly cross evolutionary and species #oundaries that nature too(millennia to esta#lish. !he implications of such po%er %ould #ecome particularly profound ifgenetic engineers %ere to tin(er %ith human genes, a practice that %ould #ring us one stepcloser to *ldous Hu-ley’s grim vision in Bra$e (e) World of a totalitarian society thatengineers human #eings to fulll specic roles.

1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following8

(A) e0plaining the process and applications of r#>A technology

() advocating continued r#>A research and development

(") providing evidence indicating the need for regulation of r#>A research anddevelopment

(#) summari*ing the controversy surrounding r#>A research and development

(%) arguing that the environmental ris!s of r#>A technology may outweigh its medical benefits

&. According to the passage, which one of the following is an accurate statement aboutresearch into the genetic code of cells8



(A) It led to the development of processes for the manipulation of #>A.

() It was initiated by the discovery of r#>A technology.

(") It led to the use of new treatments for ma$or diseases.

(#) It was universally heralded as a great benefit to humanity.

(%) It was motivated by a desire to create new organisms.

+. 'he potential benefits of r#>A technology referred to in the passage include all of thefollowing %?"%='

(A) new methods of waste treatment

() new biological !nowledge

(") enhanced food production

(#) development of less e0pensive drugs

(%) increased energy production

. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most wea!en an argument of opponents of r#>Atechnology8

(A) >ew safety procedures developed by r#>A researchers ma!e it impossible forgenetically altered microorganisms to escape from laboratories.

() A genetically altered microorganism accidentally released from a laboratory issuccessfully contained.

(") A particular r#>Aengineered microorganism introduced into an ecosystem attracts predators that !eep its population down.

(#) 9enetically altered organisms designed to process sewage into methane cannot surviveoutside the waste treatment plant.

(%) A specific hereditary disease that has plagued human!ind for generations is successfullyeradicated.

3. 'he author6s reference in the last sentence of the passage to a society that engineers human beings to fulfill specific roles serves to

(A) emphasi*e the potential medical dangers of r#>A technology

() advocate research on the use of r#>A technology in human genetics

(") warn of the possible disasters that could result from upsetting the balance of nature

(#) present Brae !e" World as an e0ample of a wor! of fiction that accurately predictedtechnological developments

(%) illustrate the sociopolitical ramifications of applying genetic engineering to humans

2. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most strengthen an argument of the opponents of

r#>A technology8(A) Agricultural products developed through r#>A technology are no more attractive toconsumers than are traditional crops.

() 9enetically altered microorganisms have no natural predators but can prey on a widevariety of other microorganisms.

(") #rugs produced using r#>A technology cost more to manufacture than drugs producedwith traditional technologies.

(#) %cosystems are impermanent systems that are often liable to collapse, and occasionally



do so.

(%) 9enetically altered microorganisms generally cannot survive for more than a few hoursin the natural environment.

Gray mar(eting, the selling of trademar(ed products through channels of distri#ution notauthori&ed #y the trademar( holder, can involve distri#ution of goods either %ithin a mar(et

region or across mar(et #oundaries. Gray mar(eting %ithin a mar(et region ;+channel 4o%diversion= occurs %hen manufacturer'authori&ed distri#utors sell trademar(ed goods tounauthori&ed distri#utors %ho then sell the goods to consumers %ithin the same region. 5ore-ample, "uantity discounts from manufacturers may motivate authori&ed dealers to enterthe gray mar(et #ecause they can purchase larger "uantities of a product than theythemselves intend to stoc( if they can sell the e-tra units through gray mar(eting channels.

8hen gray mar(eting occurs across mar(et #oundaries, it is typically in an internationalsetting and may #e called +parallel importing. )anufacturers often produce and sellproducts in more than one country and esta#lish a net%or( of authori&ed dealers in eachcountry. 7arallel importing occurs %hen trademar(ed goods intended for one country arediverted from proper channels ;channel 4o% diversion= and then e-ported to unauthori&eddistri#utors in another country.

!rademar( o%ners justia#ly argue against gray mar(eting practices since such

practices clearly jeopardi&e the good%ill esta#lished #y trademar( o%nersC consumers %hopurchase trademar(ed goods in the gray mar(et do not get the same +e-tended product,%hich typically includes pre' and postsale service. E"ually important, authori&ed distri#utorsmay cease to promote the product if it #ecomes availa#le for much lo%er prices throughunauthori&ed channels.

Aurrent de#ate over regulation of gray mar(eting focuses on three disparate theories intrademar( la% that have #een variously and confusingly applied to parallel importationcasesC universality, e-haustion, and territoriality. !he theory of universality holds that atrademar( is only an indication of the source or origin of the product. !his theory does notrecogni&e the good%ill functions of a trademar(. 8hen the courts apply this theory, graymar(eting practices are allo%ed to continue #ecause the origin of the product remains thesame regardless of the specic route of the product through the channel of distri#ution. !hee-haustion theory holds that a trademar( o%ner relin"uishes all rights once a product has

#een sold. 8hen this theory is applied, gray mar(eting practices are allo%ed to continue#ecause the trademar( o%ners’ rights cease as soon as their products are sold to adistri#utor. !he theory of territoriality holds that a trademar( is eective in the country in%hich it is registered. Under the theory of territoriality, trademar( o%ners can stop graymar(eting practices in the registering countries on products #earing their trademar(s. Sinceonly the territoriality theory aords trademar( o%ners any real legal protection against graymar(eting practices, I #elieve it is inevita#le as %ell as desira#le that it %ill come to #econsistently applied in gray mar(eting cases.

7. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point of the passage8

(A) 9ray mar!eting is unfair to trademar! owners and should be legally controlled.

() 9ray mar!eting is practiced in many different forms and places, and legislators should

recogni*e the futility of trying to regulate it.(") 'he mechanisms used to control gray mar!eting across mar!ets are different from those

most effective in controlling gray mar!eting within mar!ets.

(#) 'he three trademar! law theories that have been applied in gray mar!eting cases lead todifferent case outcomes.

(%) "urrent theories used to interpret trademar! laws have resulted in increased graymar!eting activity.



. 'he function of the passage as a whole is to

(A) critici*e the motives and methods of those who practice gray mar!eting

() evaluate the effects of both channel flow diversion and parallel importation

(") discuss the methods that have been used to regulate gray mar!eting and evaluate suchmethods6 degrees of success

(#) describe a controversial mar!eting practice and evaluate several legal views regarding it

(%) discuss situations in which certain mar!eting practices are common and analy*e theeconomic factors responsible for their development

-. ;hich one of the following does the author offer as an argument against gray mar!eting8

(A) <anufacturers find it difficult to monitor the effectiveness of promotional efforts madeon behalf of products that are gray mar!eted.

() 9ray mar!eting can discourage product promotion by authori*ed distributors.

(") 9ray mar!eting forces manufacturers to accept the low profit margins that result from4uantity discounting.

(#) 9ray mar!eting discourages competition among unauthori*ed dealers.(%) Juality standards in the manufacture of products li!ely to be gray mar!eted may decline.

1:. 'he information in the passage suggests that proponents of the theory of territoriality would probably differ from proponents of the theory of e0haustion on which one of the followingissues8

(A) the right of trademar! owners to enforce, in countries in which the trademar!s areregistered, distribution agreements intended to restrict distribution to authori*edchannels

() the right of trademar! owners to sell trademar!ed goods only to those distributors whoagree to abide by distribution agreements

(") the legality of channel flow diversion that occurs in a country other than the one inwhich a trademar! is registered

(#) the significance consumers attach to a trademar!

(%) the usefulness of trademar!s as mar!eting tools

11. 'he author discusses the impact of gray mar!eting on goodwill in order to

(A) fault trademar! owners for their unwillingness to offer a solution to a ma$or consumercomplaint against gray mar!eting

() indicate a way in which manufacturers sustain damage against which they ought to be protected

(") highlight one way in which gray mar!eting across mar!ets is more problematic than

gray mar!eting within a mar!et(#) demonstrate that gray mar!eting does not always benefit the interests of unauthori*ed

distributors

(%) argue that consumers are unwilling to accept a reduction in price in e0change forelimination of service

1&. 'he author6s attitude toward the possibility that the courts will come to e0ercise consistentcontrol over gray mar!eting practices can best be characteri*ed as one of



(A) resigned tolerance

() utter dismay

(") reasoned optimism

(#) unbridled fervor

(%) cynical indifference

1+. It can be inferred from the passage that some channel flow diversion might be eliminated if

(A) profit margins on authori*ed distribution of goods were less than those on goodsmar!eted through parallel importing

() manufacturers relieved authori*ed channels of all responsibility for product promotion

(") manufacturers charged all authori*ed distributors the same unit price for productsregardless of 4uantity purchased

(#) the postsale service policies of authori*ed channels were controlled by manufacturers

(%) manufacturers refused to provide the e0tended product/ to consumers who purchasegoods in the gray mar!et

*ny study of auto#iographical narratives that appeared under the ostensi#le authorshipof *frican *merican %riters #et%een /12 and /B1< inevita#ly raises concerns a#outauthenticity and interpretation. Should an auto#iography %hose %ritten composition %asliterally out of the hands of its narrator #e considered as the literary e"uivalent of thoseauto#iographies that %ere authored independently #y their su#jectsL

In many cases, the so'called edited narrative of an e-'slave ought to #e treated as aghost%ritten account insofar as literary analysis is concerned, especially %hen it %ascomposed #y its editor from +a statement of facts provided #y an *frican *merican su#ject.lassingame has ta(en pains to sho% that the editors of several of the more famousante#ellum slave narratives %ere +noted for their integrity and thus %ere unli(ely to distortthe facts given them #y slave narrators. 5rom a literary standpoint, ho%ever, it is not themoral integrity of these editors that is at issue #ut the linguistic, structural, and tonalintegrity of the narratives they produces. Even if an editor faithfully reproduced the facts of

a narrator’s life, it %as still the editor %ho decided %hat to ma(e of these facts, ho% theyshould #e emphasi&ed, in %hat order they ought to #e presented, and %hat %as e-traneousor germane. Deaders of *frican *merican auto#iography then and no% have too readilyaccepted the presumption of these eighteenth' and nineteenth'century editors thate-periential facts recounted orally could #e recorded and sorted #y an amanuensis'editor,ta(en out of their original conte-ts, and then pu#lished %ith editorial prefaces, footnotes,and appended commentary, all %ithout compromising the validity of the narrative as aproduct of an *frican *merican consciousness.

!ranscri#ed narratives in %hich an editor e-plicitly delimits his or her role undou#tedlymay #e regarded as more authentic and re4ective of the narrator’s thought in action thanthose edited %or(s that 4esh out a statement of facts in %ays unaccounted for. Still, it %ould#e naNve to accord dictated oral narratives the same status as auto#iographies composedand %ritten #y the su#jects of the stories themselves. !his point is illustrated #y an analysis

of 8or(s 7rogress *dministration intervie%s %ith e-'slaves in the /02s that suggests thatnarrators often told intervie%ers %hat they seemed to %ant to hear. If it seemed impolitic forformer slaves to tell all they (ne% and thought a#out the past to intervie%ers in the /02s,the same could #e said of escaped slaves on the run in the ante#ellum era. 9ictatednarratives, therefore, are literary te-ts %hose authenticity is di6cult to determine. *nalystsshould reserve close analytic readings for independently authored te-ts. 9iscussion ofcolla#orative te-ts should ta(e into account the conditions that governed their production.

1. ;hich one of the following best summari*es the main point of the passage8



(A) 'he personal integrity of an autobiography6s editor has little relevance to its value as aliterary wor!.

() Autobiographies dictated to editors are less valuable as literature than areautobiographies authored by their sub$ects.

(") 'he facts that are recorded in an autobiography are less important than the personal

impressions of its author.(#) 'he circumstances under which an autobiography was written should affect the way it is

interpreted as literature.

(%) 'he autobiographies of African Americans written between 172: and 123 deserve morecareful study than they have so far received.

13. 'he information in the passage suggests that the role of the editor/ (lines &+&) is mostli!e that of

(A) an artist who wishes to invent a uni4ue method of conveying the emotional impact of ascene in a painting

() a wor!er who must interpret the instructions of an employer

(") a critic who must provide evidence to support opinions about a play being reviewed

(#) an architect who must ma!e the best use of a natural setting in designing a public building

(%) a historian who must decide how to direct the reenactment of a historical event

12. ;hich one of the following best describes the author6s opinion about applying literaryanalysis to edited autobiographies8

(A) 'he author is adamantly opposed to the application of literary analysis to editedautobiographies.

() 'he author is s!eptical of the value of close analytical reading in the case of editedautobiographies.

(") 'he author believes that literary analysis of the prefaces, footnotes, and commentariesthat accompany edited autobiographies would be more useful than an analysis of thete0t of the autobiographies.

(#) 'he author believes that an e0clusively literary analysis of edited autobiographies ismore valuable than a reading that emphasi*es their historical import.

(%) 'he author believes that the literary analysis of edited autobiographies would enhancetheir linguistic, structural, and tonal integrity.

17. 'he passage supports which one of the following statements about the readers ofautobiographies of African Americans that were published between 172: and 1238

(A) 'hey were more concerned with the personal details in the autobiographies than withtheir historical significance.

() 'hey were unable to distinguish between ghostwritten and edited autobiographies.

(") 'hey were less naKve about the facts of slave life than are readers today.

(#) 'hey presumed that the editing of the autobiographies did not affect their authenticity.

(%) 'hey had little interest in the moral integrity of the editors of the autobiographies.

1. ;hen one of the following words, as it is used in the passage, best serves to underscore the



author6s concerns about the authenticity of the autobiographies discussed8

(A) ostensible/ (line &)

() integrity/ (line 1)

(") e0traneous/ (line &7)

(#) delimits/ (line +-)

(%) impolitic/ (line 31)

1-. According to the passage, close analytic reading of an autobiography is appropriate onlywhen the

(A) autobiography has been dictated to an e0perienced amanuensiseditor

() autobiography attempts to reflect the narrator6s thought in action

(") autobiography was authored independently by its sub$ect

(#) moral integrity of the autobiography6s editor is well established

(%) editor of the autobiography collaborated closely with its sub$ect in its editing

&:. It can be inferred that the discussion in the passage of lassingame6s wor! primarily serves

which one of the following purposes8

(A) It adds an authority6s endorsement to the author6s view that edited narratives ought to betreated as ghostwritten accounts.

() It provides an e0ample of a mista!en emphasis in the study of autobiography.

(") It presents an account of a new method of literary analysis to be applied toautobiography.

(#) It illustrates the inade4uacy of traditional approaches to the analysis of autobiography.

(%) It emphasi*es the importance of the relationship between editor and narrator.

* conventional vie% of nineteenth'century ritain holds that iron manufacturers andte-tile manufacturers from the north of England #ecame the %ealthiest and most po%erful

people in society after a#out /B@. *ccording to )ar-ist historians, these industrialists %erethe target of the %or(ing class in its struggle for po%er. * ne% study #y Du#instein, ho%ever,suggests that the real %ealth lay %ith the #an(ers and merchants of $ondon. Du#insteindoes not deny that a northern industrial elite e-isted #ut argues that it %as consistentlyoutnum#ered and outdone #y a $ondon'#ased commercial elite. His claims are provocativeand deserve consideration.

Du#instein’s claim a#out the location of %ealth comes from his investigation of pro#aterecords. !hese indicate the value of personal property, e-cluding real property ;#uildingsand land=, left #y individuals at death. It does seem as if large fortunes %ere more fre"uentlymade in commerce than in industry and, %ithin industry, more fre"uently from alcohol orto#acco than from te-tiles or metal. Ho%ever, such records do not une"uivocally ma(eDu#instein’s case. Uncertainties a#ound a#out ho% the pro#ate rules for valuing assets %ereactually applied. )ills and factories, #eing real property, %ere clearly e-cludedC machinery

may also have #een, for the same reason. 8hat the valuation conventions %ere for stoc('in'trade ;goods for sale= is also uncertain. It is possi#le that their pro#ate values %ere muchlo%er than their actual mar(et valueC cash or near'cash, such as #an( #alances or stoc(s,%ere, on the other hand, invaria#ly considered at full face value. * further complication isthat pro#ate valuations pro#a#ly too( no notice of a #usiness’s good%ill ;favor %ith thepu#lic= %hich, since it represents e-pectations a#out future prot'ma(ing, %ould today veryoften #e a large fraction of mar(et value. 8hether factors li(e these introduced systematic#iases into the pro#ate valuations of individuals %ith dierent types of #usinesses %ould #e%orth investigating.



!he orthodo- vie% that the %ealthiest individuals %ere the most po%erful is also"uestioned #y Du#instein’s study. !he pro#lem for this orthodo- vie% is that Du#instein ndsmany millionaires %ho are totally un(no%n to nineteenth'century historiansC the reason fortheir o#scurity could #e that they %ere not po%erful. Indeed, Du#instein dismisses anynotion that great %ealth had anything to do %ith entry into the governing elite, asrepresented #y #ishops, higher civil servants, and chairmen of manufacturing companies.

!he only re"uirements %ere university attendance and a father %ith a middle'class income.Du#instein, in another study, has #egun to #uttress his ndings a#out the location of%ealth #y analy&ing income ta- returns, %hich reveal a geographical distri#ution of middle'class incomes similar to that of %ealthy incomes revealed #y pro#ate records. ut untilfurther conrmatory investigation is done, his claims can only #e considered partiallyconvincing.

&1. 'he main idea of the passage is that

(A) the <ar0ist interpretation of the relationship between class and power in nineteenthcentury ritain is no longer viable

() a simple e4uation between wealth and power is unli!ely to be supported by new datafrom nineteenthcentury ritish archives

(") a recent historical investigation has challenged but not disproved the orthodo0 view ofthe distribution of wealth and the relationship of wealth to power in nineteenthcenturyritain

(#) probate records provide the historian with a revealing but incomplete glimpse of thee0tent and location of wealth in nineteenthcentury ritain

(%) an attempt has been made to confirm the findings of a new historical study of nineteenthcentury ritain, but complete confirmation is li!ely to remain elusive

&&. 'he author of the passage implies that probate records as a source of information aboutwealth in nineteenthcentury ritain are

(A) selfcontradictory and misleading

() ambiguous and outdated(") controversial but readily available

(#) revealing but difficult to interpret

(%) widely used by historians but fully understandable only by specialists

&+. 'he author suggests that the total probate valuations of the personal property of individualsholding goods for sale in nineteenthcentury ritain may have been

(A) affected by the valuation conventions for such goods

() less accurate than the valuations for such goods provided by income ta0 returns

(") less, on average, if such goods were tobaccorelated than if they were alcoholrelated

(#) greater, on average, than the total probate valuations of those individuals who held ban! balances

(%) dependent on whether such goods were held by industrialists or by merchants or ban!ers

&. According to the passage, ubinstein has provided evidence that challenges which one ofthe following claims about nineteenthcentury ritain8

(A) 'he distribution of great wealth between commerce and industry was not e4ual.

() Carge incomes were typically made in alcohol and tobacco rather than in te0tiles and



metal.

(") A Condonbased commercial elite can be identified.

(#) An official governing elite can be identified.

(%) 'here was a necessary relationship between great wealth and power.

&3. 'he author mentions that goodwill was probably e0cluded from the probate valuation of a business in nineteenthcentury ritain most li!ely in order to

(A) give an e0ample of a business asset about which little was !nown in the nineteenthcentury

() suggest that the probate valuations of certain businesses may have been significantunderestimations of their true mar!et value

(") ma!e the point that this e0clusion probably had an e4ual impact on the probatevaluations of all nineteenthcentury ritish businesses

(#) indicate that e0pectations about future profitma!ing is the single most important factorin determining the mar!et value of certain businesses

(%) argue that the twentiethcentury method of determining probate valuations of a businessmay be consistently superior to the nineteenthcentury method

&2. ;hich one of the following studies would provide support for ubinstein6s claims8

(A) a study that indicated that many members of the commercial elite in nineteenthcenturyCondon had insignificant holdings of real property

() a study that indicated that in the nineteenth century, industrialists from the north of%ngland were in fact a target for wor!ingclass people

(") a study that indicated that, in nineteenthcentury ritain, probate values of goods for salewere not as high as probate values of cash assets

(#) a study that indicated that the wealth of nineteenthcentury ritish industrialists did notappear to be significantly greater when the full value of their real property holdings wasactually considered

(%) a study that indicated that at least some members of the official governing elite innineteenthcentury ritain owned more real property than had previously been thoughtto be the case

&7. ;hich one of the following, if true, would cast the most doubt on ubinstein6s argumentconcerning wealth and the official governing elite in nineteenthcentury ritain8

(A) %ntry into this elite was more dependent on university attendance than on religious bac!ground.

() Attendance at a prestigious university was probably more crucial than a certainminimum family income in gaining entry into this elite.

(") ishops as a group were somewhat wealthier, at the point of entry into this elite, thanwere higher civil servants or chairmen of manufacturing companies.

(#) 'he families of many members of this elite owned few, if any, shares in iron industriesand te0tile industries in the north of %ngland.

(%) 'he composition of this elite included vicechancellors, many of whom held office because of their wealth.

LSAT 10 SECTION I








sheet.

)any argue that recent developments in electronic technology such as computers andvideotape have ena#led artists to vary their forms of e-pression. 5or e-ample, video art canno% achieve images %hose eect is produced #y +digitali&ationC #rea(ing up the pictureusing computeri&ed information processing. Such ne% technologies create ne% %ays ofseeing and hearing #y adding dierent dimensions to older forms, rather than replacingthose forms. Aonsider *ocale, a lm a#out a modern dance company. !he camera operator%ore a Steadicam!), an uncomplicated device that allo%s a camera to #e mounted on aperson so that the camera remains steady no matter ho% the operator moves. !heSteadicam!) captures the dance in %ays impossi#le %ith traditional mounts. Such ne%e"uipment also allo%s for the preservation of previously unrecorda#le aspects ofperformances, thus enriching archives.

y Aontrast, others claim that technology su#verts the artistic enterpriseC that artistic

eorts achieved %ith machines preempt human creativity, rather than #eing inspired #y it. !he originality of musical performance, for e-ample, might suer, as musicians %ould #edeprived of the opportunity to spontaneously change pieces of music #efore live audiences.Some even %orry that technology %ill eliminate live performance altogether> performances%ill #e recorded for home vie%ing, a#olishing the relationship #et%een performer andaudience. ut these negative vie%s assume #oth that technology poses an unprecedentedchallenge to the arts and that %e are not committed enough to the artistic enterprise topreserve the live performance, assumptions that seem unnecessarily cynical. In fact,technology has traditionally assisted our capacity for creative e-pression and can rene ournotions of any give art form.

5or e-ample, the porta#le camera and the snapshot %ere developed at the same time asthe rise of impressionist painting in the nineteenth century. !hese photographic technologiesencouraged a ne% appreciation. In addition, impressionist artists li(e 9egas studied the

elements of light and movement captured #y instantaneous photography and used their ne%understanding of the %ay our perceptions distort reality to try to more accurately capturerealty in their %or(. Since photos can capture the +moments of a movement, such as ahand partially raised in a gesture of greeting, Impressionist artists %ere inspired to paintsuch moments in order to more eectively convey the "uality of spontaneous human action.7hotography freed artists from the preconception that a su#ject should #e painted in astatic, articial entirety, and inspired them to capture the random and fragmentary "ualitiesof our %orld. 5inally, since photography preempted painting as the means of o#tainingportraits, painters had more freedom to vary their su#ject matter, thus giving rise to thea#stract creations characteristic of modern art.

1. ;hich one of the following statements best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'he progress of art relies primarily on technology.

() 'echnological innovation can be beneficial to art.(") 'here are ris!s associated with using technology to create art.

(#) 'echnology will transform the way the public responds to art.

(%) 'he relationship between art and technology has a lengthy history.

&. It can be inferred from the passage that the author shares which one of the followingopinions with the opponents of the use of new technology in art8

(A) 'he live performance is an important aspect of the artistic enterprise.



() 'he public6s commitment to the artistic enterprise is 4uestionable.

(") ecent technological innovations present an entirely new sort of challenge to art.

(#) 'echnological innovations of the past have been very useful to artists.

(%) 'he performing arts are especially vulnerable to technological innovation.

+. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most undermine the position held by opponentsof the use of new technology in art concerning the effect of technology on live performance8

(A) Surveys show that when recordings of performances are made available for homeviewing, the public becomes far more !nowledgeable about different performing artists.

() Surveys show that some people feel comfortable responding spontaneously to artistic performances when they are viewing recordings of those performances at home.

(") After a live performance, sales of recordings for home viewing of the particular performing artist generally increase.

(#) 'he distribution of recordings of artists6 performances has begun to attract many newaudience members to their live performances.

(%) <usicians are less apt to ma!e creative changes in musical pieces during recorded performances than during live performances.

. 'he author uses the e0ample of the Steadicam'< primarily in order to suggest that

(A) the filming of performances should not be limited by inade4uate e4uipment

() new technologies do not need to be very comple0 in order to benefit art

(") the interaction of a traditional art form with a new technology will change attitudestoward technology in general

(#) the replacement of a traditional technology with a new technology will transformdefinitions of a traditional art form

(%) new technology does not so much preempt as enhance a traditional art form

3. According to the passage, proponents of the use of new electronic technology in the artsclaim that which one of the following is true8

(A) <ost people who re$ect the use of electronic technology in art forget that machinesre4uire a person to operate them.

() %lectronic technology allows for the e0pansion of archives because longer performancescan be recorded.

(") %lectronic technology assists artists in finding new ways to present their material.

(#) %lectronic technology ma!es the practice of any art form more efficient by speeding upthe creative process.

(%) <odern dance is the art form that will probably benefit most from the use of electronic

technology.

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of thefollowing statements regarding changes in painting since the nineteenth century8

(A) 'he artistic e0periments of the nineteenth century led painters to use a variety ofmethods in creating portraits, which they then applied to other sub$ect matter.

() 'he nineteenthcentury !nowledge of light and movement provided by photographyinspired the abstract wor!s characteristic of modern art.



(") 5nce painters no longer felt that they had to paint conventional portraits, they turnede0clusively to abstract portraiture.

(#) 5nce painters were less limited to the impressionist style, they were able to e0perimentwith a variety of styles of abstract art.

(%) 5nce painters painted fewer conventional portraits, they had greater opportunity to move

beyond the literal depiction of ob$ects.9uring the /0J2s and /0<2s the United States government developed a ne% policy

to%ard :ative *mericans, often (no%n as +readjustment. ecause the increased a%arenessof civil rights in these decades helped reinforce the #elief that life on reservations prevented:ative *mericans from e-ercising the rights guaranteed to citi&ens under the United StatesAonstitution, the readjustment movement advocated the end of the federal government’sinvolvement in :ative *merican aairs and encouraged the assimilation of :ative *mericansas individuals into mainstream society. Ho%ever, the same years also sa% the emergence ofa :ative *merican leadership and eorts to develop tri#al instructions and rea6rm tri#alidentity. !he clash of these t%o trends may #e traced in the attempts on the part of theureau of Indian *airs ;I*= to convince the neida tri#e of 8isconsin to acceptreadjustment.

!he culmination of I* eorts to s%ay the neida occurred at a meeting that too( placein the fall of /0<1. !he I* suggested that it %ould #e to the neida’s #enet to o%n theiro%n property and, li(e other homeo%ners, pay real estate ta-es on it. !he I* alsoemphasi&ed that, after readjustment, the government %ould not attempt to restrict :ative*mericans’ a#ility to sell their individually o%ned lands. !he neida %ere then oered a one'time lump'sum payment of O12,222 in lieu of the O2.<@ annuity guaranteed in perpetuity toeach mem#er of the tri#e under the Aanandaigua !reaty.

!he eorts of the I* to +sell readjustment to the tri#e failed #ecause the neidareali&ed that they had heard similar oers #efore. !he neida delegates reacted negativelyto the I*’s rst suggestion #ecause ta-ation of :ative *merican lands had #een one pastvehicle for dispossessing the neidaC after the distri#ution of some tri#al lands to individual:ative *mericans in the late nineteenth century, :ative *merican lands #ecame su#ject tota-ation, resulting in ne% and impossi#le nancial #urdens, foreclosures, and su#se"uent

ta- sales of property. !he neida delegates %ere e"ually suspicious of the I*’s emphasis onthe rights of individual lando%ners, since in the late nineteenth century many individual:ative *mericans had #een convinced #y unscrupulous speculators to sell their lands.5inally, the oer of a lump'sum payment %as unanimously opposed #y the neidadelegates, %ho sa% that changing the terms of a treaty might jeopardi&e the many pendingland claims #ased upon the treaty.

*s a result of the /0<1 meeting, the neida rejected readjustment. Instead, theydetermined to improve tri#al life #y lo##ying for federal monies for postsecondaryeducation, for the improvement of drainage on tri#al lands, and for the #uilding of aconvalescent home for tri#al mem#ers. !hus, #y learning the lessons of history, the neida%ere a#le to survive as a tri#e in their homeland.

7. ;hich one of the following would be most consistent with the policy of read$ustment

described in the passage8(A) the establishment among >ative Americans of a tribal system of a elected government

() the creation of a national pro$ect to preserve >ative American language and oral history

(") the establishment of programs to encourage >ative Americans to move fromreservations to urban areas

(#) the development of a largescale effort to restore >ative American lands to their originaltribes



(%) the reaffirmation of federal treaty obligations to >ative American tribes

. According to the passage, after the 1-32 meeting the 5neida resolved to

(A) obtain improved social services and living conditions for members of the tribe

() pursue litigation designed to reclaim tribal lands

(") secure recognition of their uni4ue status as a selfgoverning >ative American nationwithin the United States

(#) establish new !inds of tribal institutions

(%) cultivate a lifestyle similar to that of other United States citi*ens

-. ;hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph in the conte0tof the passage as a whole8

(A) It summari*es the basis of a conflict underlying negotiations described elsewhere in the passage.

() It presents two positions, one of which is defended by evidence provided in succeeding paragraphs.

(") It compares competing interpretations of a historical conflict.(#) It analy*es the causes of a specific historical event and predicts a future development.

(%) It outlines the history of a government agency.

1:. 'he author refers to the increased awareness of civil rights during the 1-:s and 1-3:s most probably in order to

(A) contrast the read$ustment movement with other social phenomena

() account for the stance of the >ative American leadership

(") help e0plain the impetus for the read$ustment movement

(#) e0plain the motives of IA bureaucrats

(%) foster support for the policy of read$ustment

11. 'he passage suggests that advocates of read$ustment would most li!ely agree with whichone of the following statements regarding the relationship between the federal governmentand >ative Americans8

(A) 'he federal government should wor! with individual >ative Americans to improve lifeon reservations.

() 'he federal government should be no more involved in the affaires of >ative Americansthan in the affairs of other citi*ens.

(") 'he federal government should assume more responsibility for providing social servicesto >ative Americans.

(#) 'he federal government should share its responsibility for maintaining >ative Americanterritories with tribal leaders.

(%) 'he federal government should observe all provisions of treaties made in the past with >ative Americans.

1&. 'he passage suggests that the 5neida delegates viewed the "anandaigua 'reaty as

(A) a valuable safeguard of certain 5neida rights and privileges

() the source of many past problems for the 5neida tribe



(") a model for the type of agreement they hoped to reach with the federal government

(#) an important step toward recognition of their status as an independent >ative Americannation

(%) an obsolete agreement without relevance for their current condition

1+. ;hich one of the following situations most closely parallels that of the 5neida delegates inrefusing to accept a lumpsum payment of L2:,:::8

(A) A university offers s a student a fouryear scholarship with the stipulation that thestudent not accept any outside employment the student refuses the offer and attends adifferent school because the amount of the scholarship would not have covered livinge0penses.

() A company see!ing to reduce its payroll obligations offers an employee a large bonus ifhe will accept early retirement the employee refuses because he does not want tocompromise an outstanding wor!er6s compensation suit.

(") =arents of a teenager offer to pay her at the end of the month for performing wee!lychores rather than paying her on a wee!ly basis the teenager refuses because she has a

number of financial obligations that she must meet early in the month.(#) A car dealer offers a customer a L3:: cash payment for buying a new car the customer

refuses because she does not want to pay ta0es on the amount, and re4uests instead thather monthly payments be reduced by a proportionate amount.

(%) A landlord offers a tenant several months rentfree in e0change for the tenant6s agreeingnot to demand that her apartment be painted every two years, as is re4uired by thelease the tenant refuses because she would have to spend her own time painting theapartment.

9irect o#servation of contemporary societies at the threshold of %idespread literacy hasnot assisted our understanding of ho% such literacy altered ancient Gree( society, inparticular its political culture. !he discovery of %hat Goody has called the +ena#ling eects

of literacy in contemporary societies tends to seduce the o#server into confusing oftenrudimentary (no%ledge of ho% to read %ith popular access to important #oo(s anddocumentsC this confusion is then projected onto ancient societies. +In ancient Greece,Goody %rites, +alpha#etic reading and %riting %as important for the development of politicaldemocracy.

*n e-amination of the ancient Gree( city *thens e-emplies ho% this sort of confusion isdetrimental to understanding ancient politics. In *thens, the early development of a %rittenla% code %as retrospectively mythologi&ed as the critical factor in #rea(ing the po%ermonopoly of the old aristocracyC hence the Gree( tradition of the +la%'giver, %hich hascaptured the imaginations of scholars li(e Goody. ut the application and e6cacy of all la%codes depend on their interpretation #y magistrates and courts, and unless the right ofinterpretation is +democrati&ed, the mere e-istence of %ritten la%s changes little.

In fact, never in anti"uity did any #ut the elite consult documents and #oo(s. Even in

Gree( courts the juries heard only the relevant statutes read out during the proceedings, asthey heard ver#al testimony, and they then rendered their verdict on the spot, %ithout the#enet of any discussion among themselves. !rue, in *thens the juries %ere representativeof a #road spectrum of the population, and these juries, dra%n from diverse social classes,#oth interpreted %hat they had heard and determined matters of fact. Ho%ever, they guidedsolely #y the speeches prepared for the parties #y professional pleaders and #y the"uotations of la%s or decrees %ithin the speeches, rather than #y their o%n access to any(ind of document or #oo(.

Granted, people today also rely heavily on a truly (no%ledgea#le minority for





(A) 'hey were somewhat democratic insofar as they were composed largely of people fromthe lowest social classes.

() 'hey were e0posed to the law only insofar as they heard relevant statutes read out duringlegal proceedings.

(") 'hey ascertained the facts of a case and interpreted the laws.

(#) 'hey did not have direct access to important boo!s and documents that were available tothe elite.

(%) 'hey rendered verdicts without benefit of private discussion among themselves.

1. 'he author characteri*es the 9ree! tradition of the lawgiver/ (line &1) as an effectmythologi*ing most probably in order to

(A) illustrate the ancient 9ree! tendency to memoriali*e historical events by transformingthem into myths

() convey the historical importance of the development of the early Athenian written lawcode

(") convey the high regard in which the Athenians held their legal tradition

(#) suggest that the development of a written law code was not primarily responsible fordiminishing the power of the Athenian aristocracy

(%) suggest that the 9ree! tradition of the lawgiver/ should be understood in the largerconte0t of 9ree! mythology

1-. 'he author draws an analogy between the Catin ible and an early law code (lines -31) inorder to ma!e which one of the following points8

(A) #ocuments were considered authoritative in premodern society in proportion to theirinaccessibility to the ma$ority.

() #ocuments that were perceived as highly influential in premodern societies were notnecessarily accessible to the society6s ma$ority.

(") ;hat is most revered in a nondemocratic society is what is most fre4uentlymisunderstood.

(#) =olitical documents in premodern societies e0erted a social influence similar to thate0erted by religious documents.

(%) =olitical documents in premodern societies were inaccessible to the ma$ority of the population because of the language in which they were written.

&:. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) argue that a particular method of observing contemporary societies is inconsistent

() point out the wea!nesses in a particular approach to understanding ancient societies

(") present the disadvantages of a particular approach to understanding the relationship between ancient and contemporary societies

(#) e0amine the importance of developing an appropriate method for understanding ancientsocieties

(%) convey the difficulty of accurately understanding attitudes in ancient societies

!he English %ho in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries inha#ited those coloniesthat %ould later #ecome the United States shared a common political voca#ulary %ith theEnglish in England. Steeped as they %ere in the English political language, these colonials



failed to o#serve that their e-perience in *merica had given the %ords a signicance "uitedierent from that accepted #y the English %ith %hom they de#ated> in fact, they claimedthat they %ere more loyal to the English political tradition than %ere the English in England.

In many respects the political institutions of England %ere reproduced in these *mericancolonies. y the middle of eighteenth century, all of these colonies e-cept four %ere headed#y Doyal Governors appointed #y the King and perceived as #earing a relation to the people

of the colony similar to that of the King to the English people. )oreover, each of thesecolonies enjoyed a representative assem#ly, %hich %as consciously modeled, in po%ers andpractices, after the English 7arliament. In #oth England and these colonies, only propertyholders could vote.

:evertheless, though English and colonial institutions %ere structurally similar, attitudesto%ard those institutions diered. 5or e-ample, English legal development from the earlyseventeenth century had #een moving steadily to%ard the a#solute po%er of 7arliament.

!he most unmista(a#le sign of this tendency %as the legal assertion that the King %assu#ject to the la%. !ogether %ith this resolute denial of the a#solute right of (ings %ent theassertion that 7arliament %as unlimited in its po%erC it could change even the Aonstitution#y its ordinary acts of legislation. y the eighteenth century the English had accepted theidea that the parliamentary representatives of the people %ere omnipotent.

!he citi&ens of these colonies did not loo( upon the English 7arliament %ith such fond

eyes, nor did they concede that their o%n assem#lies possessed such %ide po%ers. !here%ere good historical reasons for this. !o the English the %ord +constitution meant the %hole#ody of la% and legal custom formulated since the #eginning of the (ingdom, %hereas tothese colonials a constitution %as a specic %ritten document, enumerating specic po%ers.

!his distinction in meaning can #e traced to the fact that the foundations of government inthe various colonies %ere %ritten charters granted #y the Aro%n. !hese e-press authori&ations to govern %ere tangi#le, denite things. ver the years these colonial hadoften repaired to the charters to justify themselves in the struggle against tyrannicalgovernors or o6cials of the Aro%n. )ore than a century of government under %rittenconstitutions convinced these colonists of the necessity for and e6cacy of protecting theirli#erties against governmental encroachment #y e-plicitly dening all governmental po%ersin a document.

&1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8(A) 'he colonials and the %nglish mista!enly thought that they shared a common political

vocabulary.

() 'he colonials and the %nglish shared a variety of institutions.

(") 'he colonials and the %nglish had conflicting interpretations of the language andinstitutional structures that they shared.

(#) "olonial attitudes toward %nglish institutions grew increasingly hostile in the eighteenthcentury.

(%) Seventeenthcentury %nglish legal development accounted for colonial attitudes towardconstitutions.

&&. 'he passage supports all of the following statements about the political conditions present by the middle of the eighteenth century in the American colonies discussed in the passage%?"%='@

(A) "olonials who did not own property could not vote.

() All of these colonies had representative assemblies modeled after the ritish =arliament.

(") Some of these colonies had oyal 9overnors.

(#) oyal 9overnors could be removed from office by colonial assemblies.



(%) In these colonies, oyal 9overnors were regarded as serving a function li!e that of a!ing.

&+. 'he passage implies which one of the following about %nglish !ings prior to the earlyseventeenth century8

(A) 'hey were the source of all law.

() 'hey fre4uently flouted laws made by =arliament.

(") 'heir power relative to that of =arliament was considerably greater than it was in theeighteenth century.

(#) 'hey were more often the sources of legal reform than they were in the eighteenthcentury.

(%) 'hey had to combat those who believed that the power of =arliament was absolute.

&. 'he author mentions which one of the following as evidence for the eighteenthcentury%nglish attitude toward =arliament8

(A) 'he %nglish had become uncomfortable with institutions that could claim absolute

authority.() 'he %nglish reali*ed that their interests were better guarded by =arliament than by theGing.

(") 'he %nglish allowed =arliament to ma!e constitutional changes by legislative enactment.

(#) 'he %nglish felt that the Ging did not possess the !nowledge that could enable him torule responsibly.

(%) 'he %nglish had decided that it was time to reform their representative government.

&3. 'he passage implies that the colonials discussed in the passage would have consideredwhich one of the following to be a source of their debates with %ngland8

(A) their changed use of the %nglish political vocabulary

() %nglish commitment to parliamentary representation(") their uni4uely %nglish e0perience

(#) their refusal to adopt any %nglish political institutions

(%) their greater loyalty to the %nglish political traditions

&2. According to the passage, the %nglish attitude toward the %nglish "onstitution differed fromthe colonial attitude toward constitutions in that the %nglish regarded their "onstitution as

(A) the legal foundation of the !ingdom

() a document containing a collection of customs

(") a cumulative corpus of legislation and legal traditions

(#) a record alterable by royal authority(%) an unchangeable body of governmental powers

&7. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) e0pose the misunderstanding that has characteri*ed descriptions of the relationship between seventeenth and eighteenthcentury %ngland and certain of its Americancolonies

() suggest a reason for %ngland6s treatment of certain of its American colonies in the



seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

(") settle an ongoing debate about the relationship between %ngland and certain of itsAmerican colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

(#) interpret the events leading up to the independence of certain of %ngland6s Americancolonies in the eighteenth century

(%) e0plain an aspect of the relationship between %ngland and certain of its Americancolonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

LSAT 11 SECTION III






sheet.

il companies needs oshore platforms primarily #ecause the oil or natural gas thecompanies e-tract from the ocean 4oor has to #e processed #efore pumps can #e used tomove the su#stances ashore. ut #ecause processing crude ;unprocessed oil or gas= on aplatform rather than at facilities onshore e-poses %or(ers to the ris(s of e-plosion and to anunpredicta#le environment, researchers are attempting to diminish the need for humanla#or on platforms and even to eliminate platforms altogether #y redesigning t%o (inds ofpumps to handle crude. !hese pumps could then #e used to #oost the natural pressuredriving the 4o% of crude, %hich, #y itself, is su6cient only to #ring the crude to the platform,located just a#ove the %ellhead. Aurrently, pumps that could #oost this natural pressuresu6ciently to drive the crude through a pipeline to the shore do not %or( consistently#ecause of the crude’s content. Arude may consist of oil or natural gas in multiphase states3com#inations of li"uids, gases, and solids under pressure3that do not reach the %ellheadin constant proportions. !he 4o% of crude oil, for e-ample, can change "uic(ly from 12percent li"uid to 2 percent gas. !his surge in gas content causes loss of +head, or pressureinside a pump, %ith the result that a pump can no longer impart enough energy to transportthe crude mi-ture through the pipeline and to the shore.

f t%o pumps #eing redesigned, the positive'displacement pump is promising #ecause itis immune to sudden shifts in the proportion of li"uid to gas in the crude mi-ture. ut thepump’s design, %hich consists of a single or t%in scre% pushing the 4uid from one end of thepump to the other, #rings crude into close contact %ith most parts of the pump, and thusre"uires that it #e made of e-pensive, corrosion'resistant material. !he alternative is thecentrifugal pump, %hich has a rotating impeller that suc(s 4uid in at one end and forces 4uidout at the other. *lthough this pump has a proven design and has %or(ed for years %ith littlemaintenance in %aste'disposal plants, researchers have discovered that #ecause the s%irl of its impeller separates gas out from the oil that normally accompanies it, signicantreductions in head can occur as it operates.

Desearch in the development of these pumps is focused mainly on trying to reduce the

cost of the positive'displacement pump and attempting to ma(e the centrifugal pump moretolerant of gas. ther researchers are loo(ing at %ays of adapting either (ind of pump foruse under%ater, so that crude could #e moved directly from the sea #ottom to processingfacilities onshore, eliminating platforms.

1. ;hich one of following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 5il companies are e0perimenting with technologies that may help diminish the danger towor!ers from offshore crude processing.

() 5il companies are see!ing methods of installing processing facilities underwater.



(") esearchers are developing several new pumps designed to enhance human laborefficiency in processing facilities.

(#) esearchers are see!ing to develop e4uipment that would preempt the need for processing facilities onshore.

(%) esearchers are see!ing ways to separate li4uids from gases in crude in order to enable

safer processing.

&. 'he passage supports which one of the following statements about the natural pressuredriving the flow of crude8

(A) It is higher than that created by the centrifugal pump.

() It is constant regardless of relative proportions of gas and li4uid.

(") It is able to carry the crude only as far as the wellhead.

(#) It is able to carry the crude to the platform.

(%) It is able to carry the crude to the shore.

+. ;hich one of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph to the

passage as a whole8(A) It offers concrete detail designed to show that the argument made in the first paragraph

is flawed.

() It provides detail that e0pands upon the information presented in the first paragraph.

(") It enhances the author6s discussion by ob$ectively presenting in detail the pros and consof a claim made in the first paragraph.

(#) It detracts from the author6s discussion by presenting various problems that 4ualify thegoals presented.

(%) It modifies an observation made in the first paragraph by detailing viewpoints against it.

. ;hich one of the following phrases, if substituted for the word head/ in line 7, would

C%AS' change the meaning of the sentence8(A) the flow of the crude inside the pump

() the volume of oil inside the pump

(") the volume of gas inside the pump

(#) the speed of the impeller moving the crude

(%) the pressure inside of the pump

3. ;ith which one of the following statements regarding offshore platforms would the authormost li!ely agree8

(A) If a reduction of human labor on offshore platform is achieved, there is no real need toeliminate platforms altogether.

() educing human labor on offshore platforms is desirable because researchers6!nowledge about the transportation of crude is dangerously incomplete.

(") 'he dangers involved in wor!ing on offshore platforms ma!e their elimination adesirable goal.

(#) 'he positivedisplacement pump is the better alternative for researchers, because itwould allow them to eliminate platforms altogether.

(%) 'hough researchers have succeeded in reducing human labor on offshore platforms, they



thin! that it would be inadvisable to eliminate platforms altogether, because these platforms have other uses.

2. ;hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about pumps that are currentlyavailable to boost the natural pressure of crude8

(A) 'he efficiency of these pumps depends on there being no gas in the flow of crude.

() 'hese pumps are more efficient when the crude is less sub$ect to sudden increases in the proportion of gas to li4uid.

(") A sudden change from solid to li4uid in the flow of crude increases the efficiency ofthese pumps.

(#) 'he proportion of li4uid to gas in the flow of crude does not affect the efficiency ofthese pumps.

(%) A sudden change from li4uid to gas in the flow of crude increases the ris! of e0plosiondue to rising pressure inside these pumps.

7. 'he passage implies that the positivedisplacement pump differs from the centrifugal pumpin that the positivedisplacement pump

(A) is more promising, but it also is more e0pensive and demands more maintenance

() is especially well research, since it has been used in other settings

(") involves the use of a single or twin screw that suc!s fluid in at one end of the pump

(#) is problematic because it cause rapid shifts from li4uid to gas content in crude

(%) involves e0posure of many parts of the pump to crude

. 'he passage implies that the current state of technology necessitates that crude be moved toshore

(A) in a multiphase state

() in e4ual proportions of gas to li4uid

(") with small proportions of corrosive material(#) after having been processed

(%) largely in the form of a li4uid

!o critics accustomed to the style of fteenth'century narrative paintings #y Italianartists from !uscany, the enetian e-amples of narrative paintings %ith religious su#jectsthat 7atricia 5ortini ro%n analy&es in a recent #oo( %ill come as a great surprise. 8hile the

!uscan paintings present large'scale gures, clear narratives, and simple settings, theenetians lled their pictures %ith do&ens of small gures and ela#orate #uilding, in additionto a %ealth of carefully o#served anecdotal detail often irrelevant to the paintings’ principalsu#jects3the religious stories they narrate. *lthough it occasionally o#scured these stories,this accumulation of circumstantial detail from enetian life3the inclusion of prominentenetian citi&ens, for e-ample3%as considered appropriate to the narration of historical

su#jects and underlined the authenticity of the historical events depicted. Indeed, ro%nargues that the distinctive style of the enetian paintings3%hat she calls the +eye%itnessstyle3%as in4uenced #y enetian a6nity for a strongly parochial type of historical %riting,consisting almost e-clusively of vernacular chronicles of local events em#roidered %ith all(inds of inconse"uential detail.

*nd yet, %hile enetian attitudes to%ard history that are re4ected in their art account inpart for the dierence in style #et%een enetian and !uscan narrative paintings, ro%n hasoverloo(ed some practical in4uences, such as climate. !uscan churches are lled %ithfrescoes that, in contrast to enetian narrative paintings, consist mainly of large gures and



easily recogni&ed religious stories, as one %ould e-pect of paintings that are normallyvie%ed from a distance and are designed primarily to remind the faithful of their religioustenets. In enice, %here the damp climate is unsuited to fresco, narrative frescoes inchurches %ere almost none-istent, %ith the result that enetian artists and their pu#lic hadno practical e-perience of the large'scale representation of familiar religious stories. !heirmodel for painted stories %as the cycle of secular historical paintings in the enetian

magistrate’s palace, %hich %ere indeed the counterpart of %ritten history and %ere made allthe more authoritative #y a proliferation of circumstantial detail.

)oreover, #ecause painting frescoes re"uires an unusually sure hand, particularly in therepresentation of human form, the development of dra%ing s(ill %as central to artistictraining in !uscany, and #y /<22 the pu#lic there tended to distinguish artists on the #asis of ho% %ell they could dra% human gures. In enice, a city virtually %ithout frescoes, this (indof s(ill %as ac"uired and appreciated much later. Gentile ellini, for e-ample, althoughregarded as one of the supreme painters of the day, %as fee#le at dra%ing. n the otherhand, the emphasis on architecture so evident in the enetian narrative paintings %assomething that local painters o#viously pri&ed, largely #ecause painting architecture inperspective %as seen as a particular test of the enetian painter’s s(ill.

-. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'uscan painters6 use of fresco e0plains the prominence of human figures in the narrative paintings that they produced during the fifteenth century.

() In addition to fifteenthcentury Eenetian attitudes toward history, other factors may helpto e0plain the characteristic features of Eenetian narrative paintings with religioussub$ects produced during that period.

(") 'he inclusion of authentic detail from Eenetian life distinguished fifteenthcenturyEenetian narrative paintings from those that were produced in 'uscany.

(#) Eenetian painters were generally more s!illed at painting buildings than 'uscan painterswere at drawing human forms.

(%) 'he cycle of secular historical paintings in the Eenetian magistrate6s palace was the primary narrative paintings with religious sub$ects.

1:. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) =ointing out the superiority of one painting style over another.

() "iting evidence that re4uires a reevaluation of a conventionally held view.

(") #iscussing factors that e0plain a difference in painting styles.

(#) 5utlining the strengths and wea!nesses of two opposing views regarding the evolutionof a painting style.

(%) Arguing for the irrelevance of one theory and for its replacement by a more plausiblealternative.

11. As it is described in the passage, rown6s e0planation of the use of the eyewitness style in

Eenetian narrative painting suggests that(A) 'he painting of architecture in perspective re4uires greater drawing s!ill than does the

representation of a human form in a fresco.

() "ertain characteristics of a style of painting can reflect a style of historical writing thatwas common during the same period.

(") 'he eyewitness style in Eenetian narrative paintings with religious sub$ects was largelythe result of the influence of 'uscan artists who wor!ed primarily in fresco.



(#) 'he historical detail in Eenetian narrative paintings with religious sub$ects can be traced primarily to the influence of the paintings in the Eenetian magistrate6s palace.

(%) A style of painting can be dramatically transformed by a sudden influ0 of artists fromanother region.

1&. 'he author suggests that fifteenthcentury Eenetian narrative paintings with religious

sub$ects were painted by artists who

(A) were able to draw human figures with more s!ill after they were apprenticed to paintersin 'uscany

() assumed that their paintings would typically be viewed from a distance

(") were a ma$or influence on the artists who produced the cycle of historical paintings inthe Eenetian magistrate6s palace

(#) were reluctant to paint frescoes primarily because they lac!ed the drawing s!ill that painting frescoes re4uired

(%) were better at painting architecture in perspective than they were at drawing humanfigures

1+. 'he author implies that Eenetian narrative paintings with religious sub$ects included therepresentation of elaborate buildings in part because

(A) the ability to paint architecture in perspective was seen in Eenice as proof of a painter6ss!ill

() the sub$ects of such paintings were often religious stories

(") large frescoes were especially conducive to representing architecture in perspective

(#) the architecture of Eenice in the fifteenth century was more elaborate than was thearchitecture of 'uscany

(%) the paintings were imitations of a !ind of historical writing that was popular in 'uscany

1. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most wea!en the author6s contention thatfifteenthcentury Eenetian artists had no practical e0perience of the largescalerepresentation of familiar religious stories/ (line :&)8

(A) 'he style of secular historical paintings in the palace of the Eenetian magistrate wassimilar to that of Eenetian narrative paintings with religious sub$ects.

() 'he style of the historical writing produced by fifteenthcentury Eenetian authors wassimilar in its inclusion of anecdotal details to secular paintings produced during thatcentury in 'uscany.

(") <any of the artists who produced Eenetian narrative paintings with religious sub$ectsserved as apprentices in 'uscany, where they had become familiar with the techni4ue of painting of frescoes.

(#) Dew of the frescoes painted in 'uscany during the fifteenth century had secular sub$ects,and those that did often betrayed the artist6s inability to represent elaborate architecturein perspective.

(%) Dew of the Eenetian narrative paintings produced toward the end of the fifteenth centuryshow evidence of the enhanced drawing s!ill that characteri*ed the paintings producedin Eenice a century later.

Aurrently, legal scholars agree that in some cases legal rules do not specify a denite



outcome. !hese scholars #elieve that such indeterminacy results from the vagueness oflanguageC the #oundaries of the application of a term are often unclear. :evertheless, theymaintain that the system of legal rules #y and large rests on clear core meanings that dodetermine denite outcomes for most cases. Aontrary to this vie%, an earlier group of legalphilosophers, called +realists, argued that indeterminacy pervades every part of the la%.

!he realists held that there is al%ays a cluster of rules relevant to the decision in any

litigated case. 5or e-ample, deciding %hether an aunt’s promise to pay her niece a sum ofmoney if she refrained from smo(ing is enforcea#le %ould involve a num#er of rulesregarding such issues as oer, acceptance, and revocation. $inguistic vagueness in any oneof these rules %ould aect the outcome of the case, ma(ing possi#le multiple points ofindeterminacy, not just one or t%o, in any legal case.

5or the realists, an even more damaging (ind of indeterminacy stems from the fact thatin a common'la% system #ased on precedent, a judge’s decision is held to #e #inding on

judges in su#se"uent similar cases. Fudicial decisions are e-pressed in %ritten opinions,commonly held to consist of t%o partsC the holding ;the decision for or against the plaintiand the essential grounds or legal reasons for it, that is, %hat su#se"uent judges are #ound#y=, and the dicta ;everything in an opinion not essential to the decision, for e-ample,comments a#out points of la% not treated as the #asis of the outcome=. !he realists arguedthat in practice the common'la% system treats the +holdingPdicta distinction loosely. !hey

pointed out that even %hen the judge %riting an opinion characteri&es part of it as +theholding, judges %riting su#se"uent opinions, although unli(ely to dispute the decision itself,are not #ound #y the original judge’s perception of %hat %as essential to the decision. $ater

judges have tremendous lee%ay in #eing a#le to redene the holding and the dicta in aprecedential case. !his lee%ay ena#les judges to choose %hich rules of la% formed the #asisof the decision in the earlier case. 8hen judging almost any case, then, a judge can nd arelevant precedential case %hich, in su#se"uent opinions, has #een read #y one judge asstating one legal rule, and #y another judge as stating another, possi#ly contradictory one. *

judge thus faces an indeterminate legal situation in %hich he or she has to choose %hichrules are to govern the case at hand.

13. According to the passage, the realists argued that which one of the following is true of acommonlaw system8

(A) It gives rise to numerous situations in which the decisions of earlier $udges are found to be in error by later $udges.

() It possesses a clear set of legal rules in theory, but in practice most $udges are unaware of the strict meaning of those rules.

(") Its strength lies in the re4uirement that $udges decide cases according to precedent rather than according to a set of abstract principles.

(#) It would be improved if $udges refrained from willfully misinterpreting the writtenopinions of prior $udges.

(%) It treats the difference between the holding and the dicta in a written opinion ratherloosely in practice.

12. According to the passage, which one of the following best describes the relationship between a $udicial holding and a $udicial decision8

(A) 'he holding is not commonly considered binding on subse4uent $udges, but the decisionis.

() 'he holding formally states the outcome of the case, while the decision e0plains it.

(") 'he holding e0plains the decision but does not include it.

(#) 'he holding consists of the decision and the dicta.



(%) 'he holding sets forth and $ustifies a decision.

17. 'he information in the passage suggests that the realists would most li!ely have agreed withwhich one of the following statements about the reaction of $udges to past interpretations ofa precedential case, each of which states a different legal rule8

(A) 'he $udges would most li!ely disagree with one or more of the interpretations and

overturn the earlier $udges6 decisions.

() 'he $udges might differ from each other concerning which of the interpretations wouldapply in a given case.

(") 'he $udges probably would consider themselves bound by all the legal rules stated in theinterpretations.

(#) 'he $udges would regard the lac! of unanimity among interpretations as evidence that no precedents e0isted.

(%) 'he $udges would point out in their holdings the inherent contradictions arising from theearlier $udges6 differing interpretations.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that most legal scholars today would agree with therealists that

(A) Cinguistic vagueness can cause indeterminacy regarding the outcome of a litigated case.

() In any litigated case, several different and possibly contradictory legal rules are relevantto the decision of the case.

(") 'he distinction between holding and dicta in a written opinion is usually difficult todetermine in practice.

(#) 'he boundaries of applicability of terms may sometimes be difficult to determine, butthe core meanings of the terms are well established.

(%) A commonlaw system gives $udges tremendous leeway in interpreting precedents, andcontradictor readings of precedential cases can usually be found.

1-. 'he passage suggests that the realists believed which one of the following to be true of thedicta in a $udge6s written opinion8

(A) 'he $udge writing the opinion is usually careful to specify those parts of the opinion heor she considers part of the dicta.

() 'he appropriateness of the $udge6s decision would be disputed by subse4uent $udges onthe basis of legal rules e0pressed in the dicta.

(") A consensus concerning what constitutes the dicta in a $udge6s opinion comes to be fi0edover time as subse4uent similar cases are decided.

(#) Subse4uent $udges can consider parts of what the original $udge saw as the dicta to beessential to the original opinion.

(%) 'he $udge6s decision and the grounds for it are usually easily distinguishable from thedicta.

&:. ;hich one of the following best describes the overall organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A traditional point of view is e0plained and problems arising from it are described.

() 'wo conflicting systems of thought are compared point for point and then evaluated.

(") A legal concept is defined and arguments $ustifying that definition are refuted.



(#) 'wo viewpoints on an issue are briefly described and one of those viewpoints isdiscussed at greater length.

(%) A theoretical description of how a system develops is contrasted with the actual practicescharacteri*ing the system.

&1. ;hich one of the following titles best reflects the content of the passage8

(A) Cegal Indeterminacy@ 'he #ebate "ontinues

() olding Eersus #icta@ A #istinction ;ithout a #ifference

(") Cinguistic Eagueness@ Is It "ircumscribed in Cegal 'erminology8

(#) Cegal Indeterminacy@ 'he ealist6s Eiew of Its Scope

(%) Cegal ules and the =recedential System@ ow Budges Interpret the =recedents

?ears after the movement to o#tain civil rights for #lac( people in the United Statesmade its most important gains, scholars are reaching for a theoretical perspective capa#leof clarifying its momentous developments. :e% theories of social movements are #eingdiscussed, not just among social psychologists, #ut also among political theorists.

f the many competing formulations of the +classical social psychological theory of

social movement, three are prominent in the literature on the civil rights movementC +risinge-pectations, +relative deprivation, and +F'curve. Each conforms to a causal se"uencecharacteristic of classical social movement theory, lin(ing some unusual condition, or+system strain, to the generation of unrest. 8hen these versions of the classical theory areapplied to the civil rights movement, the source of strain is identied as a change in #lac(socioeconomic status that occurred shortly #efore the %idespread protest activity of themovement.

5or e-ample, the theory of rising e-pectations asserts that protest activity %as aresponse to psychological tensions generated #y gains e-perienced immediately prior to thecivil rights movement. *dvancement did not satisfy am#ition, #ut created the desire forfurther advancement. nly slightly dierent is the theory of relative deprivation. Here theimpetus to protest is identied as gains achieved during the premovement period, coupled%ith simultaneous failure to ma(e any apprecia#le head%ay relative to the dominant group.

!he F'curve theory argues that the movement occurred #ecause a prolonged period of risinge-pectations and gratication %as follo%ed #y a sharp reversal.

7olitical theorists have #een dismissive of these applications of classical theory to thecivil rights movement. !heir arguments rest on the conviction that, implicitly, the classicaltheory triviali&es the political ends of movement participants, focusing rather on presumedpsychological dysfunctionsC reduction of comple- social situations to simple paradigms ofstimulus and response o#viates the relevance of all #ut the shortest'term analysis.5urthermore, the theories lac( predictive valueC +strain is al%ays present to some degree,#ut social movement is not. Ho% can %e (no% %hich strain %ill provo(e upheavalL

!hese very legitimate complaints having fre"uently #een made, it remains to nd ameans of testing the strength of the theories. 7ro#lematically, %hile proponents of thevarious theories have contradictory interpretations of socioeconomic conditions leading tothe civil rights movement, e-amination of various statistical records regarding the material

status of #lac( *mericans yields ample evidence to support any of the three theories. !hesteady rise in median #lac( family income supports the rising e-pectations hypothesis> thesta#ility of the economic position of #lac( vis'Q'vis %hite *mericans lends credence to therelative deprivation interpretation> unemployment data are consistent %ith the F'curvetheory. * #etter test is the comparison of each of these economic indicators %ith thefre"uency of movement'initiated events reported in the press> unsurprisingly, nonecorrelates signicantly %ith the pace of reports a#out movement activity.

&&. It can be inferred from the passage that the classical theory of social movement would not be



appropriately applied to an annual general election because such an election

(A) may focus on personalities rather than on political issues

() is not provo!ed primarily by an unusual condition

(") may be decided according to the psychological needs of voters

(#) may not entail momentous developments

(%) actually entails two or more distinct social movements

&+. According to the passage, the rising e0pectations/ and relative deprivation/ models differin which one of the following ways8

(A) 'hey predict different responses to the same socioeconomic conditions.

() 'hey disagree about the relevance of psychological e0planations for protest movements.

(") 'hey are meant to e0plain different !inds of social change.

(#) 'hey describe the motivation of protesters in slightly different ways.

(%) 'hey disagree about the relevance of socioeconomic status to system strain.

&. 'he author implies that political theorists attribute which one of the following assumptions

to social psychologists who apply the classical theory of social movements to the civil rightsmovement8

(A) =articipants in any given social movement have conflicting motivations.

() Social movements are ultimately beneficial to society.

(") 5nly strain of a socioeconomic nature can provo!e a social movement.

(#) 'he political ends of movement participants are best analy*ed in terms of participants6 psychological motivations.

(%) =sychological motivations of movement participants better illuminate the causes ofsocial movements than do participants6 political motivations.

&3. ;hich one of the following statements is supported by the results of the better test/discussed in the last paragraph of the passage8

(A) 'he test confirms the three classical theories discussed in the passage.

() 'he test provides no basis for deciding among the three classical theories discussed inthe passage.

(") 'he test shows that it is impossible to apply any theory of social movements to the civilrights movement.

(#) 'he test indicates that press coverage of the civil rights movement was biased.

(%) 'he test verifies that the civil rights movement generated socioeconomic progress.

&2. 'he validity of the better test/ (line 23) as proposed by the author might be undermined by

the fact that(A) the press is selective about the movement activities it chooses to cover

() not all economic indicators receive the same amount of press coverage

(") economic indicators often contradict one another

(#) a movementinitiated event may not correlate significantly with any of the threeeconomic indicators

(%) the pace of movementinitiated events is difficult to anticipate



&7. 'he main purpose of the passage is to

(A) =ersuade historians of the indispensability of a theoretical framewor! for understandingrecent history.

() =resent a new model of social movement.

(") Account for a shift in a theoretical debate.

(#) Show the unity underlying the diverse classical models of social movement.

(%) #iscuss the reasoning behind and shortcomings of certain social psychological theories.

LSAT 12 SECTION III






sheet.

:early every %riter on the philosophy of civil rights activist )artin $uther King, Fr., ma(es

a connection #et%een King and Henry 9avid !horeau, usually via !horeau’s famous essay,+Aivil 9iso#edience ;/BJ0=. In his #oo( Stride To)ard "reedom ;/0<B=, King himself statedthat !horeau’s essay %as his rst intellectual contact %ith the theory of passive resistanceto governmental la%s that are perceived as morally unjust. Ho%ever, this emphasis on

!horeau’s in4uence on King is unfortunateC rst, King %ould not have agreed %ith manyother aspects of !horeau’s philosophy, including !horeau’s ultimate acceptance of violenceas a form of protest> second, an overemphasis on the in4uence of one essay has (epthistorians from noting other correspondences #et%een King’s philosophy andtranscendentalism. +Aivil 9iso#edience %as the only e-ample of transcendentalist %riting%ith %hich King %as familiar, and in many other transcendentalist %ritings, including %or(s#y Dalph 8aldo Emerson and )argaret 5uller, King %ould have found ideas more nearly a(into his o%n.

!he (ind of civil diso#edience King had in mind %as, in fact, "uite dierent from

!horeau’s vie% of civil diso#edience. !horeau, li(e most other transcendentalists, %asprimarily interested in reform of the individual, %hereas King %as primarily interested inreform of society. *s a protest against the )e-ican 8ar, !horeau refused to pay ta-es, #uthe did not hope #y his action to force a change in national policy. 8hile he encouragedothers to adopt similar protests, he did not attempt to mount any mass protest actionagainst unjust la%s. In contrast to !horeau, King #egan to advocate the use of mass civildiso#edience to eect revolutionary changes %ithin the social system.

Ho%ever, King’s %ritings suggest that, %ithout reali&ing it, he %as an incipienttranscendentalist. )ost transcendentalists su#scri#ed to the concept of +higher la% andincluded civil diso#edience to unjust la%s as part of their strategy. !hey often invo(ed theconcept of higher la% to justify their opposition to slavery and to advocate diso#edience tothe strengthened 5ugitive Slave $a% of /B<2. In his second major #oo(, King’s discussion of

just and unjust la%s and the responsi#ility of the individual is very similar to the

transcendentalists’ discussion of higher la%. In reference to ho% one can advocate #rea(ingsome la%s and o#eying others, King notes that there are t%o types of la%s, just and unjust>he descri#es a just la% as a +code that s"uares %ith the moral la% and an unjust la% as a+code that is out of harmony %ith the moral la%. !hus, King’s opposition to the injustice oflegali&ed segregation in the t%entieth century is philosophically a(in to thetranscendentalists’ opposition to the 5ugitive Slave $a% in the nineteenth century.

1. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) Ging6s philosophy was more influenced by 'horeau6s essay on civil disobedience than



by any other writing of the transcendentalists.

() ;hile historians may have overestimated 'horeau6s influence on Ging, Ging was greatlyinfluenced by a number of the transcendentalist philosophers.

(") 'horeau6s and Ging6s views on civil disobedience differed in that Ging was moreconcerned with the social reform than with the economic reform of society.

(#) Although historians have overemphasi*ed 'horeau6s influence on Ging, there are parallels between Ging6s philosophy and transcendentalism that have not been fullyappreciated.

(%) Ging6s ideas about law and civil disobedience were influenced by transcendentalism ingeneral and 'horeau6s essays in particular.

&. ;hich one of the following statements about "ivil #isobedience/ would the authorconsider most accurate8

(A) It was not Ging6s first contact with the concept of passive resistance to un$ust laws.

() It was one of many e0amples of transcendentalist writing with which Ging was familiar.

(") It provided Ging with a model for using passive resistance to effect social change.

(#) It contains a number of ideas with which other transcendentalists strongly disagreed.

(%) It influenced Ging6s philosophy on passive resistance to un$ust laws.

+. In the first paragraph, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) chronicling the development of Ging6s philosophy on passive resistance to un$ust law

() suggesting that a common emphasis on one influence on Ging6s philosophy has beenmisleading

(") providing new information about the influence of twentiethcentury philosophers onGing6s wor!

(#) summari*ing the wor! of historians of the most important influences on Ging6s

philosophy(%) providing bac!ground information about nineteenthcentury transcendentalist

philosophers

. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of6 %merson and Duller8

(A) Some of their ideas were less typical of transcendentalism than were some of 'horeau6sideas.

() 'hey were more concerned with the reform of society than with the reform of theindividual.

(") 'hey would have been more li!ely than 'horeau to agree with Ging on the necessity ofmass protest in civil disobedience.

(#) 'heir ideas about civil disobedience and un$ust laws are as well !nown as 'horeau6s are.(%) Some of their ideas were more similar to Ging6s than were some of 'horeau6s.

3. According to the passage, Ging differed from most transcendentalists in that he

(A) opposed violence as a form of civil protest

() opposed war as an instrument of foreign policy under any circumstances

(") believed that $ust laws had an inherent moral value

(#) was more interested in reforming society than in reforming the individual



(%) protested social and legal in$ustice in United States society rather than United Statesforeign policy

2. 'he passage suggests which one of the following about 'horeau8

(A) e was the first to develop fully the theory of civil disobedience.

() is wor! has had a greater influence on contemporary thin!ers than has the wor! of%merson and Duller.

(") is philosophy does not contain all of the same elements as the philosophies of the other transcendentalists.

(#) e advocated using civil disobedience to force the federal government to change its policies on war.

(%) e is better !nown for his ideas on social and legal reform than for his ideas onindividual reform.

7. 'he passage provides support for which one of the following statements about the 4uotationsin lines 3&338

(A) 'hey are an e0ample of a way in which Ging6s ideas differed from 'horeau6s but weresimilar to the ideas of other transcendentalists.

() 'hey provide evidence that proves that Ging6s philosophy was affected bytranscendentalist thought.

(") 'hey suggest that Ging, li!e the transcendentalists, $udged human laws by ethicalstandards.

(#) 'hey suggest a theoretical basis for Ging6s philosophy of government.

(%) 'hey provide a paraphrase of 'horeau6s position on $ust and un$ust laws.

In Democracies and its +ritics, Do#ert 9ahl defends #oth democratic value and pluralistdemocracies, or polyarchies ;a rough shorthand term for 8estern political systems=. 9ahlargues convincingly that the idea of democracy rests on political e"uality3the e"uality

capacity of all citi&ens to determine or in4uence collective decisions. f course, as 9ahlrecogni&es, if hierarchical ordering is inevita#le in any structure of government, and if nosociety can guarantee perfect e"uality in the resources that may give rise to politicalin4uence, the democratic principle of political e"uality is incapa#le of full reali&ation. Soactual systems can #e deemed democratic only as appro-imations to the ideal. It is on thesegrounds that 9ahl defends polyarchy.

*s a representative system in %hich elected o6cials #oth determine government policyand are accounta#le to a #road'#ased electorate, polyarchy reinforces a diusion of po%era%ay from any single center and to%ard a variety of individuals, groups, and organi&ations.It is this centrifugal characteristic, 9ahl argues, that ma(es polyarchy the nearest possi#leappro-imation to the democratic ideal. 7olyarchy achieves this diusion of po%er throughparty competition and the operation of pressure groups. Aompeting for votes, parties see( tooer dierent sections of the electorate %hat they most %ant> they do not as( %hat the

majority thin(s of an issue, #ut %hat policy commitments %ill s%ay the electoral decisions of particular groups. E"ually, groups that have strong feelings a#out an issue can organi&e inpressure groups to in4uence pu#lic policy.

9uring the /012s and /02s, criticism of the theory of pluralist democracy %as vigorous.)any critics pointed to a gap #et%een the model and the reality of 8estern politicalsystems. !hey argued that the distri#ution of po%er resources other than the vote %as souneven that the political order systematically gave added %eight to those %ho %ere alreadyricher or organi&ationally more po%erful. So the po%er of some groups to e-clude issuesaltogether from the political agenda eectively countered any diusion of in4uence on



decision'ma(ing.

*lthough such criticism #ecame su#dued during the /0B2s, 9ahl himself seems tosupport some of the earlier criticism. *lthough he regrets that some 8estern intellectualsdemand more democracy from polyarchies than is possi#le, and is cautious a#out thepossi#ility of further democrati&ation, he nevertheless ends his #oo( #y as(ing %hatchanges in structures and consciousness might ma(e political life more democratic in

present polyarchies. ne ans%er, he suggests, is to loo( at the economic order ofpolyarchies from the point of vie% of the citi&en as %ell as from that of producers andconsumers. !his %ould re"uire a critical e-amination of #oth the distri#ution of thoseeconomic resources that are at the same time political resources, and the relationship#et%een political structures and economic enterprises.

. 'he characteri*ation of polyarchies as centrifugal/ (line &&) emphasi*es the

(A) way in which political power is decentrali*ed in a polyarchy

() central role of power resources in a polyarchy

(") !ind of concentrated power that political parties generate in a polyarchy

(#) dynamic balance that e0ists between economic enterprises and elected officials in a polyarchy

(%) dynamic balance that e0ists between voters and elected officials in a polyarchy

-. In the third paragraph, the author of the passage refers to criticism of the theory of polyarchydemocracy primarily in order to

(A) refute #ahl6s statement that ;estern intellectuals e0pect more democracy from polyarchies than is possible

() advocate the need for rethin!ing the basic principles on which the theory of democracyrests

(") suggest that the structure of government within pluralist democracies should be changed

(#) point out a flaw in #ahl6s argument that the principle of political e4uality cannot be fullyreali*ed

(%) point out an ob$ection to #ahl6s defense of polyarchy

1:. According to the passage, the aim of a political party in a polyarchy is to do which one ofthe following8

(A) determine what the position of the ma$ority of voters is on a particular issue

() determine what position on an issue will earn the support of particular groups of voters

(") organi*e voters into pressure groups in order to influence public policy on a particularissue

(#) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the party on specificissue

(%) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the electorate on specificissues

11. It can be inferred from the passage that #ahl assumes which one of the following in hisdefense of polyarchies8

(A) =olyarchies are limited in the e0tent to which they can embody the idea of democracy.

() 'he structure of polyarchical governments is free of hierarchical ordering.

(") 'he citi*ens of a polyarchy have e4ual access to the resources that provide political



influence.

(#) =olyarchy is the best political system to foster the growth of political parties.

(%) =olyarchy is a form of government that is not influenced by the interests of economicenterprises.

1&. ;hich one of the following is most closely analogous to pluralist democracies as they aredescribed in relation to the democratic principle of political e4uality8

(A) an e0act copy of an ancient artifact that is on display in a museum

() a performance of a musical score whose range of tonality cannot be completely captured by any actual instruments

(") a lecture by a former astronaut to a class of young students who would li!e to beastronauts

(#) the commemoration of a historical event each year by a historian presenting a lecture ona topic related to the event

(%) the mold from which a number of identical castings of a sculpture are made

1+. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most strengthen #ahl6s defense of polyarchy8(A) 'he political agenda in a polyarchy is strongly influenced by how power resources other

than the vote are distributed.

() 'he outcome of elections is more often determined by the financial resources candidatesare able to spend during campaigns than by their stands on political issue.

(") =ublic policy in a polyarchy is primarily determined by decisionma!ers who are notaccountable to elected officials.

(#) =olitical parties in a polyarchy help concentrate political power in the centralgovernment.

(%) Small and diverse pressure groups are able to e0ert as much influence on public policy in

a polyarchy as are large and powerful groups.1. 'he passage can best be described as

(A) an in4uiry into how presentday polyarchies can be made more democratic

() a commentary on the means pressure groups employ to e0ert influence within polyarchies

(") a description of the relationship between polyarchies and economic enterprises

(#) a discussion of the strengths and wea!nesses of polyarchy as a form of democracy

(%) an overview of the similarities between political parties and pressure groups in a polyarchy

!he old #elief that climatic sta#ility accounts for the high level of species diversity in the

*ma&on Diver #asin of South *merica emerged, strangely enough, from o#servations of thedeep sea. Sanders discovered high diversity among the mud'd%elling animals of the deepocean. He argued that such diversity could #e attri#uted to the a#sence of signicant4uctuations in climate and physical conditions, %ithout %hich the e-tinction of speciesshould #e rare. In the course of time ne% species %ould continue to evolve, and so the rateof speciation %ould #e greater than the rate of e-tinction, resulting in the accumulation ofgreat diversity. Sanders argued that the *ma&on tropical rain forest is analogous to the deepseaC #ecause the rain forest has a sta#le climate, e-tinction should #e rare. Evidence thatsome species of rain'forest trees have persisted for some 2 million years in the *ma&on#asin, added to the a#sence of %inter and glaciation, supports this vie%.



Decently ho%ever, several o#servations have cast dou#t on the validity of the sta#ilityhypothesis and suggest that the climate of the *ma&on #asin has 4uctuated signicantly inthe past. Haer noted that dierent species of #irds inha#it dierent corners of the #asin inspite of the fact that essentially un#ro(en green forest spreads from the %estern edge to theeastern edge of the region. !his pattern presented a pu&&le to #iologists studying thedistri#utions of plants and animalsC %hy %ould dierent species inha#it dierent parts of the

forest if the ha#itat in %hich they lived had a sta#le climateLHaer proposed a compelling e-planation for the distri#ution of species. #serving thatspecies found on high ground are dierent from those on lo% ground and (no%ing that in the*ma&on lo%lands are drier than uplands, he proposed that during the ice ages the *ma&onlo%lands #ecame a near'desert arid plain> mean%hile, the more elevated regions #ecameislands of moisture and hence served as refuges for the fauna and 4ora of the rain forest.7opulations that %ere once continuous diverged and #ecame permanently separated.Haer’s hypothesis appears to e-plain the distri#ution of species as %ell as the unusualspecies diversity. !he ice'age refuges %ould have protected e-isting species from e-tinction.ut the periodic geographic isolation of related populations ;there have #een an estimated/ ice ages to date= %ould have facilitated the development of ne% species as e-istingspecies on the lo%lands adapted to changing climates.

*lthough no conclusive proof has yet #een found to support Haer’s hypothesis, it has

led other researchers to gauge the eects of climatic changes, such as storms and 4ooding,on species diversity in the *ma&on #asin. !heir research suggests that climatic distur#anceshelp account for the splendid diversity of the *ma&on rain forest.

13. As discussed in the first paragraph of the passage, Sanders6 analogy between the deep seaand the Ama*on basin involves which one of the following assumptions8

(A) oth the Ama*on basin and the deep sea support an unusually high rate of speciation.

() oth the rainforest trees in the Ama*on basin and the muddwelling animals in the deepsea have survived for +: million years.

(") oth the deep sea and the Ama*on basin have not e0perienced dramatic changes inclimate or physical conditions.

(#) A dependable supply of water to the Ama*on basin and the deep sea has moderated therate of e0tinction in both habitats.

(%) 'he rate of speciation in the Ama*on basin is e4uivalent to the rate of speciation in thedeep sea.

12. 'he author of the passage would most li!ely agree with which one of the followingstatements about affer6s hypothesis8

(A) It provides an intriguing and complete e0planation for the high rate of species diversityin the Ama*on basin.

() It is partially correct in that a number of climatic disturbances account for speciesdiversity in the Ama*on basin.

(") It has not yet been verified, but it has had an influential effect on current research onspecies diversity in the Ama*on basin.

(#) It is better than Sanders6 theory in accounting for the low rate of species e0tinction in theAma*on basin.

(%) It provides a compelling e0planation for the distribution of species in the Ama*on basin but does not account for the high species diversity.

17. According to the passage, lowlands in the Ama*on basin currently differ from uplands in



which one of the following respects8

(A) Cowlands are desertli!e, whereas uplands are lush.

() Cowlands are less vulnerable to glaciation during the ice ages than are uplands.

(") Uplands support a greater diversity of species than do lowlands.

(#) Uplands are wetter than are lowlands.

(%) Uplands are more densely populated than are lowlands.

1. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A hypothesis is discussed, evidence that undercuts that hypothesis is presented and anew hypothesis that may account for the evidence is described.

() A recently observed phenomenon is described, an e0planation for that phenomenon isdiscussed, and the e0planation is evaluated in light of previous research findings.

(") Several hypotheses that may account for a pu**ling phenomenon are described anddiscounted, and a more promising hypothesis is presented.

(#) A hypothesis and the assumptions on which it is based are described, and evidence is

provided to suggest that the hypothesis is only partially correct.(%) 'wo alternative e0planations for a phenomenon are presented and compared, and

e0periments designed to test each theory are described.

1-. 'he author of the passage mentions the number of ice ages in the third paragraph most probably in order to

(A) provide proof that cooler and drier temperatures are primarily responsible for thedistribution of species in the Ama*on

() e0plain how populations of species were protected from e0tinction in the Ama*on basin

(") e0plain how most e0isting species were able to survive periodic climatic disturbances inthe Ama*on basin

(#) suggest that certain !inds of climatic disturbances cause more species diversity than doother !inds of climatic disturbances

(%) suggest that geographic isolation may have occurred often enough to cause high speciesdiversity in the Ama*on basin

&:. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following is true of Sanders6 hypothesis8

(A) e underestimated the effects of winter and glaciation in the Ama*on basin on thetropical rain forest.

() e failed to recogni*e the similarity in physical conditions of the Ama*on lowlands andthe Ama*on uplands.

(") e failed to ta!e into a count the relatively high rate of e0tinction during the ice ages in

the Ama*on basin.(#) e overestimated the length of time that species have survived in the Ama*on basin.

(%) e failed to account for the distribution of species in the Ama*on basin.

&1. ;hich one of the following is evidence that would contribute to the proof/ mentioned inline 38

(A) Accurately dated sediment cores from a freshwater la!e in the Ama*on indicate that thela!e6s water level rose significantly during the last ice age.



() #ata based on radiocarbon dating of fossils suggest that the Ama*on uplands were toocold to support rain forests during the last ice age.

(") "omputer models of climate during global ice ages predict only insignificant reductionsof monsoon rains in tropical areas such as the Ama*on.

(#) Dossils preserved in the Ama*on uplands during the last ice age are found together with

minerals that are the products of an arid landscape.(%) Dossili*ed pollen from the Ama*on lowlands indicates that during the last ice age the

Ama*on lowlands supported vegetation that needs little water rather than the rainforests they support today.

*lthough surveys of medieval legislation, guild organi&ation, and terminology used todesignate dierent medical practitioners have demonstrated that numerous medicalspecialties %ere recogni&ed in Europe during the )iddle *ges, most historians continue toe"uate the term +%oman medical practitioner, %herever they encounter it in medievalrecords, %ith +mid%ife. !his common practice o#scures the fact that, although %omen %erenot represented on all levels of medicine e"ually, they %ere represented in a variety ofspecialties throughout the #road medical community. * relia#le study #y 8ic(ersheimer and

Fac"uart documents that of ,1J medical practitioners in 5rance during the t%elfth through

fteenth centuries, /@/ %ere %omen> of these, only JJ %ere identied as mid%ives, %hilethe rest practiced as physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, #ar#ers, and other healers.

8hile preserving terminological distinctions some%hat increases the "uality of theinformation e-tracted from medieval documents concerning %omen medical practitioners,scholars must also reopen the %hole "uestion of %hy documentary evidence for %omenmedical practitioners comprises such a tiny fraction of the evidence historians of medievalmedicine usually present. Is this due to the limitations of the historical record, as has #eenclaimed, or does it also result from the methods historians useL Granted, apart from medicallicenses, the principal sources of information regarding medical practitioners availa#le toresearchers are %ills, property transfers, court records, and similar documents, all of %hichtypically underrepresent %omen #ecause of restrictive medieval legal traditions.:onetheless, the parameters researchers choose %hen they dene their investigations maycontri#ute to the pro#lem. Studies focusing on the upper echelons of +learned medicine, for

e-ample, tend to e-clude healers on the legal and social fringes of medical practice, %heremost %omen %ould have #een found.

!he advantages of #roadening the scope of such studies is immediately apparent in7elling and 8e#ster’s study of si-teenth'century $ondon. Instead of focusing solely ono6cially recogni&ed and licensed practitioners, the researchers dened a medicalpractitioner as +any individual %hose occupation is #asically concerned %ith the care of thesic(. Using this denition, they found primary source information suggesting that there%ere 12 %omen medical practitioners in the city of $ondon in /<12. *lthough this gure may#e slightly e-aggerated, the evidence contrasts stri(ingly %ith that of Gottfried, %hoseearlier survey identied only @B %omen medical practitioners in all of England #et%een /2and /<2.

5inally, such studies provide only statistical information a#out the variety and

prevalence of %omen’s medical practice in medieval Europe. 5uture studies might also ma(eprota#le use of analyses developed in other areas of %omen’s history as a #asis fore-ploring the social conte-t of %omen’s medical practice. Information a#out economicrivalry in medicine, %omen’s literacy, and the control of medical (no%ledge could add muchto our gro%ing understanding of %omen medical practitioners’ role in medieval society.

&&. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point of the passage8

(A) ecent studies demonstrate that women medical practitioners were more common in%ngland than in the rest of ;estern %urope during the <iddle Ages.



() 'he 4uantity and 4uality of the information historians uncover concerning women6smedical practice in medieval %urope would be improved if they changed their methodsof study.

(") 'he sparse evidence for women medical practitioners in studies dealing with the <iddleAges is due primarily to the limitations of the historical record.

(#) Gnowledge about the social issues that influenced the role women medical practitioners played in medieval society has been enhanced by several recent studies.

(%) Analyses developed in other areas of women6s history could probably be used to providemore information about the social conte0t of women6s medical practice during the<iddle Ages.

&+. ;hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the error the author believeshistorians ma!e when they e4uate the term woman medical practitioner/ with midwife/8

(A) e4uating pear with apple

() e4uating science with biology

(") e4uating supervisor with subordinate

(#) e4uating member with nonmember

(%) e4uating instructor with trainee

&. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following assertions regarding 9ottfried6s study8

(A) 9ottfried6s study would have recorded a much larger number of women medical practitioners if the time frame covered by the study had included the late si0teenthcentury.

() 'he small number of women medical practitioners identified in 9ottfried6s study is due primarily to problems caused by inaccurate sources.

(") 'he small number of women medical practitioners identified in 9ottfried6s study is due primarily to the loss of many medieval documents.

(#) 'he results of 9ottfried6s study need to be considered in light of the social changesoccurring in ;estern %urope during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

(%) In setting the parameters for his study. 9ottfried appears to have defined the termmedical practitioner/ very narrowly.

&3. 'he passage suggests that a future study that would be more informative about medievalwomen medical practitioners might focus on which one of the following8

(A) the effect of social change on the political and economic structure of medieval society

() the effect of social constraints on medieval women6s access to a medical education

(") the types of medical specialties that developed during the <iddle Ages(#) the reasons why medieval historians tend to e4uate the term woman medical

practitioner/ with midwife

(%) the historical developments responsible for the medieval legal tradition6s restrictions onwomen

&2. 'he author refers to the study by ;ic!ersheimer and Bac4uart in order to

(A) demonstrate that numerous medical specialties were recogni*ed in ;estern %urope



during the <iddle Ages

() demonstrate that women are often underrepresented in studies of medieval medical practitioners

(") prove that midwives were officially recogni*ed as members of the medical communityduring the <iddle Ages

(#) prove that midwives were only a part of a larger community of women medical practitioners during the <iddle Ages

(%) prove that the e0istence of midwives can be documented in ;estern %urope as early asthe twelfth century

&7. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following8

(A) describing new methodological approaches

() revising the definitions of certain concepts

(") comparing two different analyses

(#) arguing in favor of changes in method

(%) chronicling certain historical developmentsLSAT 13 SECTION III






sheet.

)odern architecture has #een critici&ed for emphasi&ing practical and technical issues atthe e-pense of aesthetic concerns. !he high'rise #uildings constructed throughout theindustriali&ed %orld in the /012s and /02s provide ample evidence that cost'e6ciency and

utility have #ecame the overriding concerns of the modern architect. Ho%ever, tto8agner’s seminal te-t on modern architecture, rst pu#lished in Germany in /B01, indicatesthat the failure of modern architecture cannot #e #lamed on the ideals of its founders.

8agner’s %odern !rchitecture called for a ne% style #ased on modern technologies andmodels of construction. He insisted that there could #e no return to traditional, preindustrialmodels> only #y accepting %holeheartedly the political and technological revolutions of thenineteenth century could the architect esta#lish the forms appropriate to a modern, ur#ansociety. +*ll modern creation, 8agner %rote, +must correspond to the ne% materials anddemands of the presentRmust illustrate our o%n #etter, democratic, self'condent, idealnature, and must incorporate the ne% +colossal technical and scientic achievements ofthe age. !his %ould indeed seem to #e the #asis of a purely materialist denition ofarchitecture, a prototype for the simplistic form'follo%s'function dogma that opponents haveidentied as the intellectual #asis of modern architecture.

ut the picture %as more comple-, for 8agner %as al%ays careful to distinguish#et%een art and engineering. Ultimately, he envisaged the architect developing the s(ills ofthe engineer %ithout losing the po%ers of aesthetic judgment that 8agner felt %ere uni"ueto the artist. +Since the engineer is seldom a #orn artist and the architect must learn as arule to #e an engineer, architects %ill in time succeed in e-tending their in4uence into therealm occupied #y the engineers, so that legitimate aesthetic demands can #e met in asatisfactory %ay. In this sym#iotic relationship essential to )odernism, art %as to e-ercisethe controlling in4uence.

:o other prospect %as imagina#le for 8agner, %ho %as rmly rooted as a designer and,



indeed, as a teacher in the Alassical tradition. !he apparent inconsistency of a confessedAlassicist advising against the mechanical imitation of historical models and arguing for ne%forms appropriate to the modern age created e-actly the tension that made 8agner’s%ritings and #uildings so interesting. 8hile he justied, for e-ample, the choice of a circularground plan for churches in terms of optimal sight'lines and the technology of thegasometer, the true inspiration %as derived from the centrali&ed churches of the Italian

Denaissance. He ac(no%ledged as rationalist that there %as no %ay #ac( to the social andtechnological conditions that had produced the %or( of )ichelangelo or 5ischer von Erlach,#ut he recogni&ed his emotional attachment to the great %or(s of the Italian Denaissanceand *ustrian aro"ue.


(A) <odern architecture has been critici*ed for emphasi*ing practical and technical issuesand for failing to focus on aesthetic concerns.

() "ritics have failed to ta!e into account the technological innovations and aestheticfeatures that architects have incorporated into modern buildings.

(") ;agner6s #odern Architecture provides architects with a chronicle of the origins ofmodern architecture.

(#) ;agner6s #odern Architecture indicates that the founders of modern architecture did not believe that practical issues should supersede the aesthetic concerns of the past.

(%) ;agner6s seminal te0t, #odern Architecture, provides the intellectual basis for the purely materialistic definition of modern architecture.

&. According to the passage, ;agner asserts which one of the following about the roles ofarchitect and engineer8

(A) 'he architect should ma!e decision about aesthetic issues and leave decision abouttechnical matters to the engineers.

() 'he engineer has often developed the powers of aesthetic $udgment previously thoughtto be uni4ue to the architect.

(") 'he $udgment of the engineer should be as important as the $udgment of the architectwhen decisions are made about aesthetic issues.

(#) 'he technical $udgment of the engineer should prevail over the aesthetic $udgment of thearchitect in the design of modern buildings.

(%) 'he architect should ac4uire the !nowledge of technical matters typically held by theengineer.

+. 'he passage suggests that ;agner would be C%AS' li!ely to agree with which one of thefollowing statements about classical architecture and the modern architect8

(A) 'he modern architect should avoid the mechanical imitation of the models of the Italianenaissance and Austrian aro4ue.

() 'he modern architect cannot design buildings appropriate to a modern, urban society andstill retain emotional attachments to the forms of the Italian enaissance and Austrianaro4ue.

(") 'he modern architect should possess !nowledge of engineering as well as of thearchitecture of the past.

(#) 'he modern architect should not base designs on the technological conditions thatunderlay the design of the models of the Italian enaissance and Austrian aro4ue.



(%) 'he designs of modern architects should reflect political ideals different from thosereflected in the designs of classical architecture.

. 'he passage suggests which one of the following about the 4uotations from #odern

Architecture cited in the second paragraph8

(A) 'hey represent the part of ;agner6s wor! that has had the least influence on the

architects who designed the highrise buildings of the 1-2:s and 1-7:s.

() 'hey describe the part of ;agner6s wor! that is most often evo!ed by proponents of;agner6s ideas on art and technology.

(") 'hey do not ade4uately reflect the comple0ity of ;agner6s ideas on the use of moderntechnology in architecture.

(#) 'hey reflect ;agner6s active participation in the political revolutions of the nineteenthcentury.

(%) 'hey provide an overview of ;agner6s ideas on the relationship between art andtechnology.

3. 'he author of the passage states which one of the following about the concerns of modernarchitecture8

(A) "ostefficiency, utility, and aesthetic demands are the primary concerns of the modernarchitect.

() =ractical issues supersede aesthetic concerns in the design of many modern buildings.

(") "ostefficiency is more important to the modern architects than are other practicalconcerns.

(#) 'he design of many new buildings suggests that modern architects are still inspired byarchitectural forms of the past.

(%) <any modern architects use current technology to design modern buildings that areaesthetically pleasing.

2. 'he author mentions ;agner6s choice of a circular ground plan for churches/ (line 3)most li!ely in order to

(A) provide an e0ample of the !inds of technological innovations ;agner introduced intomodern architecture

() provide an e0ample of ;agner6s dismissal of historical forms from Italian enaissance

(") provide an e0ample of a modern building where technological issues were much lesssignificant than aesthetic demands

(#) provide evidence of ;agner6s tendency to imitate Italian enaissance and Austrianaro4ue models

(%) provide evidence of the tension between ;agner6s commitment to modern technologyand to the "lassical tradition

7. 'he passage is primarily concerned with

(A) summari*ing the history of a debate

() e0plaining a traditional argument

(") describing and evaluating a recent approach

(#) $ustifying a recent criticism by presenting new evidence



(%) supporting an assertion by discussing an important wor!

In order to e-plain the socioeconomic achievement, in the face of disadvantages due toracial discrimination, of Ahinese and Fapanese immigration to the United States and theirdescendants, sociologists have typically applied either culturally #ased or structurally #asedtheories3#ut never #oth together. !o use an economic metaphor, culturally #asede-planations assert the importance of the supply side of the la#or mar(et, emphasi&ing the

"ualities immigrant groups #ring %ith them for competition in the United States la#ormar(et. Such e-planations re4ect a human'capital perspective in %hich status attainment isseen as a result of individuals’ a#ility to generate resources. Structurally #ased e-planations,on the other hand, e-amine the mar(et condition of the immigrants’ host society,particularly its discriminatory practices and their impact on the status attainment process ofimmigrant groups. In the economic metaphor, structural e-planations assert the importanceof the demand side of the la#or mar(et.

In order to understand the socioeconomic mo#ility of Ahinese and Fapanese immigrantsand their descendants, only an analysis of supply'side and demand'side factors together, inthe conte-t of historical events, %ill su6ce. n the cultural or supply side, dierences inimmigration pattern and family formation resulted in dierent rates of socioeconomicachievement for Ahinese and Fapanese immigrants. 5or various reasons, Ahinese immigrantsremained sojourners and did not ;e-cept for ur#an merchants= esta#lish families. !hey %ere

also hampered #y ethnic con4ict in the la#or mar(et. Fapanese immigrants, on the otherhand, %ere less constrained, made the transition from sojourner to settler %ithin the rstt%o decades of immigration, and left lo%'%age la#or to esta#lish small #usinesses #ased ona household mode of production. Ahinese sojourners %ithout families %ere more vulnera#leto demorali&ation, %hereas Fapanese immigrants faced societal hostility %ith the emotionalresources provide #y a sta#le family life. nce Ahinese immigrants #egan to esta#lishnuclear families and produce a second generation, instituting household production similarto that esta#lished #y Fapanese immigrants, their socioeconomic attainment soon paralleledthat of Fapanese immigrants and their descendants.

n the structural or demand side, changes in institutional constraints, immigration la%s,la#or mar(ets, and societal hostility %ere rooted in the dynamics of capitalist economicdevelopment. Early capitalist development generated a demand for lo%'%age la#or thatcould not #e fullled. Early Ahinese and Fapanese emigration %as a response to this demand.

In an advanced capitalist economy, the demand for immigrant la#or is more dierentiatedCs(illed professional and technical la#or lls empty positions in the primary la#or mar(et and,%ith the traditional uns(illed lo%'%age la#or, creates t%o immigrant streams. !he high levelsof education attained #y the descendants of Ahinese and Fapanese immigrants and theirconcentration in strategic states such as Aalifornia paved the %ay for the movement of thesecond generation into the e-panding primary la#or mar(et in the advanced capitalisteconomy that e-isted after the Second 8orld 8ar.

. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'he socioeconomic achievement of "hinese and Bapanese immigrants and theirdescendants is best e0plained by a historical e0amination of the economic structures prevalent in the United States when such immigrant groups arrived.

() 'he socioeconomic achievement of "hinese and Bapanese immigrants and theirdescendants is best e0plained by an e0amination of their cultural bac!grounds, in particular their level of educational attainment.

(") 'he socioeconomic achievement of "hinese and Bapanese immigrants and theirdescendants has ta!en place in the conte0t of a culturally based emphasis on theeconomic welfare of the nuclear family.

(#) 5nly the mar!et structure of the capitalist economy of the United States in which supplyhas historically been regulated by demand can account for the socioeconomic



achievement of "hinese and Bapanese immigrants and their descendants.

(%) 5nly an analysis that combines an e0amination of the culture of "hinese and Bapaneseimmigrant groups and the socioeconomic structure of the host country can ade4uatelye0plain the socioeconomic achievement of "hinese and Bapanese immigrants and theirdescendants.

-. ;hich one of the following can best be described as a supplyside element in the labormar!et, as such elements are e0plained in the passage8

(A) concentration of small businesses in a given geographical area

() need for wor!ers with varying degrees of s!ill

(") high value placed by immigrants on wor!

(#) e0pansion of the primary labor mar!et

(%) development of an advanced capitalist economy

1:. ;hich one of the following best states the function of the author6s mention of twoimmigration streams/ (line 2&)8

(A) It demonstrates the effects of changes in human capital.() It illustrates the operation of the primary labor mar!et.

(") It e0plains the nature of early "hinese and Bapanese immigration.

(#) It characteri*es the result of changing demandside factors.

(%) It underscores an influence on the labor mar!et.

11. It can be inferred that the author6s analysis of the socioeconomic achievement of "hineseand Bapanese immigrants and their descendants differs from that of most sociologists primarily in that most sociologists

(A) address the effects of the interaction of causal factors

() e0clude the factor of a developing capitalist economy

(") do not apply an economic metaphor

(#) emphasi*e the disadvantageous effects of racial discrimination

(%) focus on a single type of theoretical e0planation

1&. It can be inferred that which one of the following was an element of the e0perience of both"hinese and Bapanese immigrants in the United States8

(A) initial status as so$ourners

() slow accumulation of capital

(") 4uic! transition from laborer to manager

(#) rapid establishment of nuclear families

(%) rapid ac4uisition of technical s!ills

1+. 'he author is primarily concerned with

(A) advancing a synthesis of approaches to an issue

() challenging a tentative answer to a 4uestion

(") evaluating the soundness of theories

(#) resolving the differences between schools of thought

(%) outlining the achievements of a group



*lthough the legal systems of England and the United States are supercially similar,they dier profoundly in their approaches to and uses of legal reasonsC su#stantive reasonsin the United States, %hereas in England the reverse is true. !his distinction re4ects adierence in the visions of la% that prevail in the t%o counties. In England the la% hastraditionally #een vie%ed as a system of rules> the United States favors a vision of la% as anout%ard e-pression of the community’s sense of right and justice.

Su#stantive reasons, as applied to la%, are #ased on moral, economic, political, andother considerations. !hese reasons are found #oth +in the la% and +outside the la%, so tospea(. Su#stantive reasons inform the content of a large part of the la%C constitutions,statutes, contracts, verdicts, and the li(e. Aonsider, for e-ample, a statute providing ;toma(e a proviso or stipulation= that +no vehicles shall #e ta(en into pu#lic par(s. Supposethat no specic rationales or purposes %ere e-plicitly %ritten into this statute, #ut that it %asclear ;from its legislative history= that the su#stantive purpose of the statute %as to ensure"uiet and safety in the par(. :o% suppose that a veterans’ group mounts a 8orld 8ar II jeep;in running order #ut %ithout a #attery= as a %ar memorial on a concrete sla# in the par(,and charges are #rought against its mem#ers. )ost judges in the United States %ould ndthe defendants not guilty #ecause %hat they did had no adverse eect on par( "uiet andsafety.

5ormal reasons are dierent in that they fre"uently prevent su#stantive reasons from

coming into play, even %hen su#stantive reasons are e-plicitly incorporated into the la% athand. 5or e-ample, %hen a document fails to comply %ith stipulated re"uirements, the courtmay render the document legally ineective. * %ill re"uiring %ritten %itness may #edeclared null and void and therefore, unenforcea#le for the formal reason that there"uirement %as not o#served. nce the legal rule3that a %ill is invalid for lac( of proper%itnessing3has #een clearly esta#lished, and the legality of the rule is not in "uestion,application of that rule precludes from consideration su#stantive arguments in favor of the%ill’s validity or enforcement.

$egal scholars in England and the United States have long #emused themselves %ithe-treme e-amples of formal and su#stantive reasoning. n the one hand, formal reasoningin England has led to %ooden interpretations of statutes and an un%illingness to develop thecommon la% through judicial activism. n the other hand, free%heeling su#stantivereasoning in the United States has resulted in statutory interpretations so li#eral that the

te-ts of some statutes have #een ignored altogether.

1. ;hich one of the following best describes the content of the passage as a whole8

(A) an analysis of similarities and differences between the legal systems of %ngland and theUnited States

() a reevaluation of two legal systems with the use of e0amples

(") a contrast between the types of reasons embodied in the United States and %ngland legalsystems

(#) an e0planation of how two distinct visions of the law shaped the development of legalreasoning

(%) a presentation of two types of legal reasons that shows the characteristics they have in

common

13. It can be inferred from the passage that %nglish $udges would be li!ely to find the veterans6group discussed in the second paragraph guilty of violating the statute because

(A) not to do so would encourage others to act as the group did

() not to do so would be to violate the substantive reasons underlying the law

(") the veterans failed to comply with the substantive purpose of the statute



(#) the veterans failed to demonstrate that their activities had no adverse effect on the public

(%) the veterans failed to comply with the stipulated re4uirements of the statute

12. Drom the discussion of wills in the third paragraph it can be inferred that substantivearguments as to the validity of a will might be considered under which one of the followingcircumstances8

(A) 'he legal rule re4uiring that a will be witnessed in writing does not stipulate the formatof the will.

() 'he legal rule re4uiring that a will be witnessed stipulates that the will must bewitnessed in writing by two people.

(") 'he legal rule re4uiring that a will be witnessed in writing stipulates that the witnessingmust be done in the presence of a $udge.

(#) A $udge rules that the law re4uires a will to be witnessed in writing regardless ofe0tenuating circumstances.

(%) A $udge rules that the law can be interpreted to allow for a verbal witness to a will in acase involving a medical emergency.

17. 'he author of the passage ma!es use of all of the following in presenting the discussion ofthe %nglish and the United States legal systems %?"%='

(A) comparison and contrast

() generali*ation

(") e0plication of term

(#) a chronology of historical developments

(%) a hypothetical case

1. ;hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph of the passage8

(A) It presents the conse4uences of e0treme interpretations of the two types of legal reasons

discussed by the author.() It shows how legal scholars can incorrectly use e0treme e0amples to support their views.

(") It corrects inaccuracies in legal scholars6 views of the nature of the two types of legalsystems.

(#) It suggests how characteri*ations of the two types of legal reasons can becomeconvoluted and inaccurate.

(%) It presents scholars6 characteri*ations of both legal systems that are only partiallycorrect.

1-. 'he author of the passage suggests that in %nglish law a substantive interpretation of a legalrule might be warranted under which one of the following circumstances8

(A) Social conditions have changed to the e0tent that to continue to enforce the rule would be to decide contrary to presentday social norms.

() 'he composition of the legislature has changed to the e0tent that to enforce the rulewould be contrary to the views of the ma$ority in the present legislative assembly.

(") 'he legality of the rule is in 4uestion and its enforcement is open to $udicialinterpretation.

(#) Individuals who have violated the legal rule argue that application of the rule would lead



to unfair $udicial interpretations.

(%) Superior court $udges have consistently ruled in decisions regarding the interpretation ofthe legal rule.

&:. According to the passage, which one of the following statements about substantive reasonsis true8

(A) 'hey may be written into laws, but they may also e0ert an e0ternal influence on the law.

() 'hey must be e0plicitly written into the law in order to be relevant to the application ofthe law.

(") 'hey are legal in nature and determine particular applications of most laws.

(#) 'hey often provide $udges with specific rationales for disregarding the laws of the land.

(%) 'hey are peripheral to the law, whereas formal reasons are central to the law.

Ho% does the #rain (no% %hen car#ohydrates have #een or should #e consumedL !heans%er to this "uestion is not (no%n, #ut one element in the e-planation seems to #e theneurotransmitter serotonin, one of a class of chemical mediators that may #e released froma presynaptic neuron and that cause the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse

to an adjacent postsynaptic neuron. In general, it has #een found that drugs that selectivelyfacilitate serotonin'mediated neurotransmission tend to cause %eight loss, %hereas drugsthat #loc( serotonin'mediated transmission often have the opposite eectC they often inducecar#ohydrate craving and conse"uent %eight gain.

Serotonin is a derivative of tryptophan, an amino acid that is normally present at lo%levels in the #loodstream. !he rate of conversion is aected #y the proportion ofcar#ohydrates in an individual’s dietC car#ohydrates stimulate the secretion of insulin, %hichfacilitates the upta(e of most amino acids into peripheral tissues, such as muscles. loodtryptophan levels, ho%ever, are unaected #y insulin, so the proportion of tryptophan in the#lood relative to the other amino acids increases %hen car#ohydrates are consumed. Sincetryptophan competes %ith other amino acids for transport across the #lood'#rain #arrier intothe #rain, insulin secretion indirectly speeds tryptophan’s entry into the central nervoussystem %here, in a special cluster of neurons, it is converted into serotonin.

!he level of serotonin in the #rain in turn aects the amount of car#ohydrate anindividual chooses to eat. Dats that are allo%ed to choose among synthetic foods containingdierent proportions of car#ohydrate and protein %ill normally alternate #et%een foodscontaining mostly protein and those containing mostly car#ohydrate. Ho%ever, if rats aregiven drugs that enhance the eect of serotonin, the rats’ car#ohydrate inta(e is reduced.n the other hand, %hen rats are given drugs that interrupt serotonin'mediatedneurotransmission, their #rains fail to respond %hen car#ohydrates are eaten, so the desirefor them persists.

In human #eings a serotoninli(e drug, d'fen4uramine ;%hich release serotonin into #rainsynapses and then prolong its action #y #loc(ing its rea#sorption into the presynapticneuron=, selectively suppresses car#ohydrate snac(ing ;and its associated %eight gain= inpeople %ho crave car#ohydrates. In contrast, drugs that #loc( serotonin'mediatedtransmission or that interact %ith neurotransmitters other than serotonin have the opposite

eectC they often induce car#ohydrate craving and su#se"uent %eight gain. 7eople %hocrave car#ohydrates report feeling refreshed and invigorated after eating a car#ohydrate'rich meal ;%hich %ould #e e-pected to increase #rain serotonin levels=, in contrast, those%ho do not crave car#ohydrates #ecome sleepy follo%ing a high'car#ohydrate meal. !hesendings suggest that serotonin has other eects that may #e useful indicators of serotoninlevels in human #eings.

&1. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage

(A) 'he body6s need for carbohydrates varies with the level of serotonin in the blood.



() 'he body6s use of carbohydrates can be regulated by the administration of serotoninli!edrugs.

(") 'he role of serotonin in regulating the consumption of carbohydrates is similar in ratsand in humans.

(#) 'he body6s desire for carbohydrates can be influenced by serotonin or serotoninli!e

drugs.(%) 'ryptophan initiates a chain of events that regulates the body6s use of carbohydrates.

&&. 'he term rate/ (line 17) refers to the rate at which

(A) serotonin is produced from tryptophan

() carbohydrates are ta!en into the body

(") carbohydrates stimulate the secretion of insulin

(#) insulin facilitates the upta!e of amino acids into peripheral tissues

(%) tryptophan enters the bloodstream

&+. It can be inferred that a person is li!ely to carve carbohydrates when

(A) the amount of insulin produced is too high() the amount of serotonin in the brain is too low

(") more tryptophan than usual crosses the bloodbrain barrier

(#) neurotransmission by neurotransmitters other than serotonin is interrupted

(%) amino acids other than tryptophan are ta!en up by peripheral tissues

&. 'he information in the passage indicates that if human beings were given a drug that inhibitsthe action of serotonin, which one of the following might be e0pected to occur8

(A) Sub$ects would probably show a preference for carbohydraterich snac!s rather than proteinrich snac!s.

() Sub$ects would probably become sleepy after eating a carbohydraterich meal.

(") Sub$ects would be more li!ely to lose weight than before they too! the drug.

(#) Sub$ects6 blood tryptophan levels would probably increase.

(%) Sub$ects6 desire for both carbohydrates and proteins would increase.

&3. 'he primary purpose of the second paragraph in the passage is to

(A) provide an overview of current research concerning the effect of serotonin oncarbohydrate consumption

() contrast the role of tryptophan in the body with that of serotonin

(") discuss the role of serotonin in the transmission of neural impulses

(#) e0plain how the brain !nows that carbohydrates should be consumed

(%) establish a connection between carbohydrate inta!e and the production of serotonin

&2. It can be inferred that after a person has ta!en d fenflurarmine, he or she will probably be

(A) inclined to gain weight

() sleepy much of the time

(") unli!ely to crave carbohydrates

(#) unable to sleep as much as usual



(%) li!ely to secrete more insulin than usual

&7. 'he author6s primary purpose is to

(A) defend a point of view

() correct a misconception

(") assess conflicting evidence(#) suggest new directions for investigation

(%) provide information that helps e0plain a phenomenon

LSAT 14 SECTION III






sheet.

* major tenet of the neurosciences has #een that all neurons ;nerve cells= in the #rainsof verte#rate animals are formed early in development. *n adult verte#rate, it %as #elieved,must ma(e do %ith a -ed num#er of neuronsC those lost through disease or injury are notreplaced, and adult learning ta(es place not through generation of ne% cells #ut throughmodication of connections among e-isting ones.

Ho%ever, ne% evidence for neurogenesis ;the #irth of ne% neurons= has come from thestudy of canary song. ?oung canaries and other song#irds learn to sing much as humanslearn to spea(, #y imitating models provided #y their elders. Several %ee(s after #irth, ayoung #ird produces its rst rudimentary attempts at singing> over the ne-t fe% months thesong #ecomes more structured and sta#le, reaching a fully developed state #y the time the#ird approaches its rst #reeding season. ut this repertoire of song is not permanentlylearned. *fter each #reeding season, during late summer and fall, the #ird loses mastery ofits developed +voca#ulary, and its song #ecomes as unsta#le as that of a juvenile #ird.9uring the follo%ing %inter and spring, ho%ever, the canary ac"uires ne% songs, and #y thene-t #reeding season it has developed an entirely ne% repertoire.

Decent neurological research into this learning and relearning process has sho%n thatthe t%o most important regions of the canary’s #rain related to the learning of songsactually vary in si&e at dierent times of the year. In the spring, %hen the #ird’s song ishighly developed and uniform, the regions are roughly t%ice as large as they are in the fall.5urther e-periments tracing individual nerve cells %ithin these regions have sho%n that thenum#er of neurons drops #y a#out B percent after the #reeding season, #ut #y thefollo%ing #reeding season, ne% ones have #een generated to replace them. * possi#lee-planation for this continual replacement of nerve cells may have to do %ith the canary’srelatively long life span and the re"uirements of 4ight. Its #rain %ould have to #esu#stantially larger and heavier than might #e feasi#le for 4ying if it had to carry all the#rain cells needed to process and retain all the information gathered over a lifetime.

*lthough the idea of neurogenesis in the adult mammalian #rain is still not generallyaccepted, these ndings might help uncover a mechanism that %ould ena#le the human#rain to repair itself through neurogenesis. 8hether such replacement of neurons %oulddisrupt comple- learning processes or long'term memory is not (no%n, #ut song#irdresearch challenges scientists to identify the genes or hormones that orchestrate neurogenesis in the young human #rain and to learn ho% to activate them in the adult #rain.


(A) >ew evidence of neurogenesis in canaries challenges an established neurological theory



concerning brain cells in vertebrates and suggests the possibility that human brains mayrepair themselves.

() 'he brains of canaries differ from the brains of other vertebrate animals in that the brainsof adult canaries are able to generate neurons.

(") ecent studies of neurogenesis in canaries, building on established theories of vertebrate

neurology, provide important clues as to why researchers are not li!ely to discoverneurogenesis in adult humans.

(#) ecent research into neurogenesis in canaries refutes a longheld belief about the limitedsupply of brain cells and provides new information about neurogenesis in the adulthuman brain.

(%) >ew information about neurogenesis in canaries challenges older hypotheses andclarifies the importance of the yearly cycle in learning processes and neurologicalreplacement among vertebrates.

&. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of the typical adult canaryduring the late summer and fall8

(A) 'he canary6s song repertoire ta!es on a fully structured and stable 4uality.() A process of neurogenesis replaces the songlearning neurons that were lost during the

preceding months.

(") 'he canary begins to learn an entirely new repertoire of songs based on the models ofother canaries.

(#) 'he regions in the canary6s brain that are central to the learning of song decrease in si*e.

(%) 'he canary performs slightly modified versions of the songs it learned during the preceding breeding season.

+. Information in the passage suggests that the author would most li!ely regard which one ofthe following as C%AS' important in future research on neurogenesis in humans8

(A) research on possible similarities between the neurological structures of humans andcanaries

() studies that compare the ratio of brain weight to body weight in canaries to that inhumans

(") neurological research on the genes or hormones that activate neurogenesis in the brain of human infants

(#) studies about the ways in which longterm memory functions in the human brain

(%) research concerning the processes by which humans learn complicated tas!s

. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the e0planation proposed by the author in the third paragraph8

(A) A number of songbird species related to the canary have a shorter life span than thecanary and do not e0perience neurogenesis.

() 'he brain si*e of several types of airborne birds with life spans similar to those ofcanaries has been shown to vary according to a twoyear cycle of neurogenesis.

(") Several species of airborne birds similar to canaries in si*e are !nown to have brains thatare substantially heavier than the canary6s brain.

(#) Individual canaries that have largerthanaverage repertoires of songs tend to have better



developed muscles for flying.

(%) Individual canaries with smaller and lighter brains than the average tend to retain asmallerthanaverage repertoire of songs.

3. 'he use of the word vocabulary/ (line &+) serves primarily to

(A) demonstrate the presence of a rudimentary grammatical structure in canary song

() point out a similarity between the patterned groupings of sounds in a canary6s song andthe syllabic structures of words

(") stress the stability and uniformity of canary6s song throughout its lifetime

(#) suggest a similarity between the possession of a repertoire of words among humans anda repertoire of songs among canaries

(%) imply that the comple0ity of the canary6s song repertoire is e4ual to that of humanlanguage

2. According to the passage, which one of the following factors may help account for theoccurrence of neurogenesis in canaries8

(A) the life span of the average canary() the process by which canaries learn songs

(") the fre4uency of canary breeding seasons

(#) the number of regions in the canary brain related to song learning

(%) the amount of time an average canary needs to learn a repertoire of songs

7. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the third paragraph8

(A) A theory is presented, analy*ed, and modified, and a $ustification for the modification isoffer.

() esearch results are advanced and reconciled with results from other studies, and ashared principle is described.

(") esearch results are presented, further details are provided, and a hypothesis is offered toe0plain the results.

(#) esearch results are reported, their implications are e0plained, and an application to arelated field is proposed.

(%) esearch results are reported, their significance is clarified, and they are reconciled with previously established neurological tenets.

. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most li!ely describe the currentunderstanding of neurogenesis as

(A) e0haustive

() progressive

(") incomplete

(#) anti4uated

(%) incorrect

5or too many years scholars of *frican *merican history focused on the harm done #yslaveholders and #y the institution of slavery, rather than on %hat *fricans in the UnitedStates %ere a#le to accomplish despite the eects of that institution. In %yne ,)ne -round,

!. H. reen and Stephen Innes contri#ute signicantly to a recent, %elcome shift from a%hite'centered to a #lac('centered in"uiry into the role of *frican *mericans in the *merican



colonial period. reen and Innes focus not on slaves, #ut on a small group of freedindentured servants in :orthampton Aounty ;in the Ahesapea(e ay region of irginia= %ho,according to the authors, maintained their freedom, secured property, and interacted %ithpersons of dierent races and economic standing from /1@2 through the /12s. *frican*mericans living on the Ahesapea(e %ere to some e-tent disadvantaged, say reen andInnes, #ut this did not preclude the attainment of status roughly e"ual to that of certain

%hite planters of the area. Aontinuously acting %ithin #lac( social net%or(s, and formingeconomic relationships %ith %hite planters, local :ative *mericans, indentured servants, and%hite settlers outside the gentry class, the free *frican *mericans of :orthampton Aountyheld their o%n in the rough'he%n %orld of Ahesapea(e ay.

!he authors emphasi&e that in this early period, %hen the percentage of *frican*mericans in any given Ahesapea(e county %as still no more than /2 percent of thepopulation, very little %as predetermined so far as racial status or race relations %ereconcerned. y schooling themselves in the local legal process and #y %or(ing prodigiouslyon the land, *frican *mericans ac"uired property, esta#lished families, and %arded ocontentious %hite neigh#ors. reen and Innes do ac(no%ledge that political po%er on theAhesapea(e %as asymmetrically distri#uted among #lac( and %hite residents. Ho%ever,they underemphasi&e much evidence that customary la%, only gradually em#odies instatutory la%, %as closing in on free *frican *mericans %ell #efore the /12sC during the

/112s, %hen the proportion of *frican *mericans in irginia increased dramatically, irginiatightened a la% regulating interracial relations ;/11@= and enacted a statute prohi#iting#aptism from altering slave status ;/11=. *nthony Fohnson, a leader in the community offree *frican *mericans in the Ahesapea(e ay region, sold the land he had cultivated formore than t%enty years and moved north %ith his family around /11<, an action that theauthors attri#ute to a search for +fresh, more productive land. ut the ans%er to %hy the

Fohnsons left that area %here they had la#ored so long may lie in their reali&ation that their%hite neigh#ors %ere already #eginning the transition from a largely %hite indentured la#orforce to reliance on a largely #lac( slave la#or force, and that the institution of slavery %asthreatening their descendants’ chances for freedom and success in irginia.

-. 'he author of the passage ob$ects to many scholarly studies of African American history forwhich one of the following reasons8

(A) 'heir emphases have been on statutory law rather than on customary law.() 'hey have ignored specific historical situations and personages in favor of broad

interpretations.

(") 'hey have focused on the least eventful periods in African American history.

(#) 'hey have underemphasi*ed the economic system that was the basis of the institution ofslavery.

(%) 'hey have failed to focus to a sufficient e0tent on the achievements of AfricanAmericans.

1:. ;hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the relationship between the African American population and the law in the "hesapea!e ay region of

Eirginia etween 123: and 127:8(A) 'he laws affecting blac! citi*ens were embodies in statutes much more gradually than

were lays affecting white citi*ens.

() As the percentage of blac! citi*ens in the population grew, the legal restrictions placedon them also increased.

(") ecause of discriminatory laws, blac! farmers suffered more economic setbac!s than didwhite farmers.



(#) ecause of legal constraints on hiring indentured servants, blac! farmers faced a chroniclabor shortage on their farms.

(%) 'he adherence to customary law was more rigid in regions with relatively large numbersof free blac! citi*ens.

11. 'he author of the passage most probably refers to Anthony Bohnson and his family in order

to

(A) provide a specific e0ample of the potential shortcomings of reen and Innes6interpretation of historical events

() provide a specific e0ample of relevant data overloo!ed by reen and Innes in theirdiscussion of historical events

(") provide a specific e0ample of data that reen and Innes might profitably have used in proving their thesis

(#) argue that the standard interpretation of historical events is superior to reen and Innes6revisionist interpretation

(%) argue that a new historiographical method is needed to provide a full and coherent

reading of historical events

1&. 'he attitude of the author of the passage toward reen and Innes6 study can best bedescribed as one of

(A) condescending dismissal

() wholehearted acceptance

(") contentious challenge

(#) 4ualified approval

(%) sincere pu**lement


(A) summari*e previous interpretations() advocate a new approach

(") propose and then illustrate a thesis

(#) present and evaluate an interpretation

(%) describe a historical event

$ate nineteenth'century #oo(s a#out the 5rench artist 8atteau ;/1BJ'/@/= #etray acurious #lind spotC more than any single artist #efore or since, 8atteau provided his age %ithan in4uential image of itself, and nineteenth'century %riters accepted this image asgenuine. !his %as largely due to the enterprise of 8atteau’s friends %ho, soon after hisdeath, organi&ed the printing of engraved reproductions of the great #ul( of his %or(3#othhis paintings and his dra%ings3so that 8atteau’s total artistic output #ecame and continued

to #e more accessi#le than that of any other artist until the t%entieth'century advent of artmonographs illustrated %ith photographs. !hese engravings presented aristocratic ;and%ould'#e aristocratic= eighteenth'century 5rench society %ith an image of itself that %ashighly accepta#le and %idely imitate #y other artists, ho%ever little relationship that image#ore to reality. y /BBJ, the #icentenary of 8atteau’s #irth, it %as standard practice for#iographers to refer to him as +the personication of the %itty and amia#le eighteenthcentury.

In fact, 8atteau sa% little enough of that +%itty and amia#le century for %hich so muchnostalgia %as generally felt #et%een a#out /B2 and /0@2, a period during %hich



enthusiasm for the artist reached its pea(. !he eighteenth century’s rst decades, theperiod of his artistic activity, %ere fairly calamitous ones. 9uring his short life, 5rance %asalmost continually at %arC his native region %as overrun %ith foreign troops, and 7aris %asthreatened #y siege and #y a rampaging army ra##le. !he dreadful %inter of /20, the yearof 8atteau’s rst 7aris successes, %as mar(ed #y military defeat and a disastrous famine.

)ost of 8atteau’s nineteenth'century admirers simply ignored the grim #ac(ground of

the %or(s they found so lyrical and charming. !hose %ho too( the inconvenient historicalfacts into consideration did so only in order to refute the %idely held deterministic vie% thatthe content and style of an artist’s %or( %ere a#solutely dictated #y heredity andenvironment. ;5or 8atteau admirers, such determinism %as unthin(a#leC the artist %as #ornin a 5lemish to%n only si- years after it rst #ecame part of 5rance, yet 8atteau %as"uintessentially 5rench. *s one patriotic 5rench #iographer put it, +In 9reden, 7otsdam, anderlin I have never come across a 8atteau %ithout feeling refreshed #y a #reath of nativeair. Even such %riters, ho%ever, persisted in according 8atteau’s canvases a privilegedstatus as representative +personications of the eighteenth century. !he discrepancy#et%een historical fact and artistic vision, useful in refuting the e-treme deterministicposition, merely forced these %riters to see( a ne% formula that allo%ed them to preservethe desired identity #et%een image and reality, this time a rather suspiciously psychic oneC8atteau did not record the society he (ne%, #ut rather +foresa% a society that developed

shortly after his death.1. ;hich one of the following best describes the overall organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A particular phenomenon is discussed, the reasons that it is atypical are put forward, andthese reasons are evaluated and refined.

() An assumption is made, results deriving from it are compared with what is !nown to betrue, and the assumption is finally re$ected as counterfactual.

(") A point of view is described, one hypothesis accounting for it is introduced and re$ected,and a better hypothesis is offered for consideration.

(#) A general characteri*ation is offered, e0amples supporting it are introduced, and itsspecial applicability to a particular group is asserted.

(%) A particular viewpoint is e0plained, its shortcomings are discussed, and its persistence inthe face of these is noted.

13. 'he passage suggests that latenineteenthcentury biographers of ;atteau considered theeighteenth century to be witty and amiable/ in large part because of

(A) what they saw as ;atteau6s typical eighteenthcentury talent for transcending realitythrough art

() their opposition to the determinism that dominated latenineteenthcentury Drenchthought

(") a lac! of access to historical source material concerning the early eighteenth century inDrance

(#) the nature of the image conveyed by the wor!s of ;atteau and his many imitators(%) their political bias in favor of aristocratic regimes and societies

12. According to the passage, e0planations of artistic production based on determinism wereunthin!able to ;atteau admirers for which one of the following reasons8

(A) If such e0planations were widely accepted, too many people who would otherwise haveadmired ;atteau would cease to appreciate ;atteau6s wor!s.

() If such e0planations were adopted, they would ma!e it difficult for ;atteau admirers to



e0plain why ;atteau6s wor!s were purchased and admired by foreigners.

(") If such e0planations were correct, many artists who, li!e ;atteau, considered themselvesDrench would have to e0cluded from histories of Drench art.

(#) If such simple e0planations were offered, other more comple0 arguments concerningwhat made ;atteau6s wor!s especially charming would go une0plored.

(%) If such e0planations were true, ;atteau6s wor!s would reflect a Dlemish/ sensibilityrather than the especially Drench/ one these admirers saw in them.

17. 'he phrase curious blind spot/ (line & +) can best be interpreted as referring to which oneof the following8

(A) some biographers6 persistent inability to appreciate what the author considers a particularly admirable e4uality

() certain writers6 surprising lac! of awareness of what the author considers an obviousdiscrepancy

(") some writers6 willful refusal to evaluate properly what the author considers a valuablesource of information about the past

(#) an ine0plicable tendency on the part of some writers to undervalue an artist whom theauthor considers e0tremely influential

(%) a mar!ed bias in favor of a certain painter and a concomitant pre$udice againstcontemporaries the author considers e4ually talented

1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author6s view of ;atteau6s wor!s differs mostsignificantly from that of most latenineteencentury ;atteau admirers in which one of thefollowing ways8

(A) Unli!e most latenineteenthcentury ;atteau admirers, the author appreciates theimportance of ;atteau6s artistic accomplishment.

() 'he author finds ;atteau6s wor!s to be much less lyrical and charming than did most

latenineteenthcentury admirers of the wor!s.(") In contrast to most latenineteenthcentury ;atteau admirers, the author finds it

misleading to see ;atteau6s wor!s as accurately reflecting social reality.

(#) 'he author is much more willing to entertain deterministic e0planations of the origins of;atteau6s wor!s than were most latenineteenthcentury ;atteau admirers.

(%) Unli!e most latenineteenthcentury admirers of ;atteau, the author considers itimpossible for any wor! of art to personify or represent a particular historical period.

1-. 'he author asserts that during the period of ;atteau6s artistic activity Drench society wase0periencing which one of the following8

(A) widespread social upheaval caused by war

() a pervasive sense of nostalgia for an ideali*ed past

(") increased domination of public affairs by a powerful aristocracy

(#) rapid adoption by the middle classes of aristocratic manners and lifestyle

(%) a need to reconcile the Drench selfimage with Drench social realities

&:. 'he information given in the passage suggests that which one of the following principlesaccurately characteri*es the relationship between an artist6s wor! and the impact it is li!elyto have on a society8



(A) An artist6s recognition by society is most directly determined by the degree to which hisor her wor!s are perceived as lyrical and charming.

() An artist will have the greatest influence on a society that values art particularly highly.

(") 'he wor!s of an artist who captures the true and essential nature of a given society will probably have a great impact on that society.

(#) 'he degree of influence an artist6s vision will have on a society is conditional on thevisibility of the artist6s wor!.

(%) An artist who is much imitate by contemporaries will usually fail to have an impact on asociety unless the imitators are talented.

5aced %ith the pro#lems of insu6cient evidence, of con4icting evidence, and ofevidence relayed through the 4a%ed perceptual, retentive, and narrative a#ilities of%itnesses, a jury is forced to dra% inferences in its attempt to ascertain the truth. yapplying the same cognitive tools they have developed and used over a lifetime, jurorsengage in the inferential e-ercise that la%yers call fact'nding. In certain decision'ma(ingconte-ts that are relevant to the trial of la%suits, ho%ever, these normally relia#le cognitivetools may cause jurors to commit inferential errors that distort rather than reveal the truth.

*lthough juries can ma(e a variety of inferential errors, most of these mista(es in judgment involve the dra%ing of an un%arranted conclusion from the evidence, that is,deciding that the evidence proves something that, in reality, it does not prove. 5or e-ample,evidence that the defendant in a criminal prosecution has a prior conviction may encourage

jurors to presume the defendant’s guilt, #ecause of their preconception that a personpreviously convicted of a crime must #e inclined to%ard repeated criminal #ehavior. !hatcommonly held #elief is at least a partial distortion of reality> not all former convicts engagein repeated criminal #ehavior. *lso, jury may give more pro#ative %eight than o#jectiveanalysis %ould allo% to vivid photographic evidence depicting a shooting victim’s %ounds, ormay underestimate the %eight of defense testimony that is not delivered in a su6cientlyforceful or persuasive manner. 5inally, comple- or voluminous evidence might #e soconfusing to a jury that its mem#ers %ould dra% totally un%arranted conclusions or evenignore the evidence entirely.

Decent empirical research in cognitive psychology suggests that people tend to commitinferential errors li(e these under certain predicta#le circumstances. y e-amining theavaila#le information, the situation, and the type of decision #eing made, cognitivepsychologists can descri#e the (inds of inferential errors a person or group is li(ely to ma(e.

!hese patterns of human decision'ma(ing may provide the courts %ith a guide to evaluatingthe eect of evidence on the relia#ility of the jury’s inferential processes in certainsituations.

!he notion that juries can commit inferential errors that jeopardi&e the accuracy of thefact'nding process is not un(no%n to the courts. In fact, one of a presiding judge’s duties isto minimi&e jury inferential error through e-planation and clarication. :onetheless, most

judges no% employ only a limited and primitive concept of jury inferential errorC limited#ecause it fails to recogni&e the potential for error outside certain traditional situations,primitive #ecause it ignores the research and conclusions of psychologists in favor of notions

a#out human cognition held #y la%yers.&1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) ;hen ma!ing decisions in certain predictable situations, $uries may commit inferentialerrors that obscure rather than reveal the truth.

() 'he views of human cognition ta!en by cognitive psychologists on the one hand and bythe legal profession on the other are demonstrably dissimilar.

(") ;hen confronting powerful preconceptions, particularly shoc!ing evidence, or comple0,



situation, $urors ma!e errors in $udgment.

(#) 'he problem of inferential error by $uries is typical of the difficulties with cognitive processes that people face in their everyday lives.

(%) Buries would probably ma!e more reliable decisions if cognitive psychologists, ratherthan $udges, instructed them about the problems inherent in drawing unwarranted

conclusions.

&&. 5f the following hypothetical reforms in trial procedure, which one would the author bemost li!ely to support as the best way to address the problem of $ury inferential error8

(A) a move away from $ury trial

() the institution of minimum formal educational re4uirements for $urors

(") the development of strict guidelines for defense testimony

(#) specific training for $udges in the area of $ury instruction

(%) restrictions on lawyers6 use of psychological research

&+. In the second paragraph, the author6s primary purpose is to

(A) refute the idea that the factfinding process is a complicated e0ercise() emphasi*e how carefully evidence must be presented in order to avoid $ury inferential

error

(") e0plain how commonly held beliefs affect the $ury6s ability to ascertain the truth

(#) provide e0amples of situations that may precipitate $ury errors

(%) recommend a method for minimi*ing mista!es by $uries

&. ;hich one of the following best describes the author6s attitude toward the ma$ority of $udgestoday8

(A) apprehensive about whether they are consistent in their instruction of $uries

() doubtful of their ability to draw consistently correct conclusions based on the evidence

(") critical of their failure to ta!e into account potentially helpful research

(#) pessimistic about their willingness to ma!e significant changes in trial procedure

(%) concerned about their allowing the presentation of comple0 and voluminous evidence inthe courtroom

&3. ;hich one of the following statements, if true, would most seriously undermine the author6ssuggestion about the use of current psychological research in the courtroom8

(A) All guidelines about human behavior must ta!e account of variations in the patterns ofhuman decisionma!ing.

() "urrent models of how humans ma!e decisions apply reliably to individuals but do not

hold for decisions made by groups.(") 'he current conception of $ury inferential error employed by $udges has been in use fornearly a century.

(#) Inferential errors can be more easily predicted in controlled situations such as the trial of lawsuits than in other !inds of decisionma!ing processes.

(%) In certain predictable circumstances, $uries are less susceptible to inferential errors thanthey are in other circumstances.



&2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to agree with whichone of the following generali*ations about lawyers8

(A) 'hey have a less sophisticated understanding of human cognition than do psychologists.

() 'hey often present comple0 or voluminous information merely in order to confuse a $ury.

(") 'hey are no better at ma!ing logical inferences from the testimony at a trial than aremost $udges.

(#) 'hey have wor!ed to help $udges minimi*e $ury inferential error.

(%) 'hey are unrealistic about the ability of $urors to ascertain the truth.

&7. 'he author would be most li!ely to agree with which one of the following generali*ationsabout a $ury6s decisionma!ing process8

(A) 'he more evidence that a $ury has, the more li!ely it is that the $ury will reach a reliableverdict.

() Buries usually overestimate the value of visual evidence such as photographs.

(") Burors have preconceptions about the behavior of defendants that prevent them fromma!ing an ob$ective analysis of the evidence in a criminal trial.

(#) <ost of the $urors who ma!e inferential errors during a trial do so because they areunaccustomed to having to ma!e difficult decisions based on inferences.

(%) 'he manner in which evidence is presented to a $ury may influence the $ury either tooverestimate or to underestimate the value of that evidence.

LSAT 15 SECTION III






sheet.

It is a fundamental tenet of geophysics that the Earth’s magnetic eld can e-ist in eitherof t%o polarity statesC a +normal state, in %hich north'see(ing compass needles point to thegeographic north, and a +reverse state, in %hich they point to the geographic south.Geological evidence sho%s that periodically the eld’s polarity reverses, and that thesereversals have #een ta(ing place at an increasing rate. Evidence also indicates that the elddoes not reverse instantaneously from one polarity state to another> rather, the processinvolves a transition period that typically spans a fe% thousand years.

!hough this much is (no%n, the underlying causes of the reversal phenomenon are not%ell understood. It is generally accepted that the magnetic eld itself is generated #y themotion of free electrons in the outer core, a slo%ly churning mass of molten metal

sand%iched #et%een the Earth’s mantle ;the region of the Earth’s interior lying #elo% thecrust= and its solid inner core. In some %ay that is not completely understood, gravity andthe Earth’s rotation, acting on temperature and density dierences %ithin the outer core4uid, provide the driving forces #ehind the generation of the eld. !he reversal phenomenonmay #e triggered %hen something distur#s the heat circulation pattern of the outer core4uid, and %ith it the magnetic eld.

Several e-planations for this phenomenon have #een proposed. ne proposal, the +heat'transfer hypothesis, is that the triggering process is intimately related to the %ay the outercore vents its heat into the mantle. 5or e-ample, such heat transfer could create hotter



;rising= or cooler ;descending= #lo#s of material from the inner and outer #oundaries of the4uid core, there#y pertur#ing the main heat'circulation pattern. * more controversialalternative proposal is the asteroid'impact hypothesis. In this scenario an e-tended period of cold and dar(ness results from the impact of an asteroid large enough to send a great cloudof dust into the atmosphere. 5ollo%ing this climatic change, ocean temperatures drop andthe polar ice caps gro%, redistri#uting the Earth’s sea%ater. !his redistri#ution increases the

rotational acceleration of the mantle, causing friction and tur#ulence near the outer core'mantle #oundary and initiating reversal of the magnetic eld.

Ho% %ell do these hypotheses account for such o#servations as the long'term increasein the fre"uency of reversalL In support of the asteroid'impact model, it had #een arguedthat the gradual cooling of the average ocean temperature %ould ena#le progressivelysmaller asteroid impacts ;%hich are (no%n to occur more fre"uently than larger impacts= tocool the Earth’s climate su6ciently to induce ice'cap gro%th and reversals. ut theories thatdepend on e-traterrestrial intervention seem less convincing than theories li(e the rst,%hich account for the phenomenon solely #y means of the thermodynamic state of the outercore and its eect on the mantle.

1. ;hich one of the following statements regarding the %arth6s outer core is best supported byinformation presented in the passage8

(A) eat circulation in the outer core controls the growth and diminution of the polar icecaps.

() Impact of asteroids on the %arth6s surface alters the way in which the outer core vents itsheat into the mantle.

(") <otion of electrons within the metallic fluid in the outer core produces the %arth6smagnetic field.

(#) Driction and turbulence near the boundary between the outer core and the mantle aretypically caused by asteroid impacts.

(%) "essation of heat circulation within the outer core brings on multiple reversals in the%arth6s magnetic field.

&. 'he author6s ob$ection to the second hypothesis discussed in the passage is most applicableto which one of the following e0planations concerning the e0tinction of the dinosaurs8

(A) 'he e0tinction of the dinosaurs was the result of gradual changes in the composition ofthe %arth6s atmosphere that occurred over millions of years.

() 'he dinosaurs became e0tinct when their food supply was disrupted following theemergence of mammals.

(") 'he dinosaurs succumbed to the new, colder environment brought about by a buildup ofvolcanic ash in the atmosphere.

(#) After massively overpopulation the planet, dinosaurs disappeared due to widespreadstarvation and the rapid spread of disease.

(%) After radical climatic changes resulted from the impact of a comet, dinosaursdisappeared from the %arth.

+. 'he author mentions the creation of blobs of different temperatures in the %arth6s outer core(lines ++) primarily in order to

(A) present a way in which the venting of heat from the outer core might disturb the heatcirculation pattern within the outer core

() provide proof for the proposal that ventilation of heat from the outer core into the mantle



triggers polarity reversal

(") give an e0ample of the way in which heat circulates between the %arth6s outer core andthe %arth6s e0terior

(#) describe how the outer core maintains its temperature by venting its e0cess heat into the%arth6s mantle

(%) argue in favor of the theory that heat circulation in the %arth6s interior produces themagnetic field

. ;hich one of the following statements regarding the polarity of the %arth6s magnetic field is best supported by information in the passage8

(A) <ost, but not all, geophysicists agree that the %arth6s magnetic field may e0ist in twodistinct polarity states.

() "hanges in the polarity of the %arth6s magnetic field have occurred more often in therecent past that in the distant past.

(") eat transfer would cause reversals of the polarity of the %arth6s magnetic field to occurmore 4uic!ly than would asteroid impact.

(#) 9eophysicists6 understanding of the reversal of the %arth6s magnetic field has increasedsignificantly since the introduction of the heattransfer hypothesis.

(%) Driction near the boundary of the inner and outer cores brings on reversal of the polarityof the geomagnetic field.

3. ;hich one of the following can be inferred regarding the two proposals discussed in the passage8

(A) Since their introduction they have sharply divided the scientific community.

() oth were formulated in order to e0plain changes in the fre4uency of polarity reversal.

(") Although no firm conclusions regarding them have yet been reached, both have beene0tensively investigated.

(#) 'hey are not the only proposals scientists have put forward to e0plain the phenomenonof polarity reversal.

(%) oth were introduced some time ago and have since fallen into disfavor amonggeophysicists.

2. 'he author mentions each of the following as possible contributing causes to reversals of the%arth6s magnetic field %?"%='

(A) changes in the way heat circulates within the outer core fluid

() e0tended periods of colder temperatures on the %arth6s surface

(") the creation of circulation blobs of outer core material of different temperatures

(#) changes in circulation patterns in the %arth6s oceans(%) clouding of the %arth6s atmosphere by a large amount of dust

Innovations in language are never completely ne%. 8hen the %ords used for familiarthings change, or %ords for ne% things enter the language, they are usually #orro%ed oradapted from stoc(. *ssuming ne% roles, they drag their old meanings along #ehind themli(e 4ic(ering shado%. !his seems especially true of the language of the contemporaryschool of literary criticism that no% prefers to descri#e its %or( simply and ratherpresumptuously as theory #ut is still popularly referred to as poststructuralism ofdeconstruction.



!he rst neologisms adopted #y this movement %ere signier and signied, employed todistinguish ar#itrariness of the term %e choose. !he use of these particular terms ;ratherthan, respectively, )ords and thing= underlined the seriousness of the naming process andits claim on our attention. Since in English +to signify can also mean +to portend, theseterms also suggest that %ords predict coming events.

8ith the use of the term deconstruction %e move into another and more comple- realm

of meaning. !he most common use of the terms construction and deconstruction is in the#uilding trades, and their #orro%ing #y literary theorists for a ne% type of criticism cannothelp #ut have certain overtones to the outsider. 5irst, the usage suggests that the creationand critical interpretation of literature are not organic #ut mechanical processes> that theauthor of any piece of %riting is not an inspired, intuitive artist, #ut merely a la#orer %hoco##les e-isting materials ;%ords= into more or less conventional structures. !he termdeconstruction implies that the te-t has #een put together li(e a #uilding or a piece ofmachinery, and that it is in need of #eing ta(en apart, not so much in order to repair it as todemonstrate underlying inade"uacies, false assumptions, and inherent contradictions. !hisprocess can supposedly #e repeated many times and #y many literary hard hats> it ise-pected that each deconstruction %ill reveal additional 4a%s and e-pose the illusions or#ad faith of the #uilder. !he fact that deconstructionists prefer to descri#e their activities asdeconstruction rather than criticism is also revealing. +riticism and critic derive from the

Gree( .riti/os, +s(illful in judging, decisive. 9econstruction, on the other hand, has noovertones of s(ill or %isdom> it merely suggests demolition of an e-isting #uilding. In popularusage criticism suggests censure #ut not change. If %e nd fault %ith a #uilding, %e maycondemn it, #ut %e do not carry out the demolition ourselves. !he deconstructionist, #yimplication, is #oth judge and e-ecutioner %ho leaves a te-t totally dismantled, if notreduced to a pile of ru##le.


(A) Implicit in the terminology of the school of criticism !nown as deconstruction aremeanings that reveal the true nature of the deconstructionist6s endeavor.

() 'he appearance of the terms signifier and signified in the field of literary theoryanticipated the appearance of an even more radical idea !nown as deconstruction.

(") Innovations in language and relations between old and new meanings of terms are aspecial concern of the new school of criticism !nown as deconstruction.

(#) #econstructionists maintain that it is insufficient merely to $udge a wor!@ the critic mustactively dismantle it.

(%) =rogress in the field of literary theory is best achieved by loo!ing for new terms li!e signifier and deconstruction that might suggest new critical approaches to a wor!.

. ;hich one of the following is a claim that the author of the passage ma!es aboutdeconstructionists8

(A) #econstructionists would not have been able to formulate their views ade4uatelywithout the terms signifier and signified .

() #econstructionists had no particular purpose in mind in choosing to use neologisms.(") #econstructionists do not recogni*e that their own theory contains inherent

contradictions.

(#) #econstructionists find little interest in the relationship between words and theirreferents.

(%) #econstructionists use the terms signifier and signified to stress the importance of the process of naming.



-. ;hich one of the following generali*ations about inventions is most analogous to theauthor6s point about innovation in language8

(A) A new invention usually consists of components that are specifically manufactured forthe new invention.

() A new invention is usually behind the times, never ma!ing as much use of all the

available modern technology as it could.(") A new invention usually consists of components that are already available but are made

to function in new ways.

(#) A new invention is most useful when it is created with attention to the historical traditionestablished by implements previously used to do the same $ob.

(%) A new invention is rarely used to its full potential because it is surrounded by outofdatetechnology that hinder its application.

1:. 'he author of the passage uses the word criticism/ in lines 232 primarily in order to

(A) give an e0ample

() introduce a contrast

(") undermine an argument

(#) codify a system

(%) dismiss an ob$ection

11. ;hich one of the following best describes the function of the second paragraph within the passage as a whole8

(A) It introduces a hypothesis that the author later e0pands upon.

() It 4ualifies a claim made earlier by the author.

(") It develops an initial e0ample of the author6s general thesis.

(#) It predicts a development.

(%) It presents a contrasting view.

1&. 'he passage suggests that the author most probably holds the view that an importantcharacteristic of literary criticism is that it

(A) demonstrate false assumptions and inherent contradictions

() employ s!ill and insight

(") be carried out by one critic rather than many

(#) reveal how a te0t is put together li!e a building

(%) point out the superiority of conventional te0t structures

1+. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following most accurately describes the author6s

view of deconstructionist thought8(A) 'he author is guardedly optimistic about the ability of deconstruction to reveal the

intentions and biases of a writer.

() 'he author endorses the utility of deconstruction for revealing the role of older meaningsof words.

(") 'he author is enthusiastic about the significant neologisms that deconstruction hasintroduced into literary criticism.



(#) 'he author regards deconstruction6s tendency to focus only on the problems and faults of literary te0ts as too mechanical.

(%) 'he author condemns deconstruction6s attempts to define literary criticism as a creativeact.

;!he follo%ing passage %as %ritten in /0B1=

!he legislation of a country recently considered a #ill designed to reduce the uncertaintyinherent in the o%nership of art #y specifying certain conditions that must #e met #efore anallegedly stolen %or( of art can #e reclaimed #y a plainti. !he #ill places the #urden ofproof in reclamation litigation entirely on the plainti, %ho must demonstrate that the holderof an item (ne% at the time of purchase that it had #een stolen. *dditionally, the #ill createsa uniform national statute of limitations for reclamation of stolen cultural property.

!estifying in support of the #ill, Fames 9, ur(e, a citi&en of the country and one of itsleading art museum directors, specially praised the inclusion of a statute of limitations>other%ise, he said, other countries could see( to reclaim valua#le art o#jects, no matter ho%long they have #een held #y the current o%ner or ho% legitimately they %ere ac"uired. *nycountry could enact a patrimony la% stating that anything ever made %ithin the #oundariesof that country is its cultural property. ur(e e-pressed the fear that lead to ruinous legaldefense costs for museums.

Ho%ever, #ecause such reclamation suits have not yet #een a pro#lem, there is little#asis for ur(e’s concern. In fact, the proposed legislation %ould esta#lish too manyunjustia#le #arriers to the location and recovery of stolen o#jects. !he main #arrier is thatthe #ill considers the announcement of an art transaction in a museum pu#lication to #eade"uate evidence of an attempt to notify a possi#le o%ner. !here are far too many suchpu#lications for the victim of a theft to survey, and %ith only this form of disclosure, a stoleno#ject could easily remain unlocated even if assiduously searched for. *nother stipulationre"uires that a purchaser sho% the o#ject to a scholar for verication that it is not stolen,#ut it is a rare academic %ho is a%are of any #ut the most pu#lici&ed art thefts. )oreover,the time limit specied #y the statute of limitations is very short, and the re"uirement thatthe plainti demonstrate that the holder had (no%ledge of the theft is unrealistic. !ypically,stolen art changes hands several times #efore rising to the level in the mar(etplace %here acurator or collector %ould see it. *t that point, the o#ject #ears no trace of the initialtransaction #et%een the thief and the rst purchaser, perhaps the only one in the chain %ho(no%ingly ac"uired a stolen %or( of art.

!hus, the need for ne% legislation to protect holders of art is not o#vious. Dather, %hat isnecessary is legislation remedying the di6culties that legitimate o%ners of %or(s of art, andcountries from %hich such %or(s have #een stolen, have in locating and reclaiming thesestolen %or(s.

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately summari*es the main point of the passage8

(A) Earious legal disputes have recently arisen that demonstrate the need for legislationclarifying the legal position of museums in suits involving the repossession of cultural property.

() A bill intended to prevent other governments from recovering cultural property wasrecently introduced into the legislature of a country at the behest of its museumdirectors.

(") A bill intended to protect goodfaith purchasers of wor!s of art from reclamationlitigation is unnecessary and fails to address the needs of legitimate owners attemptingto recover stolen art wor!s.

(#) "lashes between museum professionals and members of the academic communityregarding governmental legislation of the arts can best be resolved by negotiation and



arbitration, not by litigation.

(%) 'he desire of some governments to use legislation and litigation to recover cultural property stolen from their countries has led to abuses in international patrimonylegislation.

13. 'he uncertainty mentioned in line & of the passage refers to the

(A) doubt that owners of wor!s of art often harbor over whether individuals have a moralright to possess great art

() concern that owners of wor!s of art often have that their possession of such ob$ects may be legally challenged at any time

(") 4uestions that owners of wor!s of art often have concerning the correct identification ofthe age and origin of their ob$ects

(#) disputes that often arise between cultural institutions vying for the opportunity to purchase a wor! of art

(%) apprehension that owners of wor!s of art often feel concerning the possibility that theirob$ects may be damaged or stolen from them

12. ;hich one of the following is an e0ample of the !ind of action that ur!e feared would posea serious threat to museums in his country8

(A) the passage of a law by another country forbidding the future e0port of anyarchaeological ob$ects uncovered at sites within its territory

() an international accord establishing strict criteria for determining whether a wor! of artcan be considered stolen and specifying the circumstances under which it must bereturned to its country of origin

(") the passage of a law by another country declaring that all ob$ects created by itsaboriginal people are the sole property of that country

(#) an increase in the ac4uisition of culturally significant wor!s of art by private collectors,

who are more capable than museums of bearing the cost of litigation but who rarelydisplay their collections to the public

(%) the recommendation of a United >ations committee studying the problem of art theftthat all international sales of cultural property be coordinated by a central regulatory body

17. According to the passage, ur!e envisaged the most formidable potential adversaries of hiscountry6s museums in reclamation litigation to be

(A) commercial dealers in art

() law enforcement officials in his own country

(") governments of other countries

(#) private collectors of art

(%) museums in other countries

1. 'he author suggests that in the country mentioned in line 1, litigation involving thereclamation of stolen wor!s of art has been

(A) less common than ur!e fears it will become without passage of a national stature oflimitations for reclamation of stolen cultural property

() increasing as a result of the passage of legislation that aids legitimate owners of art in



their attempts to recover stolen wor!s

(") a serious threat to museums and cultural institutions that have unwittingly added stolenartifacts to their collections

(#) a signal of the legitimate frustrations of victims of at theft

(%) increasing as a result of an increase in the amount of art theft

1-. ;hich one of the following best describes the author6s attitude towards the proposed bill8

(A) impassioned support

() measured advocacy

(") fearful apprehension

(#) reasoned opposition

(%) reluctant approval

&:. ;hich one of the following best e0emplifies the sort of legislation considered necessary bythe author of the passage8

(A) a law re4uiring museums to notify foreign governments and cultural institutions of all

the catalogs and scholarly $ournals that they publish() a law providing for the creation of a national warehouse for storage of wor!s of art that

are the sub$ect of litigation

(") a law instituting a national fund for assisting museums to bear the e0penses of defendingthemselves against reclamation suits

(#) A law declaring invalid all sales of culture property during the last ten years by museumsof one country to museums of another

(%) A law re4uiring that a central archive be established for collecting and distributinginformation concerning all reported thefts of cultural property

Until recently, fe% historians %ere interested in analy&ing the similarities and dierences

#et%een serfdom in Dussia and slavery in the United States. Even *le-is de !oc"ueville, %horecogni&ed the signicant compara#ility of the t%o nations, never compared their systems of servitude, despite his interest in United States slavery. )oreover, the almost simultaneousa#olition of Dussian serfdom and United States slavery in the /B12s3a riveting coincidencethat should have dra%n more modern scholars to a comparative study of the t%o systems ofservitude3has failed to arouse the interest of scholars. !hough some historians may have#een put o #y the for#idding political dierences #et%een nineteenth'century Dussia andthe United States3one an imperial monarchy, the other a federal democracy3a recentstudy #y 7eter Kolchin identies dierences that are illuminating, especially %ith regard tothe dierent (inds of re#ellion e-hi#ited #y slaves and serfs.

Kolchin points out that no#les o%ning serfs in Dussia constituted only a tiny proportion of the population, %hile in the southern United States, a#out a "uarter of all 8hite people %eremem#ers of slave'o%ning families. *nd although in the southern United States only @

percent of slaves %or(ed on plantations %here more than a hundred slaves %or(ed, in Dussiaalmost B2 percent of the serfs %or(ed for no#les %ho o%ned more than a hundred serfs. InDussia most serfs rarely sa% their o%ners %ho tended to rely on intermediaries to managetheir estates, %hile most southern planters lived on their land and interacted %ith slaves ona regular #asis.

!hese dierences in demographics partly e-plain dierences in the (inds of resistancethat slaves and serfs practiced in their respective countries. oth serfs and slaves engagedin a %ide variety of re#ellious activity, from silent sa#otage, much of %hich has escaped thehistorical record, to organi&ed armed re#ellions, %hich %ere more common in Dussia. !he



practice of a#sentee o%nership, com#ined %ith the large num#ers in %hich serfs %ereo%ned, pro#a#ly contri#uted signicantly to the four great re#ellions that s%ept acrossDussia at roughly fty'year intervals in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. !he last of these, occurring #et%een / and /J, enlisted more than a million serfs in a futileattempt to overthro% the Dussian no#ility. Dussian serfs also participated in smaller acts ofcollective deance called the $olnenie, %hich typically started %ith a group of serfs %ho

complained of grievances #y petition and %ent out on stri(e. Aonfrontations #et%een slavesand plantation authorities %ere also common, #ut they tended to #e much less collective innature than those that occurred in Dussia, pro#a#ly in part #ecause the num#er of %or(erson each estate %as smaller in the United States than %as the case in Dussia.

&1. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) #ifferences in the demographics of United States slavery and ussian serfdom can helpe0plain the different !inds of resistance practiced by slaves and serfs in their respectivecountries.

() istorians have yet to underta!e an ade4uate comparison and contrast of ussianserfdom and United States slavery.

(") evolts by ussian serfs were commonly characteri*ed by collective action.

(#) A recent study has 4uestioned the value of comparing United States slavery to ussianserfdom, especially in light of the significant demographic and cultural differences between the two countries.

(%) #e 'oc4ueville failed to recogni*e the fundamental differences between ussian serfdomand United States slavery which more recent historians have identified.

&&. According to the author, de 'oc4ueville was similar to many modern historians in his

(A) interest in the demographic differences between ussia and the United States during thenineteenth century

() failure to underta!e a comparison of ussian serfdom and United States slavery

(") inability to e0plain why United States slavery and ussian serfdom were abolished

during the same decade

(#) overestimation of the significance of the political differences between ussia and theUnited States

(%) recognition of the essential comparability of ussia and the United States

&+. ;hich one of the following assertions, if true, would provide the most support for Golchin6s principal conclusion regarding the relationship of demographics to rebellion among ussianserfs and United States slaves8

(A) "ollective defiance by serfs during the nineteenth century was confined almoste0clusively to their participation in the olnenie.

() 'he rebellious activity of United States slaves was more li!ely to escape the historical

record than was the rebellious activity of ussian serfs.

(") 5rgani*ed rebellions by slaves in the ;estern emisphere during the nineteenth centurywere most common in colonies with large estates that normally employed more than ahundred slaves.

(#) In the southern United States during the nineteenth century, those estates that weremanaged by intermediaries rather than by the owner generally relied upon the labor ofat least a hundred slaves.



(%) 'he intermediaries who managed estates in ussia during the nineteenth century were ingeneral much more competent as managers than the owners of the estates that theymanaged.

&. 'he fact that United States slavery and ussian serfdom were abolished during the samedecade is cited by the author in the first paragraph primarily in order to

(A) emphasi*e that rebellions in both countries eventually led to the demise of the twoinstitutions

() cite a coincidence that de 'oc4ueville should have been able to foresee

(") suggest one reason why more historians should have been drawn to a comparative studyof the two institutions

(#) cite a coincidence that Golchin6s study has failed to e0plain ade4uately

(%) emphasi*e the underlying similarities between the two institutions

&3. 'he author cites which one of the following as a factor that might have discouragedhistorians from underta!ing a comparative study of ussian serfdom and United Statesslavery8

(A) ma$or differences in the political systems of the two countries

() ma$or differences in the demographics of the two countries

(") the failure of de 'oc4ueville to address the sub$ect

(#) differences in the si*e of the estates on which slaves and serfs labored

(%) the comprehensiveness of Golchin6s own wor!

&2. According to the passage, Golchin6s study asserts that which one of the following was trueof ussian nobles during the nineteenth century8

(A) 'hey agreed to the abolition of serfdom in the 12:s largely as a result of their having been influenced by the abolition of slavery in the United States.

() 'hey became more directly involved in the management of their estates as a result of therebellions that occurred in the previous century.

(") 'hey commonly agreed to at least some of the demands that arose out of the olnenie.

(#) 'hey had relatively little direct contact with the serfs who wor!ed on their estates.

(%) 'hey hastened the abolition of serfdom by failing to devise an effective response to thecollective nature of the serfs6 rebellious activity.

&7. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following was true of southern planters in theUnited States8

(A) 'hey were as prepared for collective protest as were their ussian counterparts.

() Dew of them owned plantations on which fewer than a hundred slaves wor!ed.

(") 'hey managed their estates more efficiently than did their ussian counterparts.

(#) Dew of them relied on intermediaries to manage their estates.

(%) 'he si*e of their estates was larger on average than the si*e of ussian estates.

LSAT 16 SECTION I








sheet.

Until the /0B2s, most scientists #elieved that noncatastrophic geological processescaused the e-tinction of dinosaurs that occurred appro-imately 11 million years ago, at the

end of the Aretaceous period. Geologists argued that a dramatic drop in sea level coincided%ith the e-tinction of the dinosaurs and could have caused the climatic changes thatresulted in this e-tinction as %ell as the e-tinction of many ocean species.

!his vie% %as seriously challenged in the /0B2s #y the discovery of large amounts ofiridium in a layer of clay deposited at the end of the Aretaceous period. ecause iridium ise-tremely rare in roc(s on the Earth’s surface #ut common in meteorites, researcherstheori&ed that it %as the impact of a large meteorite that dramatically changed the earth’sclimate and thus triggered the e-tinction of the dinosaurs.

Aurrently availa#le evidence, ho%ever, oers more support for a ne% theory, thevolcanic'eruption theory. * vast eruption of lava in India coincided %ith the e-tinctions thatoccurred at the end of the Aretaceous period, and the release of car#on dio-ide from thisepisode of volcanism could have caused the climatic change responsi#le for the demise ofthe dinosaurs. Such outpourings of lava are caused #y insta#ility in the lo%est layer of theEarth’s mantle, located just a#ove the Earth’s core. *s the roc( that constitutes this layer isheated #y the Earth’s core, it #ecomes less dense and portions of it eventually escapeup%ard as #lo#s or molten roc(, called +diapirs, that can, under certain circumstances,erupt violently through the Earth’s crust.

)oreover, the volcanic'eruption theory, li(e the impact theory, accounts for thepresence of iridium in sedimentary deposits> it also e-plains matters that the meteorite'impact theory does not. *lthough iridium is e-tremely rare on the Earth’s surface, the lo%erregions of the Earth’s mantle have roughly the same composition as meteorites and containlarge amounts of iridium, %hich in the case of a diapir eruption %ould pro#a#ly #e emittedas iridium he-a4uoride, a gas that %ould disperse more uniformly in the atmosphere thanthe iridium'containing matter thro%n out from a meteorite impact. In addition, the volcanic'eruption theory may e-plain %hy the end of the Aretaceous period %as mar(ed #y a gradualchange in sea level. 5ossil records indicate that for several hundred thousand years prior tothe relatively sudden disappearance of the dinosaurs, the level of the sea gradually fell,causing many marine organisms to die out. !his change in sea level might %ell have #eenthe result of a distortion in the Earth’s surface that resulted from the movement of diapirsup%ard to%ard the Earth’s crust, and the more cataclysmic e-tinction of the dinosaurs couldhave resulted from the e-plosive volcanism that occurred as material from the diapirserupted onto the Earth’s surface.

1. 'he passage suggests that during the 1-:s researchers found meteorite impact a convincinge0planation for the e0tinction of dinosaurs, in part because

(A) earlier theories had failed to account for the gradual e0tinction of many ocean species atthe end of the "retaceous period

() geologists had, up until that time, underestimated the amount of carbon dio0ide that

would be released during an episode of e0plosive volcanism

(") a meteorite could have served as a source of the iridium found in a layer of claydeposited at the end of the "retaceous period

(#) no theory relying on purely geological processes had, up until that time, e0plained thecause of the precipitous drop in sea level that occurred at the end of the "retaceous period

(%) the impact of a large meteorite could have resulted in the release of enough carbon



dio0ide to cause global climatic change

&. According to the passage, the lower regions of the %arth6s mantle are characteri*ed by

(A) a composition similar to that of meteorites

() the absence of elements found in roc!s on the %arth6s crust

(") a greater stability than that of the upper regions(#) the presence of large amounts of carbon dio0ide

(%) a uniformly lower density than that of the upper regions

+. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of the lava thaterupted in India at the end of the "retaceous period8

(A) It contained less carbon dio0ide than did the meteorites that were stri!ing the %arth6ssurface during that period.

() It was more dense than the molten roc!, located $ust above the %arth6s core.

(") It released enough iridium he0afluoride into the atmosphere to change the %arth6sclimate dramatically.

(#) It was richer in iridium than roc!s usually found on the %arth6s surface.(%) It was richer in iridium than were the meteorites that were stri!ing the %arth6s surface

during that period.

. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following8

(A) describing three theories and e0plaining why the latest of these appears to be the best ofthe three

() attac!ing the assumptions inherent in theories that until the 1-:s had been largelyaccepted by geologists

(") outlining the inade4uacies of three different e0planations of the same phenomenon

(#) providing concrete e0amples in support of the more general assertion that theories must

often be revised in light of new evidence

(%) citing evidence that appears to confirm the s!epticism of geologists regarding a viewheld prior to the 1-:s

3. 'he author implies that if the theory described in the third paragraph is true, which one ofthe following would have been true of iridium in the atmosphere at the end of the "retaceous period8

(A) Its level of concentration in the %arth6s atmosphere would have been high due to a slow but steady increase in the atmospheric iridium that began in the early "retaceous period.

() Its concentration in the %arth6s atmosphere would have increased due to the dramatic

decrease in sea level that occurred during the "retaceous period.

(") It would have been directly responsible for the e0tinction of many ocean species.

(#) It would have been more uniformly dispersed than iridium whose source had been theimpact of a meteorite on the %arth6s surface.

(%) It would have been more uniformly dispersed than indium released into the atmosphereas a result of normal geological processes that occur on %arth.

2. 'he passage supports which one of the following claims about the volcaniceruption theory8



(A) It does not rely on assumptions concerning the temperature of molten roc! at the lowest pan of the %arth6s mantle.

() It may e0plain what caused the gradual fall in sea level that occurred for hundreds ofthousands of years prior to the more sudden disappearance of the dinosaurs.

(") It bases its e0planation on the occurrence of periods of increased volcanic activity

similar to those shown to have caused earlier mass e0tinctions.(#) It may e0plain the relative scarcity of iridium in roc!s on the %arth6s surface compared

to its abundance in meteorites.

(%) It accounts for the relatively uneven distribution of iridium in the layer of clay depositedat the end of the "retaceous period.

7. ;hich one of the following, if true, would cast the most doubt on the theory described in thelast paragraph of the passage8

(A) Dragments of meteorites that have struc! the %arth are e0amined and found to have onlyminuscule amounts of iridium he0afluoride trapped inside of them.

() <ost diapir eruptions in the geological history of the %arth have been similar in si*e to

the one that occurred in India at the end of the "retaceous period and have not beensucceeded by periods of climatic change.

(") 'here have been several periods in the geological history of the %arth, before and afterthe "retaceous period, during which large numbers of marine species have perished.

(#) 'he fre4uency with which meteorites struc! the %arth was higher at the end of the"retaceous period than at the beginning of the period.

(%) <arine species tend to be much more vulnerable to e0tinction when e0posed to adramatic and relatively sudden change in sea level than when they are e0posed to agradual change in sea level similar to the one that preceded the e0tinction of thedinosaurs.

It has #ecome something of a truism in fol(lore studies that until recently the lore %asmore often studied than the fol(. !hat is, fol(lorists concentrated on the fol(lore3the songs,tales, and prover#s themselves3and ignored the people %ho transmitted that lore as part of their oral culture. Ho%ever, since the early /02s, fol(lore studies have #egun to regard fol(performers as people of creativity %ho are as %orthy of attention as are artists %ho transmittheir ideas in %riting. !his shift of emphasis has also encouraged a gro%ing interest in%omen fol( performers.

Until recently, fol(lorists tended to collect fol(lore from %omen on only a fe% topics suchas health and games. In other areas, as 8eigle and 5arrer have noted, if fol(lorists +had achoice #et%een a story as told #y a man or as told #y a %oman, the man’s version %aschosen. It is still too early to tell ho% profoundly this situation has changed, #ut one canpoint to several recent studies in %hich %omen performers play central roles. 7erhaps moretelling is the focus of the most recently pu#lished major fol(lore te-t#oo(, The Dynamics of

"ol/lore. 8hereas earlier te-t#oo(s gave little attention to %omen and their fol(lore, this#oo( devotes many pages to %omen fol( performers.

Decognition of %omen as important #earers of fol(lore is not entirely a recentphenomenon. *s early as /02, a fe% outstanding %omen fol( performers %ere the focus ofscholarly attention. ur the scholarship devoted to these %omen tended to focus primarilyon presenting the performer’s repertoire. Decent %or(s a#out %omen fol( artists, ho%ever,have #een more #iographically oriented. Fuha 7enti(ainen’s study of )arina !o(alo, a 5innishhealer and narrator of fol(tales, is especially e-tensive and pro#ing. !hough interested in thepro#lems of repertoire analysis, 7enti(ainen gives considera#le attention to the details of



!o(alo’s life and cultural #ac(ground, so that a full picture of a %oman and her fol(loreemerges. *nother nota#le %or( is Doger *#raham’s #oo(, %hich presents a very clearpicture of the signicance of traditional singing in the life of noted #allad singer *lmedaDiddle. Unfortunately, unli(e 7enti(ainen’s study, *#raham’s study contains little repertoireanalysis.

!hese recent #oo(s re4ect the current interest of fol(lorists in vie%ing fol(lore in conte-t

and thus ans%ering "uestions a#out %hat fol(lore means to the people %ho use it. neune-pected result of this line of study has #een the discovery that %omen may use thesame fol(lore that men use, #ut for very dierent purposes. !his reali&ation has potentialimportance for future fol(lore studies in calling greater attention to the type of studyre"uired if a fol(lorist %ants truly to understand the role fol(lore plays in a particular culture.

. ;hich one of the following best describes the main point of the passage8

(A) It is only since the early 1-7:s that fol!lore studies have begun to recogni*e women asimportant bearers of fol!lore.

() A careful analysis of the repertoires of women fol! performers has led to a newdiscovery with important implications for future fol!lore studies.

(") ecent studies of women fol! performers have focused primarily on the problems of

repertoire analysis to the e0clusion of a discussion of the culture within which thefol!lore was developed.

(#) 'he emphasis in fol!lore studies has shifted from a focus on the life and the cultural bac!ground of the fol! performers themselves to a broader understanding of the rolefol!lore plays in a culture.

(%) A change in the focus of fol!lore studies has led to increased interest in women fol! performers and to a new understanding of the importance of the conte0t in whichfol!lore is produced.

-. 'he author of the passage refers to The $ynamics of Fol%lore primarily in order to

(A) support the idea that it is too soon to tell whether or not fol!lorists are giving greater

attention to women6s fol!lore() refute ;eigle and Darrer6s contention that fol!lorists prefer to collect fol!lore from men

rather than from women

(") support the assertion that scholarship devoted to women fol! performers tends to focus primarily on repertoire

(#) present an e0ample of the new emphasis in fol!lore studies on the performer rather thanon the fol!lore

(%) suggest that there are some signs that women fol! performers are gaining increasedcritical attention in the field of fol!lore

1:. 'he focus of which one of the following boo!s would most clearly reflect the current

interest of the fol!lorists mentioned in the last paragraph8(A) an anthology of tales and songs collected e0clusively from women in different cultures

() a compilation of tales and songs from both men and women covering a great variety oftraditional and nontraditional topics

(") a study of the purpose and meaning of a tale or song for the men and women in a particular culture

(#) an analysis of one particular tale or song that documents changes in the te0t of the



fol!lore over a period of time

(%) a comparison of the creative process of performers who transmit fol!lore with that ofartists who transmit their ideas in writing

11. According to the passage, which one of the following changes has occurred in the field offol!lore since the early 1-7:s8

(A) increased recognition of the similar ways in which men and women use fol!lore

() increased recognition of fol! performers as creative individuals

(") increased emphasis on the need for repertoire analysis

(#) less emphasis on the relationship between cultural influences and fol!lore

(%) less emphasis on the individual performers and more emphasis on the meaning offol!lore to a culture

1&. It can be inferred from the passage that early fol!lorists assumed that which one of thefollowing was true8

(A) 'he people who transmitted the fol!lore did not play a creative role in the development

of that fol!lore.() 'he people who transmitted the fol!lore were not consciously aware of the way in which

they creatively shaped that fol!lore.

(") 'he te0t of a song or tale did not change as the fol!lore was transmitted from onegeneration to another.

(#) ;omen were not involved in transmitting fol!lore e0cept for songs or tales dealing witha few traditional topics.

(%) 'he meaning of a piece of fol!lore could differ depending on whether the tale or songwas transmitted by a man or by a woman.

1+. ased on the information in the passage, which one of the following is most closely

analogous to the type of fol!lore studies produced before the early 1-7:s8(A) An anthropologist studies the implements currently used by an isolated culture, but does

not investigate how the people of that culture designed and used those implements.

() A manufacturer hires a consultant to determine how e0isting e4uipment in a plant might be modified to improve efficiency, but does not as! employees for their suggestions onhow to improve efficiency.

(") A historian studies different types of documents dealing with a particular historicalevent, but decides not to review newspaper accounts written by $ournalists who livedthrough that event.

(#) An archaeologist studies the artifacts of an ancient culture to reconstruct the lifestyle ofthat culture, but does not actually visit the site where those artifacts were unearthed.

(%) An architect designs a private home for a client, but ignores many of the client6ssuggestions concerning minor details about the final design of the home.

1. 'he author of the passage uses the term conte0t/ (line 3:) to refer to

(A) a holistic assessment of a piece of fol!lore rather than a critical analysis of its parts

() a study that e0amines a piece of fol!lore in light of earlier interpretations provided byother fol!lorists



(") the parts of a piece of fol!lore that can shed light on the meaning of the entire piece

(#) the environment and circumstances in which a particular piece of fol!lore is used

(%) the location in which the story line of a piece of fol!lore is set

13. 'he author6s attitude toward oger Abraham6s boo! can best be described as one of

(A) wholehearted approval() 4ualified admiration

(") uneasy ambivalence

(#) e0treme s!epticism

(%) trenchant criticism

F. G. *. 7ococ(’s numerous investigations have all revolved around the fruitfulassumption that a %or( of political thought can only #e understood in light of the linguisticconstraints to %hich its author %as su#ject, for these prescri#ed #oth the choice of su#jectmatter and the author’s conceptuali&ation of this su#ject matter. nly the occasional epictheorist, li(e )achiavelli or Ho##es, succeeded in #rea(ing out of these #onds #y redeningold terms and inventing ne% ones. !he tas( of the modern commentator is to identify the+language or +voca#ulary %ith and %ithin %hich the author operated. 8hile historians ofliterature have al%ays #een a%are that %riters %or( %ithin particular traditions, theapplication of this notion to the history of political ideas forms a sharp contrast to theassumptions of the /0<2s, %hen it %as naively thought that the close reading of a te-t #y ananalytic philosopher %as su6cient to esta#lish its meaning, even if the philosopher had no(no%ledge of the period of the te-t’s composition.

!he language 7ococ( has most closely investigated is that of +civic humanism. 5ormuch of his career he has argued that eighteenth'century English political thought should #einterpreted as a con4ict #et%een rival versions of the +virtue central to civic humanism. nthe one hand, he argues, this virtue is descri#ed #y representatives of the !ory oppositionusing a voca#ulary of pu#lic spirit and self'su6ciency. 5or these %riters the societal ideal isthe small, independent lando%ner in the countryside. n the other hand, 8hig %ritersdescri#e such virtue using a voca#ulary of commerce and economic progress> for them theideal is the merchant.

In ma(ing such linguistic discriminations 7ococ( has disassociated himself fromhistorians li(e :amier, %ho deride all eighteenth'century English political language as+cant. ut %hile 7ococ(’s ideas have proved fertile %hen applied to England, they are morecontroversial %hen applied to the late'eighteenth'century United States. 7ococ(’s assertionthat Feerson’s attac(s on the commercial policies of the 5ederalists simply echo thelanguage of the !ory opposition in England is at odds %ith the fact that Feerson rejected theelitist implications of that group’s notion of virtue and asserted the right of all to participatein commercial society. Indeed, after promptings #y uentin S(inner, 7ococ( has admittedthat a counterlanguage3one of rights and li#erties3%as pro#a#ly as important in thepolitical discourse of the late'eighteenth'century United States as the language of civichumanism. 5ortunately, it is not necessary to ran( the relative importance of all the dierentvoca#ularies in %hich eighteenth'century political argument %as conducted. It is su6cient to

recogni&e that any interesting te-t is pro#a#ly a mi-ture of several of these voca#ularies,and to applaud the historian %ho, though guilty of some e-aggeration, has done the most toma(e us a%are of their importance.

12. 'he main idea of the passage is that

(A) civic humanism, in any of its manifestations, cannot entirely e0plain eighteenthcentury political discourse

() eighteenthcentury political te0ts are less li!ely to reflect a single vocabulary than tocombine several vocabularies



(") =ococ!6s linguistic approach, though not applicable to all eighteenthcentury politicalte0ts, provides a useful model for historians of political theory

(#) =ococ! has more successfully accounted for the nature of political thought in eighteenthcentury %ngland than in the eighteenthcentury United States

(%) =ococ!6s notion of the importance of language in political te0ts is a logical e0tension of

the insights of historians of literature

17. According to the passage, =ococ! most clearly associates the use of a vocabulary ofeconomic progress with

(A) Befferson

() Dederalists

(") %nglish ;higs

(#) %nglish 'ories rural

(%) %nglish landowners

1. 'he author6s attitude toward =ococ! is best revealed by which of the following pairs of

words8(A) fruitful/ (line &) and cant/ (line +-)

() sharp/ (line 12) and elitist/ (line 2)

(") naively/ (line 17) and controversial/ (line 1)

(#) fertile/ (line :) and applaud/ (line 2:)

(%) simply/ (line ) and importance/ (line 33)

1-. 'he passage suggests that one of the assumptions of the 1-3:s/ (line 17) regarding themeaning of a political te0t was that this meaning

(A) could be established using an approach similar to that used by literary historians

() could be definitively established without reference to the te0t6s historical bac!ground

(") could be closely read in several different ways depending on one6s philosophic approach

(#) was constrained by certain linguistic preconceptions held by the te0t6s author

(%) could be e0pressed most clearly by an analytic philosopher who had studied its historicalconte0t

&:. 'he author of the passage would most li!ely agree that which one of the following is awea!ness found in =ococ!6s wor!8

(A) the use of the term language/ to describe the e0pressive features of several diverse!inds of discourse

() the overemphatic denigration of the role of the analytic philosopher in establishing the

meaning of a political, or indeed any, te0t(") the emphasis on the overriding importance of civic humanism in eighteenthcentury%nglish political thought

(#) the insistence on a single linguistic dichotomy to account for political thought ineighteenthcentury %ngland and the United States

(%) the assignment of certain vocabularies to particular parties in eighteenthcentury %nglandwithout ta!ing note of how these vocabularies overlapped




(A) A description of a thesis is offered, specific cases are considered, and an evaluation isgiven.

() A thesis is brought forward, the thesis is 4ualified, and evidence that calls the4ualification into 4uestion is stated.

(") A hypothesis is described, e0amples that suggest it is incorrect are summari*ed, andsupporting e0amples are offered.

(#) A series of evaluations are given, concrete reasons are put forward, and a future directionfor research is suggested.

(%) "omparisons and contrasts are made, some categories of evaluation are suggested, and aframewor! for applying these categories is implied.

In /01J the United States federal government #egan attempts to eliminate racialdiscrimination in employment and %agesC the United States Aongress enacted !itle II of theAivil Dights *ct, prohi#iting employers from ma(ing employment decisions on the #asis ofrace. In /01< 7resident Fohnson issued E-ecutive rder //,@J1, %hich prohi#iteddiscrimination #y United States government contractors and emphasi&ed direct monitoring

of minority representation in contractors’ %or( forces.:onetheless, proponents of the +continuous change hypothesis #elieve that United

States federal la% had a marginal impact on the economic progress made #y #lac( people inthe United States #et%een /0J2 and /0<. Instead they emphasi&e slo%ly evolving historicalforces, such as long'term trends in education that improved segregated schools for #lac(students during the /0J2s and %ere operative during and after the /012s. !hey argue thatas the "uality of #lac( schools improved relative to that of %hite schools, the earningpotential of those attending #lac( schools increased relative to the earning potential of thoseattending %hite schools.

Ho%ever, there is no direct evidence lin(ing increased "uality of underfundedsegregated #lac( schools to these improvements in earning potential. In fact, even theevidence on relative schooling "uality is am#iguous. *lthough in the mid'/0J2s term lengthat #lac( schools %as approaching that in %hite schools, the rapid gro%th in another

important measure of school "uality, school e-penditures, may #e e-plained #y increases inteachers’ salaries, and historically, such increases have not necessarily increased school"uality. 5inally, #lac( individuals in all age groups, even those %ho had #een educated atsegregated schools #efore the /0J2s, e-perienced post'/012 increases in their earningpotential. If improvements in the "uality of schooling %ere an important determinant ofincreased returns, only those %or(ers %ho could have #eneted from enhanced school"uality should have received higher returns. !he relative improvement in the earningpotential of educated #lac( people of all age groups in the United States is more consistent%ith a decline in employment discrimination.

*n additional pro#lem for continuity theorists is ho% to e-plain the rapid acceleration of#lac( economic progress in the United States after /01J. Education alone cannot account forthe rate of change. Dather, the coincidence of increased United States governmentantidiscrimination pressure in the mid'/012s %ith the acceleration in the rate of #lac(economic progress #eginning in /01< argues against the continuity theorists’ vie%. !rue,correlating federal intervention and the acceleration of #lac( economic progress might #eincorrect. ne could argue that changing altitudes a#out employment discriminationspar(ed #oth the adoption of ne% federal policies and the rapid acceleration in #lac(economic progress. Indeed, the shift in national attitude that made possi#le the enactmentof !itle II %as in part produced #y the persistence of racial discrimination in the southernUnited States. Ho%ever, the fact that the la% had its greatest eect in the South, in spite ofthe vigorous resistance of many Southern leaders, suggests its importance for #lac(economic progress.



&&. According to the passage, 'itle EII of the 1-2 "ivil ights Act differs from %0ecutive5rder 11. &2 in that 'itle EII

(A) monitors employers to ensure minority representation

() assesses the wor! forces of government contractors

(") eliminates discriminatory disparities in wages

(#) focuses on determining minority representation in government

(%) governs hiring practices in a wider variety of wor!places

&+. ;hich one of the following statements about schooling in the United States during the mid1-:s can be inferred from the passage8

(A) School e0penditures decreased for white schools.

() 'he teachers in white schools had more time to cover material during a school year thandid teachers in blac! schools.

(") 'he basic curriculum of white schools was similar to the curriculum at blac! schools.

(#) ;hite schools did not change substantially in 4uality.

(%) Although the salaries of teachers in blac! schools increased, they did not !eep pace withthe salaries of teachers in white schools.

&. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) e0plain why an argument about blac! economic progress is incomplete

() describe the impact of education on blac! economic progress

(") refute an argument about the factors influencing blac! economic progress

(#) describe blac! economic progress before and after the 1-2:s

(%) clarify the current view about the factors influencing blac! economic progress

&3. ;hich one of the following best states the position of proponents of the continuouschange/ hypothesis regarding the relationship between law and racial discrimination8

(A) Individuals cannot be forced by legal means to behave in nondiscriminatory ways.

() #iscriminatory practices in education have been effectively altered by legal means.

(") Cegislation alone has had little effect on racially discriminatory behavior.

(#) Cegislation is necessary, but not sufficient, to achieve changes in racial altitudes.

(%) Cegislation can only e0acerbate conflicts about racially discriminatory behavior.

&2. 'he author concedes that correlating federal intervention and the acceleration of blac!economic progress might be incorrect/ (lines 32:) primarily in order to

(A) strengthen the overall argument by anticipating an ob$ection

() introduce another factor that may have influenced blac! economic progress

(") concede a point to the continuity theorists

(#) change the overall argument in light of the views of the continuity theorists

(%) introduce a discussion about the impact of federal intervention on discrimination

&7. 'he continuous change/ hypothesis, as it is presented in the passage, can best be applied towhich one of the following situations8

(A) omes are found for many lowincome families because the government funds a pro$ectto build subsidi*ed housing in an economically depressed area.



() A depressed economy does not cause the closing of small businesses in a localcommunity because the government provides special grants to aid these businesses.

(") Unemployed people are able to obtain $obs because private contractors receive ta0incentives for constructing office buildings in an area with a high unemployment rate.

(#) A housing shortage is remedied because the changing state of the economy permits

private investors to finance construction in a depressed area.(%) A community6s sanitation needs are met because neighborhood organi*ations lobby

aggressively for government assistance.

LSAT 17 SECTION I






sheet.

5or the poet 7hilips 8hitely, %ho %as #rought to colonial :e% England as a slave in/1/, the formal literary code of eighteenth'century English %as thrice removedC #y theinitial #arrier of the unfamiliar English language, #y the discrepancy #et%een spo(en andliterary forms of English, and #y the *frican tradition of oral rather than %ritten ver#al art.8heatley transcended these #arriers3she learned the English language and English literaryforms so "uic(ly and %ell that she %as composing good poetry in English %ithin a fe% yearsof her arrival in :e% England.

8heatley’s e-perience e-emplies the meeting of oral and %ritten literary cultures. !heaesthetic principles of the *frican oral tradition %ere preserved in *merica #y fol( artists in%or( songs, dancing, eld hollers, religious music, the use of the drum, and, after the drum%as for#idden, in the perpetuation of drum eects in song. *frican languages and thefunctions of language in *frican societies not only contri#uted to the emergence of adistinctive lac( English #ut also e-erted demonstra#le eects on the manner in %hich other

*mericans spo(e English. Given her *frican heritage and her facility %ith English and theconventions of English poetry, 8heatley’s %or( had the potential to apply the ideas of a%ritten literature to an oral literary tradition in the creation of an *frican *merican literarylanguage.

ut this %as a potential that her poetry unfortunately did not e-ploit. !he standards ofeighteenth'century English poetry, %hich itself re4ected little of the *merican language, led8heatley to develop a notion of poetry as a closed system, derived from imitation of earlier%ritten %or(s. :o place e-isted for the rough'and'ready *mericani&ed English she heard inthe streets, for the English spo(en #y lac( people, or for *fricanisms. !he conventions ofeighteenth'century neoclassical poetry ruled out casual tal(> her choice and feelings had to#e generali&ed according to rules of poetic diction and characteri&ation> the particulars ofher *frican past, if they %ere to #e dealt %ith at all, had to #e su#ordinated to the reigningconventions. *frican poetry did not count as poetry in her ne% situation, and *frican

aesthetic canons %ere irrelevant to the ne% conte-t #ecause no linguistic or socialframe%or( e-isted to reinforce them. 8heatley adopted a foreign language and a foreignliterary tradition> they %ere not e-tensions of her past e-perience, #ut replacements.

!hus limited #y the eighteenth'century English literary code, 8heatley’s poetrycontri#uted little to the development of a distinctive *frican *merican literary language. ?et#y the standards of the literary conventions in %hich she chose to %or(, 8heatley’s poetry isundenia#ly accomplished, and she is justly cele#rated as the rst lac( *merican poet.




(A) Dol! artists employed more principles of African oral tradition in their wor!s than did=hillis ;heatley in her poetry.

() Although =hillis ;heatley had to overcome significant barriers in learning %nglish, shemastered the literary conventions of eighteencentury %nglish as well as Africanaesthetic canons.

(") =hillis ;heatley6s poetry did not fulfill the potential inherent in her e0perience but didrepresent a significant accomplishment.

(#) 'he evolution of a distinctive African American literary language can be traced from thecreations of African American fol! artists to the poetry of =hillis ;heatley.

(%) =hillis ;heatley $oined with African American fol! artists in preserving the principles of the African oral tradition.

&. 'he approach to poetry ta!en by a modernday Italian immigrant in America would be mostanalogous to =hillis ;heatley6s approach, as it is described in the passage, if the immigrant

(A) translated Italian literary forms into the American idiom

() combined Italian and American literary traditions into a new form of poetic e0pression

(") contributed to the development of a distinctive Italian American literary style

(#) defined artistic e0pression in terms of eighteenthcentury Italian poetic conventions

(%) adopted the language and forms of modern American poetry

+. According to the passage, African languages had a notable influence on

(A) the religious music of colonists in >ew %ngland

() the fol! art of colonists in >ew %ngland

(") formal written %nglish

(#) American speech patterns

(%) eighteencentury aesthetic principles

. y a closed system/ of poetry (line ++3), the author most probably means poetry that

(A) cannot be written by those who are not raised !nowing its conventions

() has little influence on the way language is actually spo!en

(") substitutes its own conventions for the aesthetic principles of the past

(#) does not admit the use of street language and casual tal!

(%) is ultimately re$ected because its conventions leave little room for further development

3. According to the passage, the standards of eighteenth century %nglish poetry permitted;heatley to include which one of the following in her poetry8

(A) generali*ed feelings

() Americani*ed %nglish(") themes from fol! art

(#) casual tal!

(%) lac! speech

2. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most wea!en the author6s argument concerningthe role that ;heatley played in the evolution of an African American literary language8

(A) ;heatley6s poetry was admired in %ngland for its faithfulness to the conventions of



neoclassical poetry.

() ;heatley compiled a history in %nglish of her family6s e0periences in Africa andAmerica.

(") 'he language barriers that ;heatley overcame were eventually transcended by all whowere brought from Africa as slaves.

(#) Several modern African American poets ac!nowledge the importance of ;heatley6s poetry to American literature.

(%) Scholars trace themes and e0pressions in African American poetry bac! to the poetry of;heatley.

7. It can be inferred that the author of the passage would most probably have praised =hillis;heatley6s poetry more if it had

(A) affected the manner in which slaves and freed lac! people spo!e %nglish

() defined African American artistic e0pression in terms of earlier wor!s

(") adopted the standards of eighteenthcentury %nglish poetry

(#) combined elements of the %nglish literary tradition with those of the African oraltradition

(%) focused on the barriers that written %nglish literary forms presented to lac! artists

. ;hich one of the following most accurately characteri*es the author6s attitude with respectto =hillis ;heatley6s literary accomplishments8

(A) enthusiastic advocacy

() 4ualified admiration

(") dispassionate impartiality

(#) detached ambivalence

(%) perfunctory dismissal

ne scientic discipline, during its early stages of development, is often related toanother as an antithesis to its thesis. !he thesis discipline tend to concern itself %ithdiscovery and classication of phenomena, to oer holistic e-planations emphasi&ingpattern and form, and to use e-isting theory to e-plain the %idest possi#le range ofphenomena. !he paired or antidiscipline, on the other hand, can #e characteri&ed #y a morefocused approach, concentrating on the units of construction, and #y a #elief that thediscipline can #e reformulated in terms of the issues and e-planations of the antidiscipline.

!he relationship of cytology ;cell #iology= to #iochemistry in the late nineteenth century,%hen #oth disciplines %ere gro%ing at a rapid pace, e-emplies such a pattern. Desearchersin cell #iology found mounting evidence of an intricate cell architecture. !hey also deducedthe mysterious choreography of the chromosomes during cell division. )any #iochemists, onthe other hand, remained s(eptical of the idea that so much structure e-isted, arguing thatthe chemical reactions that occur in cytological preparations might create the appearance of

such structures. *lso, they stood apart from the de#ate then raging over %hetherprotoplasm, the comple- of living material %ithin a cell, is homogeneous, net%or(li(e,granular, or foamli(e. !heir interest lay in the core +fundamental issues of the chemicalnature of protoplasm, especially the ne%ly formulated en&yme theory of life.

In general, #iochemists judged cytologists to #e too ignorant of chemistry to grasp the#asic processes, %hereas cytologists considered the methods of #iochemists inade"uate tocharacteri&e the structures of the living cell. !he rene%al of )endelian genetics and, later,progress in chromosome mapping did little at rst to eect a synthesis.

oth sides %ere essentially correct. iochemistry has more than justied its e-travagant



early claims #y e-plaining so much of the cellular machinery. ut in achieving this feat;mostly since /0<2= it has #een partially transformed into the ne% discipline of molecular#iology3#iochemistry that deals %ith spatial arrangements and movements of largemolecules. *t the same time cytology has metamorphosed into modern cellular #iology.*ided #y electron microscopy, it has #ecome more similar in language and outloo( tomolecular #iology. !he interaction of a discipline and its antidiscipline has moved #oth

sciences to%ard a synthesis, namely molecular genetics. !his interaction #et%een paired disciplines can have important results. In the case of late nineteenth'century cell research, progress %as fueled #y competition among the variousattitudes and issues derived from cell #iology and #iochemistry. Foseph 5ruton, a #iochemist,has suggested that such competition and the resulting tensions among researchers are aprincipal source of vitality and +are li(ely to lead to une-pected and e-citing novelties in thefuture, as they have in the past.

-. ;hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage8

(A) Antithetical scientific disciplines can both stimulate and hinder one another6s research incomple0 ways.

() Antithetical scientific disciplines often interact with one another in ways that can be

highly useful.(") As disciplines such as cytology and biochemistry advance, their interaction necessarilyleads to a synthesis of their approaches.

(#) "ell research in the late nineteenth century was plagued by disagreements betweencytologists and biochemists.

(%) In the late nineteenth century, cytologists and biochemists made many valuablediscoveries that advanced scientific understanding of the cell.

1:. 'he passage states that in the late nineteenth century cytologists deduced the

(A) maps of chromosomes

() chemical nature of protoplasm

(") spatial relationship of molecules within the cell(#) role of en*ymes in biological processes

(%) se4uence of the movement of chromosomes during cell division

11. It can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century the debate over thestructural nature of protoplasm (line &3&-) was most li!ely carried on

(A) among cytologists

() among biochemists

(") between cytologists and biochemists

(#) between cytologists and geneticists

(%) between biochemists and geneticists1&. According to the passage, cytologists in the late nineteenth century were critical of the cell

research of biochemists because cytologists believed that

(A) the methods of biochemistry were inade4uate to account for all of the chemical reactionsthat occurred in cytological preparations

() the methods of biochemistry could not ade4uately discover and e0plain the structures ofliving cells



(") biochemists were not interested in the nature of protoplasm

(#) biochemists were not interested in cell division

(%) biochemists were too ignorant of cytology to understand the basic processes of the cell

1+. 'he author 4uotes Druton (lines 2&2) primarily in order to

(A) restate the author6s own conclusions() provide new evidence about the relationship of cytology to biochemistry

(") summari*e the position of the biochemists described in the passage

(#) illustrate the difficulties encountered in the synthesis of disciplines

(%) emphasi*e the ascendancy of the theories of biochemists over those of cytologists

1. ;hich one of the following inferences about when the en*yme theory of life was formulatedcan be drawn from the passage8

(A) 'he theory was formulated before the appearance of molecular biology.

() 'he theory was formulated before the initial discovery of cell architecture.

(") 'he theory was formulated after the completion of chromosome mapping.

(#) 'he theory was formulated after a synthesis of the ideas of cytologists and biochemistshad occurred.

(%) 'he theory was formulated at the same time as the beginning of the debate over thenature of protoplasm.

13. ;hich one of the following statements about cells is most compatible with the views of latenineteenthcentury biochemists as those views are described in the passage8

(A) 'he secret of cell function resides in the structure of the cell.

() 5nly by discovering the chemical composition of protoplasm can the processes of thecell be understood.

(") Scientific !nowledge about the chemical composition of the cell can help to e0plain behavioral patterns in organisms.

(#) 'he most important issue to be resolved with regard to the cell is determining the physical characteristics of protoplasm.

(%) 'he methods of chemistry must be supplemented before a full account of the cell6sstructures can be made.

12. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the material presented in the passage8

(A) An account of a process is given, and then the reason for its occurrence is stated.

() A set of e0amples is provided and then a conclusion is drawn from them.

(") A general proposition is stated, and then an e0ample is given.(#) A statement of principles is made, and then a rationale for them is debated.

(%) A problem is analy*ed, and then a possible solution is discussed.

!here are t%o major systems of criminal procedure in the modern %orld3the adversarialand the in"uisitorial. oth systems %ere historically preceded #y the system of privatevengeance in %hich the victim of a crime fashioned a remedy and administered it privately,either personally or through an agent.

!he modern adversarial system is only one historical step removed from the private



vengeance system and still remains some of its characteristic feature. 5or e-ample, eventhough the right to initiate legal action against a criminal has no% #een e-tended to allmem#ers of society ;as represented #y the o6ce of the pu#lic prosecutor=, and even thoughthe police department has eectively assumed the pretrial investigative functions on #ehalfof the prosecution, the adversarial system still leaves the defendant to conduct his or hero%n pretrial investigation. !he trial is vie%s as a forensic duel #et%een t%o adversaries,

presided over #y a judge %ho, at the start, has no (no%ledge of the investigative#ac(ground of the case. In the nal analysis the adversarial system of criminal proceduresym#oli&es and regulari&es punitive com#at.

y contrast, the in"uisitorial system #egins historically %here the adversarial systemstopped its development. It is t%o historical steps removed from the system of privatevengeance. 5rom the standpoint of legal anthropology, then, it is historically superior to theadversarial system. Under the in"uisitorial system, the pu#lic prosecutor has the duty toinvestigate not just on #ehalf of society #ut also on #ehalf of the defendant. *dditionally, thepu#lic prosecutor has the duty to present the court not only evidence that %ould convict thedefendant, #ut also evidence that could prove the defendant’s innocence. !he systemmandates that #oth parties permit full pretrial discovery of the evidence in their possession.5inally, an aspect of the system that ma(es the trial less li(e a duel #et%een t%o adversarialparties is that the in"uisitorial system mandates that the judge ta(e an active part in the

conduct of the trial, %ith a role that is #oth directive and protective.5act'nding is at the heart of the in"uisitorial system. !his system operate on the

philosophical premise that in a criminal action the crucial factor is the #ody of facts, not thelegal rule ;in contrast to the adversarial system =, and the goal of the entire procedure is toattempt to recreate, in the mind of the court, the commission of the alleged crime.

ecause of the in"uisitorial system’s thoroughness in conducting its pretrialinvestigation, it can #e concluded that, if given the choice, a defendant %ho is innocent%ould prefer to #e tried under the in"uisitorial system, %hereas a defendant %ho is guilty%ould prefer to #e tried under the adversarial system.

17. It can be inferred from the passage that the crucial factor in a trial under the adversarialsystem is

(A) rules of legality

() dramatic reenactments of the crime

(") the search for relevant facts

(#) the victim6s personal pursuit of revenge

(%) police testimony about the crime

1. 'he author sees the $udge6s primary role in a trial under the in4uisitorial system as that of

(A) passive observer

() biased referee

(") uninvolved administrator

(#) aggressive investigator

(%) involved manager

1-. According to the passage, a central distinction between the system of private vengeance andthe two modern criminal procedure systems was the shift in responsibility for initiating legalaction against a criminal from the

(A) defendant to the courts

() victim to society

(") defendant to the prosecutor



(#) courts to a law enforcement agency

(%) victim to the $udge

&:. All of the following are characteristics of the in4uisitorial system that the author cites%?"%='

(A) It is based on cooperation rather than conflict.

() It encourages full disclosure of evidence.

(") It re4uires that the $udge play an active role in the conduct of the trial.

(#) It places the defendant in charge of his or her defense.

(%) It favors the innocent.

&1. 'he author6s attitude toward the in4uisitorial system can best be described as

(A) doubtful that its $udges can be both directive and protective

() satisfied that it has potential for uncovering the relevant facts in a case

(") optimistic that it will replace the adversarial system

(#) wary about its downplaying of legal rules

(%) critical of its close relationship with the private vengeance system

utside the medical profession, there are various eorts to cut medicine do%n to si&eCnot only %idespread malpractice litigation and massive governmental regulation, #ut alsoattempts #y consumer groups and others to redene medicine as a trade rather than as aprofession, and the physician as merely a technician for hire under contract. 8hy shouldphysicians ;or indeed all sensi#le people= resist such eorts to give the practice of medicinea ne% meaningL 8e can gain some illumination from etymology. +!rade, from Germanic and*nglo'Sa-on roots meaning +a course or path%ay, has come to mean derivatively aha#itual occupation and has #een related to certain s(ills and crafts. n the other hand,%hile +profession today also entails a ha#it of %or(, the %ord +profession itself traces to anact of self'conscious and pu#lic3even confessional3speech. +!o profess preserves themeaning of its $atin source, to declare pu#licly> to announce, a6rm, avo%. * profession is

an activity or occupation to %hich its practitioner pu#licly professes, that is, confesses,devotion. ut pu#lic announcement seems insu6cient> pu#licly declaring devotion toplum#ing or auto repair %ould not turn these trades into professions.

Some #elieve that learning and (no%ledge are the diagnostic signs of a profession. 5orreasons pro#a#ly lin(ed to the medieval university, the term +profession has #een appliedto the so'called learned professions3medicine, la%, and theology3the practices of %hichare founded upon in"uiry and (no%ledge rather than mere +(no% ho%. ?et it is not only thepursuit and ac"uisition of (no%ledge that ma(es one a professional. !he (no%ledge involvedma(es the profession one of the learned variety, #ut its professional "uality is rooted insomething else.

Some mista(enly see( to locate that something else in the prestige and honor accordedprofessionals #y society, evidenced in their special titles and the special deference andprivileges they receive. ut e-ternalities do not constitute medicine a profession. 7hysicians

are not professionals #ecause they are honored> rather, they are honored #ecause of theirprofession. !heir titles and the respect they are sho%n supercially signify and ac(no%ledgesomething deeper, that physicians are persons of the professional sort, (no%ingly and freelydevoting themselves to a %ay of life %orthy of such devotion. Fust as la%yers devotethemselves to rectifying injustices, loo(ing up to %hat is la%ful and right> just as teachersdevote themselves to the education of the young, loo(ing up to truth and %isdom> sophysicians heal the sic(, loo(ing up to health and %holesomeness. eing a professional isthus rooted in our moral nature and in that %hich %arrants and impels ma(ing a pu#licconfession to a %ay of life.



7rofessing oneself a professional is an ethical act #ecause it is not a silent and privateact, #ut an articulated and pu#lic one> #ecause it promised continuing devotion to a %ay oflife, not merely announces a present preference or a %ay to a livelihood> #ecause it is anactivity in service to some high good that insists on devotion> #ecause it is di6cult anddemanding. * profession engages one’s character and heart, not merely one’s mind andhands.

&&. According to the author, which one of the following is re4uired in order that one be a professional8

(A) significant prestige and a title

() !nowhow/ in a particular field

(") a long and difficult educational endeavor

(#) a commitment to political $ustice

(%) a public confession of devotion to a way of life

&+. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point made by the author in the passage8

(A) <edicine is defined as a profession because of the etymology of the word profession/.() It is a mista!e to pay special honor to the !nowledge and s!ills of physicians.

(") 'he wor! of physicians is under attac! only because it is widely misunderstood.

(#) 'he correct reason that physicians are professionals is that their wor! involves publiccommitment to a high good.

(%) =hysicians have been encouraged to thin! of themselves as technicians and need toreorient themselves toward ethical concerns.

&. 'he 4uestion posed by the author in lines 71: of the passage introduces which one of thefollowing8

(A) the author6s belief that it is futile to resist the trend toward defining the physician6s wor!

as a trade() the author6s disli!e of governmental regulation and consumer advocacy

(") the author6s in4uiry into the nature of the practice of medicine

(#) the author6s suggestions for rallying sensible people to a concentrated defense of physicians

(%) the author6s fascination with the origins of words

&3. In the passage, the author mentions or suggests all of the following %?"%='

(A) how society generally treats physicians

() that the practice of medicine is analogous to teaching

(") that being a professional is in part a public act

(#) the specific !nowledge on which trades are based

(%) how a livelihood is different from a profession

&2. 'he author6s attitude toward professionals is best described as

(A) eager that the wor! of one group of professionals, physicians, be viewed from a new perspective

() sympathetic toward professionals who have become demorali*ed by public opinion







(A) limited by any individual $uror6s tendency to draw inferences from the facts presentedduring the trial

() overwhelmed by the collective pool of recalled evidentiary perceptions

(") unaffected by the process of trying to reenact the event leading to the trial

(#) dependent upon the $ury6s ability to understand the influence of the abstraction process

on testimony

(%) sub$ect to the same limitations of perception and memory that affect witnesses

3. ;ith which one of the following statements would the author most li!ely agree8

(A) If deliberate untruthfulness were all the courts had to contend with, $ury trials would befairer than they are today.

() Cac! of moral standards is more of an impediment to a fair trial than human frailty.

(") 'he bul! of the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process are innocently presented and rarely have any serious conse4uences.

(#) If the inaccuracies resulting from the abstraction process persist, the present trialby$urysystem is li!ely to become a thing of the past.

(%) 5nce intentional falsification of evidence is eliminated from trials, ensuring an accurate presentation of facts will easily follow.

2. 'he author6s attitude toward the abstraction process that occurs when witnesses testify in atrial can best be described as

(A) confident that witnesses can be conditioned to overcome many limitations of memory

() concerned that it may undermine witnesses ability to accurately describe the originalevent in dispute

(") critical of witnesses6 motivations when delivering testimony

(#) indifferent toward the effect the abstraction process has on testimony

(%) suspicious of witnesses6 efforts to describe remembered events truthfully7. 9iven the information in the passage, the actual event that is disputed in a $ury trial is most

li!e

(A) a group of $ob applicants that is narrowed down to a few finalists

() a sub$ect that is photographed from varied and increasingly distant vantage points

(") scraps of fabric that are sewn together to ma!e an intricately designed 4uilt

(#) a pu**le that is unsystematically assembled through trial and error

(%) a lie that is compounded by additional lies in order to be maintained

* medical article once pointed %ith great alarm to an increase in cancer among mil(drin(ers. Aancer, it seems, %as #ecoming increasingly fre"uent in :e% England, )innesota,

8isconsin, and S%it&erland, %here a lot of mil( is produced and consumed, %hile remainingrare in Aeylon, %here mil( is scarce. 5or further evidence it %as pointed out that cancer %asless fre"uent in some states of the southern United States %here less mil( %as consumed.*lso, it %as pointed out, mil('drin(ing English %omen get some (inds of cancer eighteentimes as fre"uently as Fapanese %omen %ho seldom drin( mil(.

* little digging might uncover "uite a num#er of %ays to account for these gures, #utone factor is enough #y itself to sho% them up. Aancer is predominantly a disease thatstri(es in middle life or after. S%it&erland and the states of the United States mentioned rstare ali(e in having populations %ith relatively long spans of life. English %omen at the time



the study %as made %ere living an average of t%elve years longer than Fapanese %omen.

7rofessor Helen ). 8al(er has %or(ed out an amusing illustration of the folly inassuming there must #e cause and eect %henever t%o things vary together. Ininvestigating the relationship #et%een age and some physical characteristics of %omen,#egin #y measuring the angle of the feet in %al(ing. ?ou %ill nd that the angle tends to #egreater among older %omen. ?ou might rst consider %hether this indicates that %omen

gro% older #ecause they toe out, and you can see immediately that this is ridiculous. So itappears that age increases the angle #et%een the feet, and most %omen must come to toeout more as they gro% older.

*ny such conclusion is pro#a#ly false and certainly un%arranted. ?ou could only reach itlegitimately #y studying the same %omen3or possi#ly e"uivalent groups3over a period oftime. !hat %ould eliminate the factor responsi#le here, %hich is that the older %omen gre%up at a time %hen a young lady %as taught to toe out in %al(ing, %hile the mem#ers of theyounger group %ere learning posture in a day %hen that %as discouraged.

8hen you nd some#ody3usually an interested party3ma(ing a fuss a#out acorrelation, loo( rst of all to see if it is not one of this type, produced #y the stream ofevents, the trend of the times. In our time it is easy to sho% a positive correlation #et%eenany pair of things li(e theseC num#er of students in college, num#er of inmates in mentalinstitutions, consumption of cigarettes, incidence of heart disease, use of T'ray machines,

production of false teeth, salaries of Aalifornia school teachers, prots of :evada gam#linghalls. !o call some one of these the cause of some other is manifestly silly. ut it is doneevery day.

. 'he author6s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women wal!indicates he believes that

(A) toeing out is associated with aging

() toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation

(") toeing out was fashionable for an older generation

(#) studying e4uivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age

(%) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age

-. 'he author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines &-:) inorder to

(A) illustrate a folly

() show how social attitudes toward posture change

(") e0plain the effects of aging

(#) illustrate a medical problem

(%) offer a method to determine a woman6s age from her footprints

1:. 9iven the author6s statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show ahigh positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements

%?"%='(A) loo! for an e0planation in the stream of events

() consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions

(") account for the correlations in some way other than causality

(#) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect

(%) decide whether the conclusions have been reached legitimately and the appropriategroupings have been made



11. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and individualearnings. 9iven this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the followingstatements about the causeeffect relationship between college attendance and income8

(A) Someone6s potential earnings may be affected by other variables, li!e wealth orintelligence, that are also associated with college attendance.

() Someone who attends graduate school will be rich.(") Someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does

not.

(#) Someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attendcollege.

(%) Someone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attendcollege.

1&. According to the author, =rofessor ;al!er believes that

(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not

() most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet

(") older women tend to wal! with a greater angle between the feet

(#) toeing out is the reason why women grow old

(%) a causal relationship must e0ist whenever two things vary together

1+. 'he author would re$ect all the following statements about causeeffect relationships ase0planations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates %?"%=' that the

(A) "eylonese drin! more mil! than the %nglish

() Swiss produce and consume large 4uantities of dairy products

(") ;omen of >ew %ngland drin! more mil! than the women who live in some states of thesouthern United States

(#) =eople of ;isconsin have relatively high life e0pectancies(%) =eople who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life

e0pectancies

1. ow would the author be most li!ely to e0plain the correlation between the salaries of"alifornia school teachers Mand theN profits of >evada gambling halls/ (Cines 2+2)8

(A) 'here is a positive correlation that is probably due to "alifornia teachers6 wor!ing in CasEegas on wee!ends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and >evada6s gambling profits.

() 'here is a positive correlation that is probably lin!ed to general economic trends, but nodirect causal relationship e0ists.

(") 'here is a negative correlation that is probably lin!ed to general economic trends, but nodirect causal relationship e0ists.

(#) 'here is a negative correlation because the element that controls Cas Eegas gambling probably has agents in the "alifornia school system.

(%) 'he author would deny the e0istence of any correlation whatsoever.

In most developed countries, men have higher salaries, on average, than %omen. )uchof the salary dierential results from the tendency of %omen to #e in lo%er'payingoccupations. !he "uestion of %hether this occupational employment pattern can #e



attri#uted to se- discrimination is a comple- one. In fact, %age dierentials amongoccupations are the norm rather than the e-ception. Successful athletes commonly earnmore than :o#el 7ri&e'%inning academics> gifted artists often cannot earn enough tosurvive, %hile mediocre investment #an(ers prosper. Given such dierences, the "uestionnaturally arisesC talent and a#ility #eing e"ual, %hy does anyone3man or %oman3enter alo%'paying occupationL ne o#vious ans%er is personal choice. *n individual may prefer, for

e-ample, to teach math at a modest salary rather than to #ecome a more highly paidelectrical engineer.

Some people argue that personal choice also e-plains se-'related %age dierentials.*ccording to this e-planation, many %omen, #ecause they place a high priority on parenting and performing household services, choose certain careers in %hich they are free to enterand leave the %or( force %ith minimum penalty. !hey may choose to ac"uire s(ills, such astyping and salescler(ing, that do not depreciate rapidly %ith temporary a#sences from the%or( force. !hey may avoid occupational specialties that re"uire e-tensive training periods,long and unpredicta#le hours, and %illingness to relocate, all of %hich ma(e speciali&ation indomestic activities pro#lematic. y choosing to invest less in developing their careerpotential and to e-pend less eort outside the home, %omen must, according to thise-planation, pay a price in the form of lo%er salaries. ut %omen cannot #e considered thevictims of discrimination #ecause they prefer the lo%er'paying occupations to higher'paying

ones.*n alternative e-planation for se-'related %age dierentials is that %omen do not

voluntarily choose lo%er'paying occupations #ut are forced into them #y employers andsocial prejudices. *ccording to proponents of this vie%, employers %ho discriminate mayrefuse to hire "ualied %omen for relatively high'paying occupations. )ore generally, su#tlesociety'%ide prejudices may induce %omen to avoid certain occupations in favor of othersthat are considered more suita#le. Indeed, the +choice of %omen to speciali&e in parentingand performing household services may itself result from these su#tle prejudices. 8hetherthe discrimination is #y employers in a particular occupation or #y society as a %hole isirrelevant> the eect %ill #e the same. 5urther, if such discrimination does occur, %omene-cluded from certain occupations %ill 4ood others, and this increase in supply %ill have adepressing eect on %ages in occupations dominated #y %omen.

13. ;hich one of the following is the best little for the passage8(A) ;age #ifferentials etween <en and ;omen

() ;omen in Cow=aying 5ccupations@ #o 'hey ave a "hoice8

(") Se0 #iscrimination in the ;or!place

(#) 'he ole of Social =re$udice in ;omen6s "areers

(%) ome vs. 5ffice@ how #oes the <odern ;oman "hoose8

12. In stating that Successful athletes commonly earn more than >obel =ri*ewinningacademics/ (lines 1:11), the author6s primary purpose is to

(A) demonstrate that education has little to do with ma!ing money

() suggest that people with talent and ability should not enter lowpaying occupations

(") show that highly paid occupations generally re4uire long hours and e0tensive training

(#) imply that a person can be successful and still not ma!e much money

(%) give an e0ample of how certain occupations are better paid than others regardless ofinherent worth or talent re4uired

17. ;hich one of the following cases is least li!ely to involve se0 discrimination, as it isdescribed in the passage8

(A) An employer hires a man rather than an e4ually 4ualified woman.



() A woman chooses to enter a highpaying occupation that uses her talent and ability.

(") A woman chooses an occupation that is already dominated by women.

(#) A woman chooses a lowpaying $ob that allows her to devote more time to her family.

(%) A woman chooses to avoid the pressure of being in an occupation not consideredsuitable/ for women.

1. =roponents of the alternative e0planation/ (line 2) argue that

(A) employers have difficulty persuading 4ualified women to enter relatively highpayingoccupations

() women choose undemanding $obs because they wish to !eep their career options open

(") women will flood domestic occupations

(#) salaries in femaledominated occupations will decrease as more women are forced intothose occupations by their e0clusion from others

(%) women6s choice of occupation is irrelevant since they have always made less moneythan men and are li!ely to continue to do so

1-. ;hich one of the following statements is the best completion of the last paragraph of the passage8

(A) ;age differentials will become more e0aggerated and economic parity between men andwomen less and less possible.

() Dinally, women will be automatically placed in the same salary range as uns!illedlaborers.

(") 'he 4uestion is@ how long will women allow themselves to be e0cluded from maledominated occupations8

(#) In the last analysis, women may need to as! themselves if they can really afford to allowse0 discrimination to continue.

(%) Unless society changes its views, women may never escape the confines of the fewoccupations designated Dor ;omen 5nly./

&:. 'he author6s attitude toward se0 discrimination as an e0planation for wage differentials can best be characteri*ed as

(A) critical of society6s acceptance of discrimination

() s!eptical that discrimination is a factor

(") convinced that the problem will get worse

(#) neutral with respect to its validity

(%) frustrated by the intractability of the problem

!he starting point for any analysis of insurance classication is an o#vious #ut

fundamental factC insurance is only one of a num#er of %ays of satisfying the demand forprotection against ris(. 8ith fe% e-ceptions, insurance need not #e purchased> people canforgo it if insurance is too e-pensive. Indeed, as the price of coverage rises, the amountpurchased and the num#er of people purchasing %ill decline. Instead of #uying insurance,people %ill self'insure #y accumulating saving to serve as a cushion in the event of loss, self'protect #y spending more on loss protection, or simply use the money not spent oninsurance to purchase other goods and services. *n insurer must compete against thesealternatives, even in the a#sence of competition from other insurers.

ne method of competing for protection dollars is to classify potential purchasers into



groups according to their pro#a#ility of loss and the potential magnitude of losses if theyoccur. 9ierent ris( classes may then #e charged dierent premiums, depending on thise-pected loss. 8ere it not for the need to compete for protection dollars, an insurer couldsimply charge each individual a premium #ased on the average e#pected loss of all itsinsureds ;plus a margin for prot and e-penses=, %ithout incurring classication costs. Inconstructing ris( classes, the insurer’s goal is to calculate the e-pected loss of each insured,

and to place insureds %ith similar e-pected losses into the same class, in order to chargeeach the same rate.

*n insurer can capture protection dollars #y classifying #ecause, through classication, itcan oer lo%'ris( individuals lo%er prices. Alassication, ho%ever, involves t%o costs. 5irst,the process of classication is costly. Insurers must gather data and perform statisticaloperations on it> mar(eting may also #e more costly %hen prices are not uniform. Second,classication necessarily raises premiums for poor ris(s, %ho purchase less coverage as aresult. In the aggregate, classication is thus %orth%hile to an insurer only %hen the gainsproduced from e-tra sales and fe%er pay'outs out%eigh classication costs plus the costs oflost sales. Even in the a#sence of competition from other insurers, an insurer %ho engagesin at least some classication is li(ely to capture more protection dollars than it loses.

8hen there is not only competition for availa#le protection dollars, #ut competitionamong insurers for premium dollars, the value of ris( classication to insurers #ecomes even

clearer. !he more rened ;and accurate= an insurer’s ris( classications, the more capa#le itis of +s(imming good ris(s a%ay from insurers %hose classications are less rened. If otherinsurers do not respond, either #y rening their o%n classications or #y raising prices andcatering mainly to high ris(s, their +#oo( of ris(s %ill contain a higher mi-ture of poor ris(s%ho are still #eing charged premiums calculated for average ris(s. !hese insurers %ill attractadditional poor ris(s, and this resulting adverse selection %ill further disadvantage theircompetitive positions.

&1. ;hich one of the following best identifies the main topic of the passage8

(A) reduction of competition in the insurance business

() classification of potential insurance purchasers

(") ris! avoidance in insurance sales

(#) insurance protection and premiums(%) methods of insurance classifying

&&. 'he passage mentions all of the following as possible or certain costs of classifying%?"%=' the cost of

(A) collecting facts

() conducting statistical analyses

(") selling insurance at different prices

(#) a decrease in purchases by poor ris!s

(%) larger, albeit fewer, claims

&+. ;hich one of the following is closest to the author6s e0pressed position on competition inthe insurance business8

(A) It has a significant influence on most aspects of the insurance industry.

() It is a relevant factor, but it has little practical conse4uence.

(") It is a basic but not very apparent element of the insurance business.

(#) It provides a strong incentive for insurers to classify potential customers.

(%) It is influential in insurance mar!eting practices.



&. 'he passage suggests that if all insurers classified ris!, who among the following would beadversely affected8

(A) all insurance purchasers

() insurance purchasers who would be classified as poor ris!s

(") individuals who selfinsured or self protected

(#) insurers who had a high proportion of good ris!s in their boo!/ of ris!s

(%) insurers with the most refined ris! classifications

&3. 9iven the discussion in the first paragraph, what is the distinction, if any, betweeninsurance/ and selfprotection/8

(A) 'here is very little or no distinction between the two terms.

() Insurance is a !ind of selfprotection.

(") Selfprotection is a !ind of insurance.

(#) Insurance and selfprotection are two of several alternative means to a specific end.

(%) Insurance and selfprotection are the only two alternative means to a specific end.

&2. ;hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the process of classification ininsurance, as it is described in the passage8

(A) devising a profile of successful employees and hiring on the basis of the profile

() investigating the fuel efficiency of a ma!e of automobile and deciding whether or not to buy on that basis

(") assessing an investor6s willingness to ta!e ris!s before suggesting a specific investment

(#) ma!ing price comparisons on potential ma$or purchases and then see!ing discounts fromcompeting dealers

(%) comparing prices for numerous minor items and the selecting one store for future purchases

LSAT 19 SECTION IV






sheet.

!hree (inds of study have #een performed on yron. !here is the #iographical study3the very valua#le e-amination of yron’s psychology and the events in his life. Escarpit’s/0<B %or( is an e-ample of this (ind of study and #iographers to this day continue tospeculate a#out yron’s life. E"ually valua#le is the study of yron as a gure important in

the history of ideas> Dussell and 7ra& have %ritten studies of this (ind. 5inally, there arestudies that primarily consider yron’s poetry. Such literary studies are valua#le, ho%ever,only %hen they avoid concentrating solely on analy&ing the ver#al shadings of yron’spoetry to the e-clusion of any discussion of #iographical considerations. * study %ith such aconcentration %ould #e of "uestiona#le value #ecause yron’s poetry, for the most part, issimply not a poetry of su#tle ver#al meanings. Dather, on the %hole, yron’s poems recordthe emotional pressure of certain moments in his life. I #elieve %e cannot often read a poemof yron’s %e often can one of Sha(espeare’s %ithout %ondering %hat events orcircumstances in his life prompted him to %rite it.



:o dou#t the fact that most of yron’s poems cannot #e convincingly read as su#tlever#al creations indicates that yron is not a +great poet. It must #e admitted too thatyron’s literary craftsmanship is irregular and often his temperament disrupts even his la-literary method ;although the result, an a#sence of method, has a signicant purposeC itfunctions as a re#u(e to a cosmos that yron feels he cannot understand=. If yron is not a+great poet, his poetry is nonetheless of e-traordinary interest to us #ecause of the

pleasure it gives us. ur main pleasure in reading yron’s poetry is the contact %ith asingular personality. Deading his %or( gives us illumination3self'understanding3after %ehave seen our %ea(nesses and aspirations mirrored in the personality %e usually nd in thepoems. *nyone %ho thin(s that this (ind of illumination is not a genuine reason for reading apoet should thin( carefully a#out %hy %e read 9onne’s sonnets.

It is yron and yron’s idea of himself that hold his %or( together ;and that enthralledearly nineteenth'century Europe=. 9ierent characters spea( in his poems, #ut nally it isusually he himself %ho is spea(ingC a far cry from the impersonal poet Keats. yron’s poetryalludes to Gree( and Doman myth in the conte-t of contemporary aairs, #ut his %or(remains generally of a piece #ecause of his close presence in the poetry. In sum, the poetryis a shre%d personal performance, and to shut out yron the man is to fa#ricate a %or( ofpseudocriticism.

1. ;hich one of the following titles best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) An Absence of <ethod. ;hy yron Is >ot a 9reat/ =oet

() yron@ 'he ecurring =resence in yron6s =oetry

(") =ersonality and =oetry@ 'he iographical #imension of >ineteenth"entury =oetry

(#) yron6s =oetry@ Its Influence on the imagination of %arly>ineteenth"entury %urope

(%) Eerbal Shadings@ 'he Datal Dlaw of 'wentieth"entury Citerary "riticism

&. 'he author6s mention of ussell and =ra* serves primarily to

(A) differentiate them from one another

() contrast their conclusions about yron with those of %scarpit

(") point out the writers whose studies suggest a new direction for yron scholarship

(#) provide e0amples of writers who have written one !ind of study of yron

(%) give credit to the writers who have composed the best studies of yron

+. ;hich one of the following would the author most li!ely consider to be a valuable study ofyron8

(A) a study that compared yron6s poetic style with Geats6 poetic style

() a study that argued that yron6s thought ought not to be analy*ed in terms of itsimportance in the history of ideas

(") a study that sought to identify the emotions felt by yron at a particular time in his life

(#) a study in which a literary critic argues that the language of yron6s poetry was more

subtle than that of Geat6s poetry(%) a study in which a literary critic drew on e0periences from his or her own life

. ;hich one of the following statements best describes the organi*ation of first paragraph ofthe passage8

(A) A generali*ation is made and then gradually refuted.

() A number of theories are discussed and then the author chooses the most convincing one.

(") Several categories are mentioned and then one category is discussed in some detail.



(#) A historical trend is delineated and then a prediction about the future of the trend isoffered.

(%) A classification is made and then a rival classification is substituted in its place.

3. 'he author mentions that yron6s literary craftsmanship is irregular/ (lines &7&) most probably in order to

(A) contrast yron6s poetic s!ill with that of Sha!espeare

() dismiss craftsmanship as a standard by which to $udge poets

(") offer another reason why yron is not a great/ poet

(#) point out a negative conse4uence of yron6s belief that the cosmos is incomprehensible

(%) indicate the mostoftencited e0planation of why yron6s poetry lac!s subtle verbalnuances

2. According to the author Sha!espeare6s poems differ from yron6s in that Sha!espeare6s poems

(A) have elicited a wider variety of responses from both literary critics and biographers

() are on the whole less susceptible to being read as subtle verbal creations(") do not grow out of or are not motivated by actual events or circumstances in the poet6s

life

(#) provide the attentive reader with a greater degree of illumination concerning his or herown wea!nesses and aspirations

(%) can often be read without the reader6s being curious about what biographical factorsmotivated the poet to write them

7. 'he author indicates which one of the following about biographers6 speculation concerningyron6s life8

(A) Such speculation began in earnest with %scarpit6s study

() Such speculation continues today(") Such speculation is less important than consideration of yron6s poetry

(#) Such speculation has not given us a satisfactory sense of yron6s life

(%) Such speculation has been carried out despite the ob$ections of literary critics

. 'he passage supplies specific information that provides a definitive answer to which one ofthe following 4uestions8

(A) ;hat does the author consider to be the primary en$oyment derived from reading yron8

() ;ho among literary critics has primarily studied yron6s poems8

(") ;hich moments in yron6s life e0erted the greatest pressure on his poetry8

(#) as yron ever been considered to be a great/ poet8(%) #id yron e0ert an influence on %uropeans in the latter part of the nineteenth century8

!he United States Supreme Aourt has not al%ays resolved legal issues of concern to:ative *mericans in a manner that has pleased the Indian nations. )any of the Aourt’sdecisions have #een products of political compromise that loo(ed more to the temper of thetimes than to enduring principles of la%. ut accommodation is part of the judicial system inthe United States, and judicial decisions must #e assessed %ith this fact in mind.

9espite the +accommodating nature of the judicial system, it is %orth noting that thepo%er of the Supreme Aourt has #een e-ercised in a manner that has usually #een



#enecial to :ative *mericans, at least on minor issues and has not #een %holly detrimentalon the larger, more important issues. Aertainly there have #een decisions that cast dou#t onthe validity of this assertion. Some critics point to the patroni&ing tone of many Aourtopinions and the apparent rejection of :ative *merican values as important points toconsider %hen revie%ing a case. Ho%ever, the validity of the assertion can #e illustrated #yreference to t%o important contri#utions that have resulted from the e-ercise of judicial

po%er.5irst the Aourt has created rules of judicial construction that in general favor the rightsof :ative *merican litigants. !he Aourt’s attitude has #een conditioned #y recognition of thedistinct disadvantages :ative *mericans faced %hen dealing %ith settlers in the past.

!reaties %ere inevita#ly %ritten in English for the #enet of their authors, %hereas tri#alleaders %ere accustomed to ma(ing treaties %ithout any %ritten account, on the strength ofmutual promises sealed #y religious commitment and individual integrity. !he %rittentreaties %ere often #ro(en and :ative *mericans %ere confronted %ith fraud and politicaland military aggression. !he Aourt recogni&es that past unfairness to :ative *mericanscannot #e sanctioned #y the force of la%. !herefore, am#iguities in treaties are to #einterpreted in favor of the :ative *merican claimants, treaties are to #e interpreted as the:ative *mericans %ould have understood them and, under the reserved rights doctrine,treaties reserve to :ative *mericans all rights that have not #een specically granted a%ay

in other treaties.* second achievement of the judicial system is the protection that has #een provided

against encroachment #y the states into tri#al aairs. 5ederal judges are not inclined to vie%favora#ly eorts to e-tend states po%ers and jurisdictions #ecause of the direct threat thatsuch e-pansion poses to the e-ercise of federal po%ers. In the a#sence of a federal statutedirectly and clearly allocating a function to the states, federal judges are inclined to reservefor the federal government3and the tri#al governments under its charge3all those po%ersand rights they can #e said to have possessed historically.

-. According to the passage, one reason why the United States Supreme "ourt has not alwaysresolved legal issues of concern to >ative Americans in a manner that has pleased the Indiannations/ (lines 1) is that

(A) >ative Americans have been prevented from presenting their concerns persuasively

() the "ourt has failed to recogni*e that the Indian nations6 concerns are different fromthose of other groups or from those of the federal government

(") the "ourt has been reluctant to curtail the powers of the federal government

(#) >ative Americans faced distinct disadvantages in dealing with settlers in the past

(%) the "ourt has made political compromises in deciding some cases

1:. It can be inferred that the ob$ections raised by the critics mentioned in line 1 would be mostclearly answered by a United States Supreme "ourt decision that

(A) demonstrated respect for >ative Americans and the principles and 4ualities theyconsider important

() protected the rights of the states in conflicts with the federal government(") demonstrated recognition of the unfair treatment >ative Americans received in the past

(#) reflected consideration of the hardships suffered by >ative Americans because of unfairtreaties

(%) prevented repetition of ine4uities e0perienced by >ative Americans in the past

11. It can be inferred that the author calls the $udicial system of the United Statesaccommodating/ (line 1:) primarily in order to



(A) suggest that the decisions of the United States Supreme "ourt have been less favorableto >ative Americans than most people believe

() suggest that the United States Supreme "ourt should be more supportive of the goals of >ative Americans

(") suggest a reason why the decisions of the United States Supreme "ourt have not always

favored >ative Americans(#) indicate that the United States Supreme "ourt has made creditable efforts to recogni*e

the values of >ative Americans

(%) indicate that the United States Supreme "ourt attempts to be fair to all parties to a case

1&. 'he author6s attitude toward the United States Supreme "ourt6s resolution of legal issues ofconcern to >ative Americans can best be described as one of

(A) wholehearted endorsement

() restrained appreciation

(") detached ob$ectivity

(#) cautious opposition

(%) suppressed e0asperation

1+. It can be inferred that the author believes that the e0tension of the states6 powers and $urisdictions with respect to >ative American affairs would be

(A) possible only with the consent of the Indian nations

() favorably viewed by the United States Supreme "ourt

(") in the best interests of both state and federal governments

(#) detrimental to the interests of >ative Americans

(%) discouraged by most federal $udges in spite of legal precedents supporting the e0tension

1. 'he author6s primary purpose is to

(A) contrast opposing views

() reevaluate traditional beliefs

(") reconcile divergent opinions

(#) assess the claims made by disputants

(%) provide evidence to support a contention

13. It can be inferred that the author believes the United States Supreme "ourt6s treatment of >ative Americans to have been

(A) irreproachable on legal grounds

() reasonably supportive in most situations

(") guided by enduring principles of law(#) misguided but generally harmless

(%) harmful only in a few minor cases

8hen catastrophe stri(es, analysts typically #lame some com#ination of po%erfulmechanisms. *n earth"ua(e is traced to an immense insta#ility along a fault line> a stoc(mar(et crash is #lamed on the desta#ili&ing eect of computer trading. !hese e-planationsmay %ell #e correct. ut systems as large and complicated as the Earth’s crust or the stoc(mar(et can #rea( do%n not only under the force of a mighty #lo% #ut also at the drop of a



pin. In a large interactive system, a minor event can start a chain reaction that leads to acatastrophe.

!raditionally, investigators have analy&ed large interactive systems in the same %aythey analy&e small orderly systems, mainly #ecause the methods developed for smallsystems have proved so successful. !hey #elieved they could predict the #ehavior of a largeinteractive system #y studying its elements separately and #y analy&ing its component

mechanisms individually. 5or lac( of a #etter theory, they assumed that in large interactivesystems the response to a distur#ance is proportional to that distur#ance.

9uring the past fe% decades, ho%ever, it has #ecome increasingly apparent that manylarge complicated systems do not yield to traditional analysis. Aonse"uently, theorists haveproposed a +theory of self'organi&ed criticalityC many large interactive systems evolvenaturally to a critical state in %hich a minor event starts a chain reaction that can aect anynum#er of elements in the system. *lthough such systems produce more minor events thancatastrophes, the mechanism that leads to minor events is the same one that leads to majorevents.

* deceptively simple system serves as a paradigm for self'organi&ed criticalityC a pile ofsand. *s sand is poured one grain at a time onto a 4at dis(, the grains at rst stay close tothe position %here they land. Soon they rest on top of one another, creating a pile that has agentle slope. :o% and then, %hen the slope #ecomes too steep, the grains slide do%n,

causing a small avalanche. !he system reaches its critical state %hen the amount of sandadded is #alanced, on average, #y the amount falling o the edge of the dis(.

:o% %hen a grain of sand is added, it can start an avalanche of any si&e, including a+catastrophic event. )ost of the time the grain %ill fall so that no avalanche occurs. ystudying a specic area of the pile, one can even predict %hether avalanches %ill occurthere in the near future. !o such a local o#server, ho%ever, large avalanches %ould remainunpredicta#le #ecause they are a conse"uence of the total history of the entire pile. :omatter %hat the local dynamics are, catastrophic avalanches %ould persist at a relativefre"uency that cannot #e alteredC Ariticality is a glo#al property of the sandpile.

12. 'he passage provides support for all of the following generali*ations about large interactivesystems %?"%='@

(A) 'hey can evolve to a critical state.() 'hey do not always yield to traditional analysis.

(") 'hey ma!e it impossible for observers to ma!e any predictions about them.

(#) 'hey are sub$ect to the effects of chain reactions.

(%) 'hey are sub$ect to more minor events than ma$or events.

17. According to the passage, the criticality of a sandpile is determined by the

(A) si*e of the grains of sand added to the sandpile

() number of grains of sand the sandpile contains

(") rate at which sand is added to the sandpile

(#) shape of the surface on which the sandpile rests

(%) balance between the amount of sand added to and the amount lost from the sandpile

1. It can be inferred from the passage that the theory employed by the investigators mentionedin the second paragraph would lead one to predict that which one of the following wouldresult from the addition of a grain of sand to a sandpile8

(A) 'he grain of sand would never cause anything more than a minor disturbance.

() 'he grain of sand would usually cause a minor disturbance, but would occasionallycause a small avalanche.



(") 'he grain of sand would usually cause either minor disturbance or a small avalanche, butwould occasionally cause a catastrophic event.

(#) 'he grain of sand would usually cause a catastrophic event, but would occasionallycause only a small avalanche or an event more minor disturbance.

(%) 'he grain of sand would invariably cause a catastrophic event.

1-. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A traditional procedure is described and its application to common situations isendorsed@ its shortcomings in certain rare but critical circumstances are then revealed.

() A common misconception is elaborated and its conse4uences are described a detailede0ample of one of these conse4uences is then given.

(") A general principle is stated and supported by several e0amples an e0ception to the ruleis then considered and its importance evaluated.

(#) A number of seemingly unrelated events are categori*ed@ the underlying processes thatconnect them are then detailed.

(%) A traditional method of analysis is discussed and the reasons for its adoption are

e0plained an alternative is then described and clarified by means of an e0ample.

&:. ;hich one of the following is most analogous to the method of analysis employed by theinvestigators mentioned in the second paragraph8

(A) A pollster gathers a sample of voter preferences and on the basis of this informationma!es a prediction about the outcome of an election.

() A historian e0amines the surviving documents detailing the history of a movement andfrom these documents reconstructs a chronology of the events that initiated themovement.

(") A meteorologist measures the rainfall over a certain period of the year and from this datacalculates the total annual rainfall for the region.

(#) A biologist observes the behavior of one species of insect and from these observationsgenerali*es about the behavior of insects as a class.

(%) An engineer analy*es the stability of each structural element of a bridge and from theseanalyses draws a conclusion about the structural soundness of the bridge.

&1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with

(A) arguing against the abandonment of a traditional approach

() describing the evolution of a radical theory

(") reconciling conflicting points of view

(#) illustrating the superiority of a new theoretical approach

(%) advocating the reconsideration of an unfashionable e0planationHistorians have long accepted the notion that %omen of English descent %ho lived in the

English colonies of :orth *merica during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries %ere#etter o than either the contemporary %omen in England or the colonists’ o%n nineteenth'century daughters and granddaughters. !he +golden age theory originated in the /0@2s%ith the %or( of Eli&a#eth 9e-ter, %ho argued that there %ere relatively fe% %omen amongthe colonists, and that all hands3male and female3%ere needed to sustain the gro%ingsettlements. Digid se-'role distinctions could not e-ist under such circumstances> femalecolonists could accordingly engage in %hatever occupations they %ished, encountering fe%





(%) provide an e0ample of current research one the colonial period

&. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most li!ely to describe theviews of the scholars mentioned in line +& as

(A) unassailable

() innovative

(") parado0ical

(#) overly sophisticated

(%) without merit

&3. It can be inferred from the passage that in proposing the threepart chronological division/(lines 2:21), scholars recogni*ed which one of the following8

(A) 'he circumstances of colonial women6s lives were defined by a broad variety of socialand economic factors.

() ;omen6s lives in the %nglish colonies of >orth America were similar to women6s livesin seventeenthand eighteenthcentury %ngland.

(") "olonial women6s status was adversely affected when patterns of family and communitywere established in the late seventeenth century.

(#) "olonial women6s status should be assessed primarily on the basis of their economicfunction in society.

(%) "olonial women6s status was low when the colonies were settled but changedsignificantly during the era of revolution.

&2. According to the author, the publications about colonial women mentioned in the third paragraph had which one of the following effects8

(A) 'hey undermined #e0ter6s argument on the status of women colonists during thecolonial period.

() 'hey revealed the tenacity of the golden age/ theory in American history.(") 'hey provided support for historians, such as off;ilson. ;ho study the nineteenth

century.

(#) 'hey established that women6s status did not change significantly from the colonial period to the nineteenth century.

(%) 'hey provided support for earlier theories about women colonists in the %nglish coloniesof >orth America.

&7. =ractitioners of the new scholarship discussed in the last paragraph would be most li!ely toagree with which one of the following statements about #e0ter6s argument8

(A) It ma!es the assumption that women6s status is determined primarily by their political

power in society.() It ma!es the assumption that a less comple0 social system necessarily confers higher

status on women.

(") It is based on inade4uate research on women6s economic role in the colonies.

(#) It places too much emphasis on the way definitions of gender roles affected womencolonists in the colonial period.

(%) It accurately describes the way women6s status declined in the nineteenth century.



LSAT 20 SECTION IV






)usicologists concerned %ith the +$ondon 7ianoforte school, the group of composers,pedagogues, pianists, pu#lishers, and #uilders %ho contri#uted to the development of thepiano in $ondon at the turn of the nineteenth century, have long encountered a formida#leo#stacle in the general unavaila#ility of music of this +school in modern scholarly editions.Indeed, much of this repertory has more or less vanished from our historical consciousness.Granted, the sonatas and -radus ad &arnassum of )u&io Alementi and the nocturnes of Fohn5ield have remained familiar enough ;though more often than not in editions lac(ingscholarly rigor=, #ut the %or( of other leading representatives, li(e Fohann aptist Aramerand Fan $adislav 9usse(, has eluded serious attempts at revival.

:icholas !emperley’s am#itious ne% anthology decisively overcomes this deciency.8hat underscores the intrinsic value of !emperley’s editions is that the anthologyreproduces nearly all of the original music in facsimile. )a(ing availa#le this cross section ofEnglish musical life3some B22 %or(s #y J0 composers3should encourage ne% criticalperspectives a#out ho% piano music evolved in England, an issue of considera#le relevanceto our understanding of ho% piano music developed on the European continent, and of ho%,nally, the instrument %as transformed from the fortepiano to %hat %e (no% today as thepiano.

!o #e sure, the $ondon 7ianoforte school itself calls for revie%. +School may %ell #e toostrong a %ord for %hat %as argua#ly a group unied not so much #y stylistic principles oraesthetic creed as #y the geographical circumstance that they %or(ed at various times in$ondon and produced pianos and piano music for English pianos and English mar(ets.Indeed, !emperley concedes that their +variety may #e so great as to cast dou#t on the

notion of a school.’ !he notion of a school %as rst propounded #y *le-ander Dinger, %ho argued that la%s

of artistic survival forced the young, progressive eethoven to turn outside *ustria forcreative models, and that he found inspiration in a group of pianists connected %ithAlementi in $ondon. Dinger’s proposed $ondon 7ianoforte school did suggest a circumscri#edand fairly unied group3for %ant of a #etter term, a school3of musicians %hose in4uence%as felt primarily in the decades just #efore and after /B22. *fter all, eethoven did respondto the advances of the road%ood piano3its reinforced frame, e-tended compass, triplestringing, and pedals, for e-ample3and it is reasona#le to suppose that $ondon pianists %hocomposed music for such an instrument during the critical phase of its developmente-ercised no small degree of in4uence on Aontinental musicians. :evertheless, perhaps themost sensi#le approach to this issue is to dene the school #y the period ;c. /11'/B=during %hich it 4ourished, as !emperley has done in the anthology.

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the author6s main point8

(A) 'emperley has recently called into 4uestion the designation of a group of composers, pedagogues, pianists, publishers, and builders as the Condon =ianoforte school.

() 'emperley6s anthology of the music of the Condon =ianoforte school contributessignificantly to an understanding of an influential period in the history of music.

(") 'he music of the Condon =ianoforte school has been revived by the publication of'emperley6s new anthology.



(#) =rimary sources for musical manuscripts provide the most reliable basis formusicological research.

(%) 'he development of the modern piano in %ngland influenced composers and othermusicians throughout %urope.

&. It can be inferred that which one of the following is true of the piano music of the Condon

=ianoforte school8

(A) 'he nocturnes of Bohn Dield typify the Condon =ianoforte school style.

() 'he &radus ad Parnassum of <u*io "lementi is the best!nown wor! of thesecomposers.

(") >o original scores for this music are e0tant.

(#) =rior to 'emperley6s edition, no attempts to issue new editions of this music had beenmade.

(%) In modern times much of the music of this school has been little !nown even tomusicians.

+. 'he author mentions the sonatas of <u*io "lementi and the nocturnes of Bohn Dield ase0amples of which one of the following8

(A) wor!s by composers of the Condon =ianoforte school that have been preserved inrigorous scholarly editions

() wor!s that are no longer remembered by most people

(") wor!s acclaimed by the leaders of the Condon =ianoforte school

(#) wor!s by composers of the Condon =ianoforte school that are relatively well !nown

(%) wor!s by composers of the Condon =ianoforte school that have been revived by'emperley in his anthology

. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most clearly undermine a portion of inger6s

argument as the argument is described in the passage8(A) <usicians in Austria composed innovative music for the roadwood piano as soon as

the instrument became available.

() "lementi and his followers produced most of their compositions between 17-: and11:.

(") 'he influence of "ontinental musicians is apparent in some of the wor!s of eethoven.

(#) 'he pianistcomposers of the Condon =ianoforte school shared many of the samestylistic principles.

(%) <ost composers of the Condon =ianoforte school were born on the "ontinent and weredrawn to Condon by the wor! of "lementi and his followers.

3. It can be inferred that the author uses the word advances/ (line -) to refer to(A) enticements offered musicians by instrument manufacturers

() improvements in the structure of a particular instrument

(") innovations in the forms of music produced for a particular instrument

(#) stylistic elaborations made possible by changes in a particular instrument

(%) changes in musicians6 opinions about a particular instrument

2. It can be inferred from the passage as a whole that the author6s purpose in the third



paragraph is primarily to

(A) cast doubt on the usefulness of 'emperley6s study of the Condon =ianoforte school

() introduce a discussion of the coherency of the Condon =ianoforte school

(") summari*e inger6s argument about the Condon =ianoforte school

(#) emphasi*e the comple0 nature of the musicological elements shared by members of theCondon =ianoforte school

(%) identify the uni4ue contributions made to music by the Condon =ianoforte school

7. 'he author of the passage is primarily concerned with

(A) e0plaining the influence of the development of the pianoforte on the music of eethoven

() describing 'emperley6s view of the contrast between the development of piano music in%ngland and the development of piano music elsewhere in %urope

(") presenting 'emperley6s evaluation of the impact of changes in piano construction onstyles and forms of music composed in the era of the Condon =ianoforte school

(#) considering an alternative theory to that proposed by inger concerning the Condon

=ianoforte school(%) discussing the contribution of 'emperley6s anthology to what is !nown of the history of

the Condon =ianoforte school

. It can be inferred that 'emperley6s anthology treats the Condon =ianoforte school as

(A) a group of pianistcomposers who shared certain stylistic principles and artistic creeds

() a group of people who contributed to the development of piano music between 1722 and17+

(") a group of composers who influenced the music of eethoven in the decades $ust beforeand $ust after 1::

(#) a series of compositions for the pianoforte published in the decades $ust before and $ust

after 1::(%) a series of compositions that had a significant influence on the music of the "ontinent in

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

8hat is +la%L y %hat processes do judges arrive at opinions, those documents that justify their #elief that the +la% dictates a conclusion one %ay or the otherL !hese areamong the oldest "uestions in jurisprudence, de#ate a#out %hich has traditionally #eendominated #y representatives of t%o schools of thoughtC proponents of natural la%, %ho seela% as intert%ined %ith a moral order independent of society’s rules and mores, and legalpositivists, %ho see la% solely as em#odying the commands of a society’s ruling authority.

Since the early /02s, these familiar "uestions have received some ne% and surprisingans%ers in the legal academy. !his novelty is in part a conse"uence of the increasingin4uence there of academic disciplines and intellectual traditions previously unconnected

%ith the study of la%. 7erhaps the most in4uential have #een the ans%ers given #y the $a%and Economics school. *ccording to these legal economists, la% consists and ought toconsist of those rules that ma-imi&e a society’s material %ealth and that a#et the e6cientoperation of mar(ets designed to generate %ealth. )ore controversial have #een the variousans%ers provided #y mem#ers of the Aritical $egal Studies movement, according to %homla% is one among several cultural mechanisms #y %hich holders of po%er see( to legitimatetheir domination. 9ra%ing on related arguments developed in anthropology, sociology, andhistory, the critical legal scholars contend that la% is an e-pression of po%er, #ut not, asheld #y the positivists, the po%er of the legitimate sovereign government. Dather, it is an



e-pression of the po%er of elites %ho may have no legitimate authority, #ut %ho are intenton preserving the privileges of their race, class, or gender.

In the mid'/02s, Fames oyd 8hite #egan to articulate yet another interdisciplinaryresponse to the traditional "uestions, and in so doing spa%ned %hat is no% (no%n as the$a% and $iterature movement. 8hite has insisted that la%, particularly as it is interpreted in

judicial opinions, should #e understood as an essentially literary activity. Fudicial opinions

should #e read and evaluated not primarily as political acts or as attempts to ma-imi&esociety’s %ealth through e6cient rules, #ut rather as artistic performances. *nd li(e all suchperformances, 8hite argues, each judicial opinion attempts in its o%n %ay to promote aparticular political or ethical value.

In the recent Justice as Translation, 8hite argues that opinion'%riting should #e regardedas an act of +translation, and judges as +translators. *s such, judges nd themselvesmediating #et%een the authoritative legal te-t and the pressing legal pro#lem that demandsresolution. * judge must essentially +re'constitute that te-t #y fashioning a ne% one, %hichis faithful to the old te-t #ut also responsive to and informed #y the conditions, constraints,and aspirations of the %orld in %hich the ne% legal pro#lem has arisen.

-. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) ;ithin the last few decades, a number of novel approaches to $urisprudence have

defined the nature of the law in diverse ways.() ;ithin the last few decades, changes in society and in the number and type of cases

brought to court have necessitated new methods of interpreting the law.

(") 5f the many interdisciplinary approaches to $urisprudence that have surfaced in the lasttow decades, the Caw and Citerature movement is the most intellectually coherent.

(#) 'he Caw and Citerature movement, first articulated by Bames oyd ;hite in the mid1-7:s, represents a synthesis of the many theories of $urisprudence inspired by thesocial sciences.

(%) Such traditional legal scholars as legal positivists and natural lawyers are increasingly onthe defensive against attac!s from younger, more progressive theorists.

1:. According to the passage, $udicial opinions have been described as each of the following%?"%='@

(A) political statements

() arcane statements

(") economic statements

(#) artistic performances

(%) acts of translation

11. ;hich one of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the "riticalCegal Studies movement as that movement is described in the passage8

(A) Caws governing the succession of power at the death of a head of state represent asynthesis of legal precedents, specific situations, and the values of lawma!ers.

() Caws allowing income ta0 deductions for charitable contributions, though ostensibly passed by lawma!ers, were devised by and are perpetuated by the rich.

(") Caws governing the tariffs placed on imported goods must favor the continuation ofmutually beneficial trade arrangements, even at the e0pense of longstanding legal precedent.

(#) Caws governing the treatment of the disadvantaged and powerless members of a given



society are an accurate indication of that society6s moral state.

(%) Caws controlling the electoral processes of a representative democracy have beendevised by lawma!ers to ensure the continuation of that governmental system.

1&. ;hich one of the following does the passage mention as a similarity between the "riticalCegal Studies movement and the Caw and Citerature movement8

(A) oth offer e0planations of how elites maintain their hold on power.

() oth are logical e0tensions of either natural law or legal positivism.

(") oth see economic and political primacy as the basis of all legitimate power.

(#) oth rely on disciplines not traditionally connected with the study of law.

(%) oth see the practice of opinionwriting as a mediating activity.

1+. ;hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the academic study of $urisprudence before the 1-7:s8

(A) It was concerned primarily with codifying and maintaining the privileges of elites.

() It re$ected theories that interpreted law as an e0pression of a group6s power.

(") It seldom focused on how and by what authority $udges arrived at opinions.(#) It was concerned primarily with the study of law as an economic and moral agent.

(%) It was not concerned with such disciplines as anthropology and sociology.

1. =roponents of the Caw and Citerature movement would most li!ely agree with which one ofthe following statements concerning the relationship between the law and $udges6 writtenopinions8

(A) 'he oncestable relationship between law and opinionwriting has been undermined bynew and radical theoretical developments.

() 5nly the most politically conservative of $udges continue to base their opinions onnatural law or on legal positivism.

(") 'he occurrence of different legal situations re4uires a $udge to adopt diverse theoreticalapproaches to opinionwriting.

(#) #ifferent $udges will not necessarily write the same sorts of opinions when confrontedwith the same legal situation.

(%) Budges who subscribe to divergent theories of $urisprudence will necessarily renderdivergent opinions.

13. ;hich one of the following phrases best describes the meaning of reconstitute/ as thatword is used in line 3 of the passage8

(A) categori*e and rephrase

() investigate and summari*e

(") interpret and refashion

(#) paraphrase and announce

(%) negotiate and synthesi*e


(A) identify differing approaches

() discount a novel trend



(") advocate traditional methods

(#) correct misinterpretations

(%) reconcile seeming inconsistencies

Since the early /0@2s, most petroleum geologists have favored a #iogenic theory for theformation of oil. *ccording to this theory, organic matter #ecame #uried in sediments, and

su#se"uent conditions of temperature and pressure over time transformed it into oil.Since /00 an opposing a#iogenic theory a#out the origin of oil has #een promulgated.

*ccording to this theory, %hat is no% oil #egan as hydrocar#on compounds %ithin theearth’s mantle ;the region #et%een the core and the crust= during the formation of theearth. il %as created %hen gasses rich in methane, the lightest of the hydrocar#ons, rosefrom the mantle through fractures and faults in the crust, carrying a signicant amount ofheavier hydrocar#ons %ith them. *s the gases encountered intermittent drops in pressure,the heavier hydrocar#ons condensed, forming oil, and %ere deposited in reservoirsthroughout the crust. Doc( regions deformed #y motions of the crustal plates provided theconduits and fractures necessary for the gases to rise through the crust.

pponents of the a#iogenic theory charge that hydrocar#ons could not e-ist in themantle, #ecause high temperatures %ould destroy or #rea( them do%n. *dvocates of thetheory, ho%ever, point out that other types of car#on e-ist in the mantleC uno-idi&ed car#on

must e-ist there, #ecause diamonds are formed %ithin the mantle #efore #eing #rought tothe surface #y eruptive processes. 7roponents of the a#iogenic theory also point to recente-perimental %or( that suggests that the higher pressures %ithin the mantle tend to osetthe higher temperatures, allo%ing hydrocar#ons, li(e uno-idi&ed car#on, to continue to e-istin the mantle.

If the a#iogenic theory is correct, vast undiscovered reservoirs of oil and gas3undiscovered #ecause the #iogenic model precludes their e-istence3may in actuality e-ist.ne company o%ned #y the S%edish government has found the a#iogenic theory sopersuasive that it has started e-ploratory drilling for gas or oil in a granite formation calledthe Siljan Ding3not the #est place to loo( for gas or oil if one #elieves they are derived fromorganic compounds, #ecause granite forms from magma ;molten roc(= and contains noorganic sediments. !he ring %as formed a#out 12 million years ago %hen a large meteoritehit the 122'million'year'old granite that forms the #ase of the continental crust. !he impactfractured the granite, and the S%edes #elieve that if oil comes from the mantle, it couldhave risen %ith methane gas through this no% permea#le roc(. 5ueling their optimismfurther is the fact that prior to the start of drilling, methane gas had #een detected risingthrough the granite.

17. ;hich one of the following statements best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil is derived from theconventional biogenic theory, it suggests new types of locations for oil drilling.

() 'he small number of drilling companies that have responded to the new abiogenic theoryabout the origin of oil reflects the minimal level of acceptance the theory has met within the scientific community.

(") Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil fails to e0plain severalenigmas about oil reservoirs, it is superior to the conventional biogenic theory.

(#) Although it has yet to receive either support or refutation by data gathered from adrilling pro$ect, the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil offers a plausiblealternative to the conventional biogenic theory.

(%) aving answered ob$ections about higher pressures in the earth6s core, proponents of thenew abiogenic theory have gained broad acceptance for their theory in the scientificcommunity.



1. ;hich one of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph8

(A) It presents a view opposed to a theory and points out an internal contradiction in thatopposing view.

() It describes a criticism of a theory and provides countervailing evidence to the criticism.

(") It identifies a conflict between two views of a theory and revises both views.

(#) It e0plains an argument against a theory and shows it to be a valid criticism.

(%) It points out the correspondence between an argument against one theory and argumentsagainst similar theories.

1-. 'he passage suggests that the opponents of the abiogenic theory mentioned in the third paragraph would most probably agree with which one of the following statements8

(A) 'he formation of oil does not involve the condensation of hydrocarbons released fromthe earth6s mantle.

() Carge oil reserves are often found in locations that contain small amounts of organicmatter.

(") 'he eruptive processes by which diamonds are brought to the earth6s surface are similarto those that aid in the formation of oil.

(#) <otions of the crustal plates often create the pressure necessary to transform organicmatter into oil.

(%) 'he largest !nown oil reserves may have resulted from organic matter combining withheavier hydrocarbons carried by methane gas.

&:. ;hich one of the following is most analogous to the situation described in the final paragraph8

(A) A new theory about the annual cycles of breeding and migration of the monarch butterflyhas led scientists to loo! for similar patterns in other butterfly species.

() A new theory about the stage at which a star collapses into a blac! hole has ledastronomers to search for evidence of blac! holes in parts of the universe where theyhad not previously searched.

(") A new theory about how the emission of sulfur dio0ide during coalburning can bereduced has led several companies to develop desulfuri*ation systems.

(#) A new theory about photosynthesis has convinced a research team to e0plore in newways the various functions of the cell membrane in plant cells.

(%) A new theory about the distribution of metals in roc! formations has convinced a silvermining company to !eep different types of records of its operations.

&1. According to the passage all of the following are true of the Sil$an ing %?"%='@

(A) It was formed from magma.() It does not contain organic sediments.

(") Its ring shape e0isted 3:: million years ago.

(#) <ethane gas has been detected rising through it.

(%) It was shaped from the granite that ma!es up the base of the continental crust.

)ost studies of recent Southeast *sian immigrants to the United States have focused ontheir adjustment to life in their adopted country and on the eects of leaving theirhomelands. Fames !ollefson’s !lien Winds e-amines the resettlement process from a



dierent perspective #y investigating the educational programs oered in immigrantprocessing centers. ased on intervie%s, transcripts from classes, essays #y immigrants,personal visits to a teacher'training unit, and o6cial government documents, !ollefson relieson an impressive amount and variety of documentation in ma(ing his arguments a#outprocessing centers’ educational programs.

!ollefson’s main contention is that the emphasis placed on immediate employment and

on teaching the values, attitudes, and #ehaviors that the training personnel thin( %ill helpthe immigrants adjust more easily to life in the United States is often counterproductive anddemorali&ing. ecause of concerns that the immigrants #e self'supporting as soon aspossi#le, they are trained almost e-clusively for lo%'level jo#s that do not re"uire Englishprociency. In this respect, !ollefson claims, the processing centers suit the needs ofemployers more than they suit the long'term needs of the immigrant community. !ollefsonalso detects a fundamental 4a% in the attempts #y program educators to instill in theimmigrants the traditionally 8estern principles of self'su6ciency and individual success.

!hese eorts often have the eect of undermining the immigrants’ sense of community and,in doing so, sometimes isolate them from the moral support and even from #usinessopportunities aorded #y the immigrant community. !he programs also encourage theimmigrants to shed their cultural traditions and ethnic identity and adopt the lifestyles,#eliefs, and characteristics of their adopted country if they %ish to enter fully into the

national life. !ollefson notes that the ideological nature of these educational programs has roots in

the turn'of'the'century educational programs designed to assimilate European immigrantsinto United States society. !ollefson provides a concise history of the assimilationistmovement in immigrant education, in %hich European immigrants %ere encouraged to leave#ehind the %ays of the ld 8orld and to adopt instead the principles and practices of the:e% 8orld.

!ollefson a#ly sho%s that the issues demanding real attention in the educationalprograms for Southeast *sian immigrants are not merely employment rates and governmentfunding, #ut also the assumptions underpinning the educational values in the programs. Herecommends many improvements for the programs, including giving the immigrants astronger voice in determining their needs and ho% to meet them, redesigning the curricula,and emphasi&ing long'term language education and jo# training over immediate

employment and the avoiding of pu#lic assistance. Unfortunately, though, !ollefson does notoer enough concrete solutions as to ho% these reforms could #e carried out, despite hiso%n descriptions of the complicated #ureaucratic nature of the programs.

&&. ;hich one of the following statements best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'ollefson6s focus on the economic and cultural factors involved in ad$usting to a newcountry offers a significant departure from most studies of Southeast Asianimmigration.

() In his analysis of educational programs for Southeast Asian immigrants, 'ollefson failsto ac!nowledge many of the positive effects the programs have had on immigrants6lives.

(") 'ollefson convincingly blames the philosophy underlying immigrant educational programs for some of the ad$ustment problems afflicting Southeast Asian immigrants.

(#) 'ollefson6s most significant contribution is his analysis of how Southeast Asianimmigrants overcome the obstacles they encounter in immigrant educational programs.

(%) 'ollefson traces a gradual yet significant change in the attitudes held by processingcenter educators toward Southeast Asian immigrants.

&+. ;ith which one of the following statements concerning the educational programs of theimmigration centers would 'ollefson most probably agree8



(A) Although the programs offer ade4uate $ob training, they offer inade4uate %nglishtraining.

() Some of the programs6 attempts to improve the earning power of the immigrants cutthem off from potential sources of income.

(") Inclusion of the history of immigration in the United States in the programs6 curricula

facilitates ad$ustment for the immigrants.(#) Immigrants would benefit if instructors in the programs were better prepared to teach the

curricula developed in the teachertraining courses.

(%) 'he programs6 curricula should be redesigned to include greater emphasis on the sharedvalues, beliefs, and practices in the United States.

&. ;hich one of the following best describes the opinion of the author of the passage withrespect to 'ollefson6s wor!8

(A) thorough but misguided

() innovative but incomplete

(") novel but contradictory

(#) illuminating but unappreciated

(%) well documented but unoriginal

&3. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following is an assumption underlying theeducational approach in immigrant processing centers8

(A) 'here is a set of values and behaviors that if adopted by immigrants, facilitatead$ustment to United States society.

() ;hen recent immigrants are selfsupporting rather than supported by public assistance,they tend to gain %nglish proficiency more 4uic!ly.

(") Immediate employment tends to undermine the immigrants sense of community witheach other.

(#) Congterm success for immigrants is best achieved by encouraging the immigrants tomaintain a strong sense of community.

(%) 'he principles of selfsufficiency and individual success are central to Southeast Asianculture and ethnicity.

&2. ;hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph of the passage8

(A) It provides the scholarly conte0t for 'ollefson6s study and a description of hismethodology.

() It compares 'ollefson6s study to other wor!s and presents the main argument of hisstudy.

(") It compares the types of documents 'ollefson uses to those used in other studies.(#) It presents the accepted theory on 'ollefson6s topic and the method by which 'ollefson

challenges it.

(%) It argues for the analytical and technical superiority of 'ollefson6s study over otherwor!s on the topic.

&7. 'he author of the passage refers to 'ollefson6s descriptions of the bureaucratic nature of theimmigrant educational programs in the fourth paragraph most probably in order to



(A) critici*e 'ollefson6s decision to combine a description of the bureaucracies withsuggestions for improvement

() emphasi*e the author6s disappointment in 'ollefson6s overly general recommendationsfor improvements to the programs

(") point out the irony of 'ollefson concluding his study with suggestions for drastic

changes in the programs(#) support a contention that 'ollefson6s recommendations for improvements do not focus

on the real sources of the programs6 problems

(%) suggest a parallel between the comple0ity of the bureaucracies and the comple0ity of'ollefson6s arguments

LSAT 21 SECTION I






!o many developers of technologies that aect pu#lic health or the environment, +ris(communication means persuading the pu#lic that the potential ris(s of such technologiesare small and should #e ignored. !hose %ho communicate ris(s in this %ay seem to #elievethat lay people do not understand the actual nature of technological ris(, and they can citestudies asserting that although people apparently ignore mundane ha&ards that posesignicant danger, they get upset a#out e-otic ha&ards that pose little chance of death orinjury. ecause some ris( communicators ta(e this persuasive stance, many lay people see+ris( communication as a euphemism for #rain%ashing done #y e-perts.

Since, ho%ever, the goal of ris( communication should #e to ena#le people to ma(einformed decisions a#out technological ris(s, a clear understanding a#out ho% the pu#licperceives ris( is needed. $ay people’s denitions of +ris( are more li(ely to re4ectsu#jective ethical concerns than are e-perts’ denitions. $ay people, for e-ample, tend toperceive a small ris( to children as more signicant than a large ris( to consenting adults%ho #enet from the ris('creating technology. Ho%ever, if as(ed to ran( ha&ards #y thenum#er of annual fatalities, %ithout reference to ethical judgments, lay people provide "uitereasona#le estimates, demonstrating that they have su#stantial (no%ledge a#out manyris(s. *lthough some studies claim to demonstrate that lay people have inappropriateconcerns a#out e-otic ha&ards, these studies often use "uestiona#le methods, such asas(ing lay people to ran( ris(s that are hard to compare. In contrast, a recent study sho%edthat %hen lay people %ere given the necessary facts and time, they understood the specicris(s of electromagnetic elds produced #y high'voltage po%er transmission %ell enough toma(e informed decisions.

Dis( communication should therefore #e #ased on the principle that people process ne%information in the conte-t of their e-isting #eliefs. If people (no% nothing a#out a topic, they%ill nd messages a#out that topic incomprehensi#le. If they have erroneous #eliefs, theyare li(ely to misconstrue the messages. !hus, communicators need to (no% the nature ande-tent of recipients’ (no%ledge and #eliefs in order to design messages that %ill not #edismissed or misinterpreted. !his need %as demonstrated in a research project concerningthe pu#lic’s level of (no%ledge a#out ris(s posed #y the presence of radon in the home.Desearchers used open'ended intervie%s and "uestionnaires to determine %hat informationshould #e included in their #rochure on radon. Su#jects %ho read the researchers’ #rochureperformed signicantly #etter in understanding radon ris(s than did a control group %horead a #rochure that %as %ritten using a dierent approach #y a government agency. !hus,



careful preparation can help ris( communicators to produce #alanced material that tellspeople %hat they need to (no% to ma(e decisions a#out technological ris(s.

1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point of the passage8

(A) is! communicators are effectively addressing the proliferation of comple0 technologiesthat have increasing impact on public health and safety.

() is! communicators should assess lay people6s understanding of technologies in order to be able to give them the information they need to ma!e reasonable decisions.

(") %0perts who want to communicate to the public about the possible ris!s of comple0technologies must simplify their message to ensure that it is understandable.

(#) is! communication can be perceived as the tas! of persuading lay people to accept theimpact of a particular technology on their lives.

(%) Cay people can be unduly influenced by sub$ective concerns when ma!ing decisionsabout technological ris!s.

&. 'he authors of the passage would be most li!ely to agree that the primary purpose of ris!communication should be to

(A) e0plain rather than to persuade

() promote rather than to $ustify

(") influence e0perts rather than to influence lay people

(#) allay people6s fears about mundane ha*ards rather than about e0otic ha*ards

(%) foster public acceptance of new technologies rather than to ac!nowledge people6s ethicalconcerns

+. According to the passage, it is probable that which one of the following will occur when ris! communicators attempt to communicate with lay people who have mista!en ideas about a particular technology8

(A) 'he lay people perceiving that the ris! communicators have provided morereliableinformation, will discard their mista!en notion.

() 'he lay people will only partially revise their ideas on the basis of the new information.

(") 'he lay people fitting the new information into their e0isting framewor! will interpretthe communication differently that the ris! communicators had intended.

(#) 'he lay people misunderstanding the new information will further distort theinformation when they communicate it to other lay people.

(%) 'he lay people will ignore any communication about a technology they consider potentially dangerous.

. ;hich one of the following is most clearly an e0ample of the !ind of ris! perception

discussed in the studies/ mentioned in line 8(A) A s!ydiver chec!s the lines on her parachute several times before a $ump becausetangled lines often !eep the parachutes from opening properly

() A person decides to 4uit smo!ing in order to lesson the probability of lung damage tohimself and his family

(") A homeowner who decides to have her house tested for radon also decides not to allowanyone to smo!e in her house

(#) A person who often weaves in and out of traffic while driving his car at e0cessive speeds



worries about meteorites hitting his house

(%) A group of townspeople opposes the building of a nuclear waste dump outsider theirtown and proposes that the dump be placed in another town

3. It can be inferred that the authors of the passage would be more li!ely than would the ris!communicators discussed in the first paragraph to emphasi*e which one of the following8

(A) lay people6s tendency to become alarmed about technologies that they find new orstrange

() lay people6s tendency to compare ris!s that e0perts would not consider comparable

(") the need for lay people to adopt scientists6 advice about technological ris!

(#) the inability of lay people to ran! ha*ards by the number of fatalities caused annually

(%) the impact of lay people6s value systems on their perceptions of ris!

2. According to the passage many lay people believe which one of the following about ris!communication8

(A) It focuses e0cessively on mundane ha*ards.

() It is a tool used to manipulate the public.(") It is a ma$or cause of inaccuracies in public !nowledge about science.

(#) It most often functions to help people ma!e informed decisions.

(%) Its level of effectiveness depends on the level of !nowledge its audience already has.

In *pril /002 representatives of the 7ico Korea Union of electronics %or(ers in uchoncity, south Korea, traveled to the United States in order to demand just settlement of theirclaims from the parent company of their employers, %ho upon the formation of the unionhad shut do%n operations %ithout paying the %or(ers. 5rom the #eginning, the union cause%as championed #y an unprecedented coalition of Korean *merican groups and deeplyaected the Korean *merican community on several levels.

5irst, it served as a rallying focus for a diverse community often divided #y generation,

class and political ideologies. )ost nota#ly, the 7ico cause mo#ili&ed many young second'generation Korean *mericans, many of %hom had never #een part of a political campaign#efore, let alone one involving Korean issues. )em#ers of this generation, unli(e rst'generation Korean *mericans, generally fall %ithin the more privileged sectors of the Korean*merican community and often feel alienated from their Korean roots. In addition to raisingthe political consciousness of young Korean *mericans, the 7ico struggle spar(ed amongthem ne% interest in their cultural identity. !he 7ico %or(ers also suggested ne% roles thatcan #e played #y recent immigrants, particularly %or(ing'class immigrants. !heseimmigrants’ (no%ledge of %or(ing conditions overseas can help to glo#ali&e the perspectiveof their communities and can help to esta#lish international ties on a more personal level, as%itnessed in the especially %arm e-change #et%een the 7ico %or(ers and recent %or(ing'class immigrants from Ahina. In addition to #roadening the political #ase %ithin the Korean*merican community, the 7ico struggle also led to ne% alliances #et%een the Korean*merican community and progressive la#or and social justice groups %ithin the largersociety3as evidenced in the support received from the Aoalition of $a#or Union 8omen andleading *frican *merican unionists.

!he reasons for these eects lie in the nature of the cause. !he issues raised #y the 7icounionists had such a strong human component that dierences %ithin the community#ecame secondary to larger concerns for social justice and %or(ers’ rights. !he %or(ers’demands for compensation and respect %ere unencum#ered %ith strong ideologicaltrappings. !he economic e-ploitation faced #y the 7ico %or(ers underscored the commoninterests of Korean %or(ers, Korean *mericans, the %or(ing class more inclusively, and a#road spectrum of community leaders.



!he 7ico %or(ers’ campaign thus oers an important lesson. It demonstrates that ethniccommunities need more than just a (no%ledge of history and culture as artifacts of the pastin order to strengthen their ethnic identity. It sho%s that perhaps the most eective meansof empo%erment for many ethnic communities of immigrant derivation may #e anidentication %ith and participation in current struggles for economic and social justice intheir countries of origin.

7. ;hich one of the following best describes the main topic of the passage8(A) the contribution of the Gorean American community to improving the wor!ing

conditions of Goreans employed by United States companies

() the change brought about in the Gorean American community by contacts with Goreansvisiting the United States

(") the contribution of recent immigrants from Gorea to strengthening ethnic identity in theGorean American community

(#) the effects on the Gorean American community of a dispute between Gorean unionwor!ers and a United States company

(%) the effect of the politici*ation of secondgeneration Gorean Americans on the Gorean

American community as a whole

. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following was a significant factor in the decisionto shut down the =ico plant in uchon "ity8

(A) the decreasing profitability of maintaining operations in Gorea

() the failure to resolve longstanding disputes between the =ico wor!ers and management

(") the creation of a union by the =ico wor!ers

(#) the withholding of wor!ers6 wages by the parent company

(%) the finding of an alternate site for operations

-. ;hich one of the following is >5' mentioned in the passage as a recent development in the

Gorean American community8(A) Foung secondgeneration Gorean Americans have begun to ta!e an interest in their

Gorean heritage.

() ecent Gorean American immigrants of wor!ingclass bac!grounds have begun to enterthe more privileged sectors of the Gorean American community.

(") Gorean Americans have developed closer ties with activist groups from other sectors ofthe population.

(#) =reviously nonpolitical members of the Gorean American community have becomemore politically active.

(%) 'he Gorean American community has been able to set aside political and generationaldisparities in order to support a common cause.

1:. It can be inferred that the author of the passage would most li!ely agree with which one ofthe following statements about ethnic communities of immigrant derivation8

(A) Such communities can derive important benefits from maintaining ties with theircountries of origin.

() Such communities should focus primarily on promoting study of the history and cultureof their people in order to strengthen their ethnic identity.







passage8

(A) 'hey were the first scholars to use social science tools in analy*ing legal cases.

() 'hey confined their studies to the outcomes analysis techni4ue.

(") 'hey saw no value in the analysis provided by traditional legal research.

(#) 'hey re$ected policy capturing as being too limited in scope.

(%) 'hey believed that the information generated by outcomes analysis would be relevant for plaintiffs.

17. 'he author6s characteri*ation of traditional legal research in the first paragraph is intended to

(A) provide bac!ground information for the subse4uent discussion

() summari*e an opponent6s position

(") argue against the use of social science tools in the analysis of se0 discrimination cases

(#) emphasi*e the fact that legal researchers act to the detriment of potential plaintiffs

(%) reconcile traditional legal researchers to the use of social science tools

1. 'he information in the passage suggests that plaintiffs who pursue se0 discrimination cases

despite the statistics provided by outcomes analysis can best be li!ened to

(A) athletes who continue to employ training techni4ues despite their !nowledge ofstatistical evidence indicating that these techni4ues are unli!ely to be effective

() lawyers who handle lawsuits for a large number of clients in the hope that some percentage will be successful

(") candidates for public office who are more interested in ma!ing a political statement thanin winning an election

(#) supporters of a cause who recruit individuals sympathetic to it in the belief that largenumbers of supporters will lend the cause legitimacy

(%) purchasers of a charity6s raffle tic!ets who consider the purchase a contribution because

the li!elihood of winning is remote

1-. 'he policycapturing approach differs from the approach described in lines 3- in that thelatter approach

(A) ma!es use of detailed information on a greater number of cases

() focuses more directly on issues of concern to litigants

(") analy*es information that is more recent and therefore reflects current trends

(#) allows assessment of aspects of a case that are not specifically mentioned in a $udge6sopinion

(%) eliminates any distortion due to personal bias on the part of the researcher

&:. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8(A) A techni4ue is introduced, its shortcomings are summari*ed, and alternatives are

described.

() A debate is introduced, evidence is presented, and a compromise is reached.

(") A theory is presented, clarification is provided, and a plan of further evaluation issuggested.

(#) Standards are established, hypothetical e0amples are analy*ed, and the criteria are



amended.

(%) A position is challenged, its shortcomings are categori*ed, and the challenge is revised.

* fa(e can #e dened as an art%or( intended to deceive. !he motives of its creator aredecisive, and the merit of the o#ject itself is a separate issue. !he "uestion mar( in the titleof )ar( Fones’s "a/e0 The !ct of Deception reveals the study’s #roader concerns. Indeed, itmight e"ually #e entitled ,riginal01 and the te-t #egins #y noting a variety of possi#ilitiessome%here #et%een the t%o e-tremes. !hese include %or(s #y an artist’s follo%ers in thestyle of the master, deli#erate archaism, copying for pedagogical purposes, and theproduction of commercial facsimiles.

!he greater part of "a/e0 is devoted to a Ahronological survey suggesting that fa(ingfeeds on the many dierent motives people have for collecting art, and that, on the %hole,the fa(ing of art 4ourishes %henever art collecting 4ourishes. In imperial Dome there %as a%idespread interest in collecting earlier Gree( art, and therefore in fa(ing it. :o dou#t manyof the sculptures no% e-hi#ited as +Doman copies %ere originally passed o as Gree(. Inmedieval Europe, #ecause art %as cele#rated more for its devotional uses than for itsprovenance or the ingenuity of its creators, the fa(ing of art %as virtually none-istent. !hemodern age of fa(ing #egan in the Italian Denaissance, %ith t%o lin(ed developmentsC apassionate identication %ith the %orld of anti"uity and a gro%ing sense of individual artistic

identity. * patron of the young )ichelangelo prevailed upon the artist to ma(e his SculptureSleeping +upld loo( as though it had #een #uried in the earth so that +it %ill #e ta(en foranti"ue, and you %ill sell it much #etter. 8ithin a fe% years, ho%ever, #eginning %ith hisrst masterpiece, the Bacchus, )ichelangelo had sho%n his contemporaries that great artcan assimilate and transcend %hat came #efore, resulting in a %holly original %or(. Soon hisgenius made him the o#ject of imitators.

"a/e0 also reminds us that in certain cultures authenticity is a foreign concept. !his istrue of much *frican art, %hen the authenticity of an o#ject is considered #y collectors todepend on its function. *s an illustration, the study compares t%o versions of a chi )aramas( made #y the am#ara people of )ali. ne has pegs allo%ing it to #e attached to a capfor its intended ceremonial purpose. !he second, other%ise identical, lac(s the pegs and is areplica made for sale. *frican carving is notoriously di6cult to date, #ut even if the ritualmas( is recent, made perhaps to replace a damaged predecessor, and the replica much

older, only the ritual mas( should #e seen as authentic, for it is tied to the form’s originalfunction. !hat, at least, is the consensus of the so'called e-perts. ne %onders %hether theam#aran artists %ould agree.

&1. 'he passage can best be described as doing which one of the following8

(A) reconciling varied points of view

() chronicling the evolution of a phenomenon

(") e0ploring a comple0 4uestion

(#) advocating a new approach

(%) re$ecting an inade4uate e0planation

&&. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the author6s main point8(the te0t begins by

noting a variety of possibilities somewhere between the two e0tremes. 'hese include wor!s by an artist6s followers in the style of the master, deliberate archaism, copying for pedagogical purposes, and the production of commercial facsimiles)

(A) 'he fa!ing of art has occurred throughout history and in virtually every culture.

() ;hether a wor! of art is fa!e or not is less important than whether it has artistic merit.

(") It is possible to show that a wor! of art is fa!e, but the authenticity of a wor! cannot be proved conclusively.



(#) A variety of circumstances ma!e it difficult to determine whether a wor! of art canappropriately be called a fa!e.

(%) ;ithout an international mar!et to support it, the fa!ing of art would cease.

&+. According to the passage an artwor! can be definitively classified as a fa!e if the personwho created it

(A) consciously adopted the artistic style of an influential mentor

() deliberately imitated a famous wor! of art as a learning e0ercise

(") wanted other people to be fooled by its appearance

(#) made multiple, identical copies of the wor! available for sale

(%) made the wor! resemble the art of an earlier era

&. 'he author provides at least one e0ample of each of the following %?"%='@

(A) categories of art that are neither wholly fa!e not wholly original

() cultures in which the fa!ing of art flourished

(") 4ualities that art collectors have pri*ed in their ac4uisitions

(#) cultures in which the categories fa!e/ and original/ do not apply

(%) contemporary artists whose wor!s have inspired fa!es

&3. 'he author implies which one of the following about the artistic merits of fa!es8

(A) ecause of the circumstances of its production, a fa!e cannot be said to have true artisticmerit.

() A fa!e can be said to have artistic merit only if the attempted deception is successful.

(") A fa!e may or may not have artistic merit in its own right, regardless of thecircumstances of its production.

(#) ;hether a fa!e has artistic merit depends on whether its creator is accomplished as anartist.

(%) 'he artistic merit of a fa!e depends on the merit of the original wor! that inspired thefa!e.

&2. y the standard described in the last paragraph of the passage, which one of the followingwould be considered authentic8

(A) an ancient oman copy of an ancient 9ree! sculpture

() a painting begun by enaissance master and finished by his assistants after his death

(") a print of a painting signed by the artist who painted the original

(#) a faithful replica of a ceremonial crown that preserves all the details of and isindistinguishable from the original

(%) a modern reconstruction of a medieval altarpiece designed to serve its traditional role ina service of worship

&7. ;hich one of the following best describes how the last paragraph functions in the conte0t ofthe passage8

(A) It offers a tentative answer to a 4uestion posed by the author in the opening paragraph.

() It summari*es an account provided in detail in the preceding paragraph.

(") It provides additional support for an argument advanced by the author in the preceding



paragraph.

(#) It e0amines another facet of a distinction developed in the preceding paragraphs.

(%) It affirms the general principle enunciated at the beginning of the passage.

LSAT 22 SECTION IV





sheet.

)any literary scholars #elieve that Vora :eale Hurston’s Their 2yes Were Watching -od ;/0= has #een the primary in4uence on some of the most accomplished lac( %omen%riting in the United States today. Indeed, *lice 8al(er, the author of the pri&e'%inning novelThe +olor &urple, has said of Their 2yes, +!here is no #oo( more important to me than thisone. !hus, it seems necessary to as( %hy Their 2yes, a %or( no% vie%ed #y a multitude ofreaders as remar(a#ly successful in its comple- depiction of a lac( %oman’s search for selfand community, %as ever relegated to the margins of the literary canon.

!he details of the novel’s initial reception help ans%er this "uestion. Unli(e the recentlyrediscovered and ree-amined %or( of Harriet 8ilson, Their 2yes %as not totally ignored #y#oo( revie%ers upon its pu#lication. In fact, it received a mi-ture of positive and negativerevie%s #oth from 8hite #oo( revie%ers %or(ing for prominent periodicals and fromimportant gures %ithin lac( literary circles. In the Saturday Re$ie) of *iterature1 GeorgeStevens %rote that +the narration is e-actly right, #ecause most of it is dialogue and thedialogue gives us a constant sense of character in action. !he negative criticism %aspartially a result of Hurston’s ideological dierences %ith other mem#ers of the lac(*mericans in literature. lac( %riters of the /0J2s #elieved that the lac( artist’s primaryresponsi#ility %as to create protest ction that e-plored the negative eects of racism in theUnited States. 5or e-ample, Dichard 8right, the author of the much acclaimed (ati$e Son ;/0J2=, %rote that Their 2yes had +no theme and +no message. )ost critics’ and readers’

e-pectations of lac( literature rendered them una#le to appreciate Hurston’s su#tledelineation of the life of an ordinary lac( %oman in a lac( community and the novel %ent "uietly out of print.

Decent acclaim for Their 2yes results from the emergence of feminist literary criticismand the development of standards of evaluation specic to the %or( of lac( %riters> these(inds of criticism changed readers’ e-pectations of art and ena#led them to appreciateHurston’s novel. !he emergence of feminist criticism %as crucial #ecause such criticism#rought ne% attention to neglected %or(s such as Hurston’s and alerted readers toHurston’s e-ploration of %omen’s issues in her ction. !he *frocentric standards ofevaluation %ere e"ually important to the rediscovery of Their 2yes, for such standardsprovided readers %ith the tools to recogni&e and appreciate the lac( fol(lore and oralstorytelling traditions Hurston incorporated %ithin her %or(. In one of the most illuminatingdiscussions of the novel to date, Henry $ouis Gates Fr., states that +Hurston’s strategy seems

to concern itself %ith the possi#ilities of representation of the spea(ing lac( voice in%riting.

1. 'he passage suggests which one of the following about arriet ;ilson6s novel8

(A) It was written at the same time as Their 'yes Were Watching &od , but it did not receiveas much critical attention.

() It greatly influenced lac! women writing after the 1-:s.

(") It was widely read when it was published but it has not received attention from literary



critics until recently.

(#) It was not formally published, and the manuscript has only recently been discovered byliterary critics.

(%) It did not receive critical attention when it was published, but it has recently become thesub$ect of critical study.

&. 'he passage offers support for which one of the following statements about literaryreviewers and Their 'yes Were Watching &od 8

(A) Their 'yes was widely acclaimed by reviewers upon its publication, even though iteventually went out of print.

() 'he eventual obscurity of Their 'yes was not the result of complete neglect byreviewers.

(") Some early reviewers of Their 'yes interpreted the novel from a point of view that later became !nown as Afrocentric.

(#) Their 'yes was more typical of the protest fiction of the 1-:s than reviewers reali*ed.

(%) <ost early reviewers of Their 'yes did not respond positively to the boo!.

+. ;hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage8

(A) urston6s Their 'yes Were Watching &od had little in common with novels written bylan! authors during the 1-:s.

() Deminist critics and authors such as Alice ;al!er were instrumental in establishingurston6s Their 'yes Were Watching &od as an important part of the American literarycanon.

(") "ritics and readers were unable to appreciate fully urston6s Their 'yes Were Watching

&od until critics applied new standards of evaluation to the novel.

(#) urston6s Their 'yes Were Watching &od was an important influence on the protestfiction written by lac! writers in the midtwentieth century.

(%) Afrocentric strategies of analysis have brought attention to the use of oral storytellingtraditions in novels written by lac! Americans such as urston6s Their 'yes Were

Watching &od .

. According to the passage which one of the following is true of lac! fol!lore traditions asused in literature written in the United States8

(A) 'hey are an aspect of lac! American literature first recogni*ed and written about byenry Couis 9ates, Br.

() 'hey were not widely incorporated into novels written by lac! Americans until afterthe 1-:s.

(") 'hey were first used by a novelist in Oora >eale urston6s Their 'yes Were Watching&od(

(#) 'hey were not incorporated into novels published by lac! Americans in the 1-:s.

(%) 'hey are an aspect of lac! literature that some readers did not fully appreciate untilrelatively recently.

3. 'he passage suggests that !atie Son differs from Their 'yes Were Watching &od in whichone of the following ways8

(A) It received fewer positive reviews at the time of its publication than did Their 'yes(



() It is less typical of literature written by lac! Americans during the 1-:s than is Their

'yes(

(") It is less focused on an ordinary individual6s search for self within a lac! communitythan is 'hen %yes.

(#) It denies more aspects of lac! American fol!lore than does Their 'yes.

(%) It has received more attention from feminist and Afrocentric literary critics than Their 'yes(

2. ;hich one of the following provides the clearest e0ample of the !ind of fiction that manylac! writers of the 1-:s, as their views are described in the passage, believed should bewritten8

(A) a novel that focuses on the interrelationships among four generations of lac! women

() a historical novel that recreates actual events that occurred as lac! people sufferedfrom oppression and racial in$ustice in a small town

(") a novel, based on biographical stories orally relayed to the author as a child, thatdescribes the development of traditions in a lac! family

(#) a novel that e0plores the psychological aspects of a relationship between a ;hite manand a lac! man as they wor! together to organi*e protests against un$ust wor!ingconditions

(%) a novel that e0amines the different ways in which three lac! children e0perience theirfirst day of school in a rural community

7. 'he author would be most li!ely to agree with which one of the following statements aboutthe relationship between art and literary criticism8

(A) 'he longterm reputation of a wor! of art is less dependent on the response of literarycritics than on the response of readers and authors.

() %0perimental wor!s of fiction are usually poorly received and misunderstood by literary

critics when they are first published.(") 'he response of literary critics to a wor! of art can be determined by certain ideological

perspectives and assumptions about the purpose of art.

(#) Citerary critics do not significantly affect the way most people interpret and appreciateliterature.

(%) 'he ideological bases of a wor! of art are the first consideration of most literary critics.


(A) correct a misconception

() e0plain a reassessment

(") reconcile two points of view(#) critici*e a conventional approach

(%) announce a new discovery

$egal cases can #e termed +hard cases if they raise issues that are highly controversial,issues a#out %hich people %ith legal training disagree. !he ongoing de#ate over thecompleteness of the la% usually concerns the e-tent to %hich such hard cases are legallydeterminate, or decida#le according to e-isting la%.

H. $. *. Hart’s The +oncept of *a) is still the clearest and most persuasive statement of



#oth the standard theory of hard cases and the standard theory of la% on %hich it rests. 5orHart the la% consists of legal rules formulated in general terms> these terms he calls +opente-tured %hich means that they contain a +core of settled meaning and a +penum#ra or+periphery %here their meaning is not determinate. 5or e-ample, suppose an ordinanceprohi#its the use of vehicles in a par(. +ehicle has a core of meaning %hich includes carsand motorcycles. ut, Hart claims, other vehicles, such as #icycles, fall %ithin the peripheral

meaning of +vehicle, so that the la% does not esta#lish %hether they are prohi#ited. !here%ill al%ays #e cases not covered #y the core meaning of legal terms %ithin e-isting la%s.Hart considers these cases to #e legally indeterminate. Since courts cannot decide suchcases on legal grounds, they must consider nonlegal ;for e-ample, moral and political=grounds, and there#y e-ercise judicial discretion to ma(e, rather than apply la%.

In Donald 9%or(in’s vie% the la% is richer than Hart %ould grantC he denies that the la%consists solely of e-plicit rules. !he la% also includes principles that do not depend for theirlegal status on any prior o6cial recognition or enactment. 9%or(in claims that many casesillustrate the e-istence of legal principles that are dierent from legal rules and that Hart’smodel of rules cannot accommodate. 5or 9%or(in, legal rules apply in an all'or'nothingfashion, %hereas legal principles do not> they provide the rationale for applying legal rules.

!hus, #ecause 9%or(in thin(s there is la% in addition to legal rules, he thin(s that legalindeterminacy and the need for judicial discretion do not follo% from the e-istence of open

te-ture in legal rules.It %ould #e a mista(e, though, to dispute Hart’s theory of hard cases on this #asis alone.

If Hart’s claim a#out the +open te-ture of general terms is true, then %e should e-pect tond legal indeterminacies even if the la% consists of principles in addition to rules. $egalprinciples as %ell as legal rules contain general terms that have open te-ture. *nd it %ould#e a#surd to suppose that %herever the meaning of a legal rule is unclear, there is a legalprinciple %ith a clear meaning. )ost interesting and controversial cases %ill occur in thepenum#ra of #oth rules and principles.

-. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'he law will never be complete because new situations will always arise which willre4uire new laws to resolve them.

() 'he most difficult legal cases are those concerning controversial issues about whichtrained legal minds have differing opinions.

(") 'he concept of legal principles does not diminish the usefulness of the concept of theopen te0ture of general terms in deciding whether hard cases are legally determinate.

(#) 'he concept of legal principles is a deleterious addition to the theory of law since anyflaws e0hibited by legal rules could also be shared by legal principles.

(%) 'he inherent inconsistency of terms used in laws provides a continuing opportunity for $udges to e0ercise their discretion to correct defect and gaps in the law.

1:. According to the passage the term legal principles/ as used by #wor!in refers to

(A) a comprehensive code of ethics that governs the behavior of professionals in the legal

system() e0plicit analyses of the terms used in legal rules indicating what meanings the terms do

and do not cover

(") legal doctrines that underlie and guide the use of accepted legal rules

(#) legal rules that have not yet passed through the entire legislative procedure necessary for them to become law

(%) the body of legal decisions regarding cases that re4uired $udicial discretion for theirresolution





what laws are written or how they are applied

(") presenting evidence to support #wor!in6s idea that legal rules apply in an allornothingfashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated ways

(#) criti4uing the concept of the open te0ture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw in art6sotherwise wellregarded boo!

(%) demonstrating that #wor!in6s concept of legal principles does not form the basis for asuccessful attac! on art6s theory of legally indeterminate cases

ne %ay governments can decrease air pollution is to impose a ta- on industrial car#ondio-ide emissions. ut %hy should governments consider a car#on ta- %hen they couldcontrol emissions #y esta#lishing energy e6ciency and conservation standards, #ylegislating against coal use, or #y increasing investment in nuclearL !he great virtue of sucha ta- is that it %ould provide incentives for industry to achieve emission reductions. ecauseoil emits more car#on dio-ide per unit of energy generated than does natural gas, and coalmore than oil, a car#on ta- %ould vary %ith the type of fuel. Such a ta- %ould induceindustry to su#stitute less'polluting fuels for those carrying a higher ta- and also to reducethe total use of energy

Ho%ever, it is not clear ho% high such a ta- should #e or %hat its economic and

environmental implications %ould #e. *t rst glance, it is not di6cult to estimate roughly thesi&e of the ta- needed to eect a given level of emission reduction. ne %riter estimates, fore-ample, that a ta- of J/ percent on the price of coal, percent on oil, and @< percent ongas %ould reduce the United Kingdom’s emissions #y @2 percent ;using /0BB as the #aseyear= #y the year @22<, the target recommended #y the /0BB !oronto Aonference. It should#e noted, ho%ever, that these num#ers ignore the eect of the ta- on economic gro%th, andhence on emissions, and assume that past responses to a price rise %ill #e replicated in thefuture. !hese num#ers are also #ased on the assumption that all countries %ill #ehavecooperatively in imposing a car#on ta-.

!here are very strong reasons to #elieve that cooperation %ould #e di6cult to %in. Ifmost countries cooperated, then any country that chose not to cooperate %ould #eadvantagedC it %ould have no a#atement costs, and the eect on the environment of itsdefection %ould #e relatively small. ecause of this +free rider eect, cooperation on a

scale needed to reduce car#on dio-ide emissions might prove elusive.Should countries act unilaterally to cur# emissionsL If a country %ere to act unilaterally,

the #enets %ould #e spread across the glo#e, %hereas the costs %ould fall solely on thecountry ta(ing the action. !he action %ould reduce emissions glo#ally, and the eect of this%ould #e to reduce the #enet other countries %ould receive if they reduced emissions. *s aconse"uence, other countries %ould have less incentive to reduce emissions and %ouldpro#a#ly emit more car#on dio-ide than they %ould have if the unilateral action had not#een ta(en. !he entire eect of the emission reduction may not #e lost, #ut it %ould surely#e diminished #y this free'riding #ehavior.

12. According to the passage, the si*e of the carbon ta0 levied on a given fuel would vary withthe

(A) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry

() amount of pollution caused by the fuel being ta0ed

(") si*e of the industries using the fuel being ta0ed

(#) effect that the ta0 would have on a country6s economy

(%) number of users of a particular fuel at a particular time

17. 'he author mentions the estimates of 5ne writer/ (line &&) primarily in order to

(A) indicate in a general way the si*e that a carbon ta0 must be for it to be effective



() provide the most accurate information available about the most practical si*e for acarbon ta0

(") suggest that the target recommended by the 1- 'oronto "onference is an unrealisticone

(#) undermine the argument that a carbon ta0 would provide incentives for user6s to achieve

emissions reductions(%) show how the si*e of an effective carbon ta0 can be calculated

1. ;hich one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the conclusionSuch a ta0 would induce industry to substitute lesspolluting fuels for those carrying ahigher ta0/ (lines 1+13)

(A) 'he fuel ta0ed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels ta0ed at lowerrates.

() 'he goal set by the 'oronto "onference cannot be reached unless each fuel it ta0ed at amuch higher rate.

(") 'he ta0 on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the ta0 on oil or gas.

(#) It is discovered that gas produces even less carbon dio0ide per unit of energy generatedthan was previously thought.

(%) It is discovered that coal produces even more carbon dio0ide per unit of energygenerated than are previously thought.

1-. 'he passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following 4uestions8

(A) ow high a ta0 should a country6s government impose on carbon dio0ide emissions8

() ;hat issues should a country6s government consider before deciding whether to imposea ta0 on carbon dio0ide emissions8

(") ;hat assumptions underlie a country6s decision to impose a ta0 on carbon dio0ideemissions8

(#) ow can the effects of industrial pollution on the %arth6s atmosphere be decreased8

(%) ;hat can be done to increase the effectiveness of any ta0 that a country imposes oncarbon dio0ide emissions8

&:. In response to the 4uestion. Should countries act unilaterally to curb emissions8/ (lines 3) the author would be most li!ely to contend that a country should

(A) not act unilaterally because, although that country would receive some benefits fromsuch action, other countries would most li!ely be harmed by it

() not act unilaterally because unilateral action would have no benefits for other countries

(") not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be $ustified by the limited

effect that such action would have on industrial pollution worldwide(#) act unilaterally because that country6s economy would benefit from the resulting

reduction in industrial emissions worldwide

(%) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that country6se0ample

&1. ;hich one of the following is most parallel to the free rider/ effect mentioned in line 18

(A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial



development only if the city will re*one the specific property the industry desires.

() ecause fares for public transportation are rising, a commuter decides to bicycle to wor! rather than to use public transportation in a city where auto emissions are a problem.

(") An apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapers even though no one else in the building does so and recycling is not re4uired by law.

(#) In an area where groundwater has become polluted, a homeowner continues to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat pollution.

(%) In an area where overgra*ing is a severe problem, a shepherd allows his sheep tocontinue gra*ing common field even though his neighbors have agreed to buy feed fortheir animals until regrowth occurs.

Some meteorologists have insisted that the severity of the drought in su#'Saharan 8est*frica and its long duration ;nearly J2 years to date= must #e a sign of a long term alterationin climate. *mong the theories proposed to e-plain this change, one hypothesis that hasgained %idespread attention attri#utes the drought to a cooling of the :orthern Hemisphere.

!his hypothesis is #ased on the fact that #et%een /0J< and the early /02s, the averageannual air temperatures over the landmasses of the :orthern Hemisphere decreased #ya#out half a degree 5ahrenheit ;appro-imately one "uarter of a degree Aelsius3a small #utsignicant amount=. Several meteorologists have suggested that this cooling %as caused #yan increase in atmospheric dust emanating from volcanic eruptions and from ur#an andindustrial pollutionC the dust re4ected incoming sunlight, causing the ground to receive lesssolar radiation and to transfer less heat to the atmosphere. !he cooling seemed to #e morepronounced in the middle and high latitudes than in the tropics, an o#servation that isconsistent %ith the fact that the Sun’s rays enter the atmosphere at a greater angle farthernorth and so have to pass through more dust'laden atmosphere on the %ay to the Earth.

Since %inds are set in motion #y dierences in air pressure caused #y une"ual heatingof the atmosphere, supporters of the cooling hypothesis have argued that a gro%ingtemperature dierential #et%een the unusually cool middle and high latitudes and the %armtropical latitudes is causing a south%ard e-pansion of the circumpolar vorte-3the high'altitude %esterly %inds that circle the :orthern Hemisphere at middle latitudes. *ccording to

this hypothesis, as the circumpolar vorte- e-pands, it forces south other components oflarge'scale atmospheric circulation and in eect displaces the north%ard'moving monsoonthat ordinarily #rings su#'Saharan rain. 7roponents have further argued that this change inatmospheric circulation might #e long'term since cooling in the :orthern Hemisphere could#e perpetuated #y increases in ice and sno% coverage there, %hich %ould lead to re4ectionof more sunlight a%ay from the Earth, to further cooling, and, indirectly, to further drought insu#'Saharan 8est *frica.

9espite these are predictions and even though the current *frican drought has lastedlonger than any other in this century, the notion that the drought is caused #y cooling of the:orthern Hemisphere is, in fact, not %ell supported. Aontrary to the predictions of thecooling hypothesis, during one period of rapid :orthern Hemisphere cooling in the early/0<2s, the su#'Sahara %as unusually rainy. )oreover, in the early /0B2s, %hen the drought%as particularly severe, :orthern Hemisphere lands actually %armed slightly. *nd further

dou#t has #een cast on the hypothesis #y recent analyses suggesting that, %hen surfacetemperatures of %ater as %ell as land are ta(en into account, the :orthern Hemisphere maynot have cooled at all.

&&. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) 'here is strong evidence to support the theory that an increase in atmospheric dust hascontributed to the severity of the drought in subSaharan ;est Africa.

() 'he suggestion that >orthern emisphere cooling is contributing to a decline of rainfallin subSaharan ;est Africa is open to 4uestion.



(") 'he e0pansion of the circumpolar vorte0 has caused a dramatic shift in the atmosphericcirculation patterns above subSaharan ;est Africa.

(#) 'he drought in subSaharan ;est Africa represents a longterm permanent alteration inglobal climate patterns.

(%) <eteorologists cannot determine when the drought in subSaharan ;est Africa is li!ely

to end.

&+. 'he author6s attitude toward the cooling hypothesis is best described as one of

(A) vehement opposition

() cautious s!epticism

(") growing ambivalence

(#) guarded enthusiasm

(%) strong support

&. According to the passage proponents of the cooling hypothesis suggested that thecircumpolar vorte0 is li!ely to e0pand when which one of the following occurs8

(A) 'he average annual atmospheric temperature of the tropics is significantly higher thannormal for an e0tended period of time.

() 'he average annual snowfall in the >orthern emisphere is lower than normal for ane0tended period of time.

(") 'he average annual surface temperature of >orthern emisphere waters is higher thanthe average annual surface temperature of >orthern emisphere landmasses.

(#) 'here is a significant increase in the difference between the average annual atmospherictemperature of the tropics and that of the more northern latitudes.

(%) 'here is a significant increase in the difference between the average annual atmospherictemperatures of the middle and the high latitudes in the >orthern emisphere.

&3. ;hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the average annualtemperature of the air over >orthern emisphere landmasses before 1-38

(A) It was higher than it was between 1-3 and the early 1-7:s.

() It was lower than it was during the early 1-:s.

(") It was the same as it was between 1-3 and the early 1-7:s.

(#) It was the same as the annual average surface temperature of >orthern emispherelandmasses and bodies of water between 1-3 and the early 1-7:s.

(%) It was higher than the annual average surface temperature of >orthern emispherelandmasses and bodies of water between 1-3 and the early 1-7:s.


(A) 5pposing points of view are presented, evidence supporting each point of view isdiscussed, and then one point of view is developed into a formal hypothesis.

() A theory is discussed and different points of view about the theory are discussed,supported and then reconciled.

(") A hypothesis is proposed, contradictory evidence is discussed and then the hypothesis isamended.

(#) A theory e0plaining a phenomenon is proposed, supporting evidence is considered and



then the theory is disputed.

(%) A point of view is presented, a theory supporting the view is proposed, contradictoryevidence is presented and then a different theory is proposed.

&7. A proponent of the cooling hypothesis would most li!ely argue that the return of themonsoon rains to subSaharan ;est Africa would indicate that which one of the following

has also occurred8

(A) 'he amount of ice and snow coverage over the landmasses of the >orthern emispherehas increased.

() 'he average annual temperature of the atmosphere over the middle and high latitudes ofthe >orthern emisphere has decreased.

(") 'he average annual temperature of the atmosphere over the tropics in the >orthernemisphere has increased.

(#) 5ther components of largescale atmospheric circulation besides the circumpolar vorte0have e0panded and moved southward.

(%) 'he atmospheric circulation pattern of the highaltitude westerly winds has resumed its

normal pattern.

LSAT 23 SECTION III






sheet.

8herever the crime novels of 7. 9. Fames are discussed #y critics, there is a tendency onthe one hand to e-aggerate her merits and on the other to castigate her as a genre %riter%ho is getting a#ove herself . 7erhaps underlying the de#ate is that familiar, false oppositionset up #et%een dierent (inds of ction, according to %hich enjoya#le novels are held to #esomeho% slightly lo%#ro%, and a novel is not considered true literature unless it is a tiny #itdull.

!hose commentators %ho %ould elevate Fames’ #oo(s to the status of high literaturepoint to her painsta(ingly constructed characters, her ela#orate settings, her sense of place,and her love of a#stractionsC notions a#out morality, duty, pain, and pleasure are never farfrom the lips of her police o6cers and murderers. thers nd her pretentious and tiresome>an inverted sno##ery accuses her of a#andoning the time'honored conventions of thedetective genre in favor of a high#ro% literary style. !he critic Harriet 8augh %ants 7. 9.

Fames to get on %ith +the more ta-ing #usiness of laying a tric(y trail and then fooling thereader> 7hilip a(es in The *iterary Re$ie) groans, +Aould %e please proceed %ith the#usiness of clapping the handcus on the (illerL

Fames is certainly capa#le of stri(ingly good %riting. She ta(es immense trou#le toprovide her characters %ith convincing histories and passions. Her descriptive digressionsare part of the pleasure of her #oo(s and give them dignity and %eight. ut it is e"ually truethat they fre"uently interfere %ith the story> the patinas and aromas of a country (itchenreceive more loving attention than does the plot itself. Her devices to advance the story can#e shameless and thin, and it is often impossi#le to see ho% her detective arrives at thetruth> one is left to conclude that the detective solves crimes through intuition. *t this stagein her career 7. 9. Fames seems to #e less interested in the specics of detection than in hercharacters’ vulnera#ilities and perple-ities.



Ho%ever, once the rules of a chosen genre cramp creative thought, there is no reason%hy an a#le and interesting %riter should accept them. In her latest #oo(, there are signsthat Fames is #eginning to feel constrained #y the crime'novel genre, here her determinationto leave areas of am#iguity in the solution of the crime and to distri#ute guilt among themurderer, victim, and #ystanders points to conscious re#ellion against the traditionalneatness of detective ction. It is fashiona#le, though reprehensi#le, for one %riter to

prescri#e to another. ut perhaps the time has come for 7. 9. Fames to slide out of herhandcus and stride into the territory of the mainstream novel.

1. ;hich one the following best states the author6s main conclusion8

(A) ecause =. #. Bames6s potential as a writer is stifled by her chosen genre, she should turnher talents toward writing mainstream novels.

() ecause the re4uirements of the popular novel are incompatible with true creativee0pression, =. #. Bames6s promise as a serious author has been diminished.

(") 'he dichotomy between popular and sophisticated literature is well illustrated in thecrime novels of =. #. Bames.

(#) 'he critics who have condemned =. #. Bames6s lac! of attention to the specifics ofdetection fail to ta!e into account her carefully constructed plots.

(%) Although her plots are not always neatly resolved, the beauty of her descriptive passages $ustifies =. #. Bames6s decision to write in the crimenovel genre.

&. 'he author refers to the patinas and aromas of a county !itchen/ line +&) most probably inorder to

(A) illustrate Bames6s gift for innovative phrasing

() highlight Bames6s interest in rural society

(") allow the reader to e0perience the pleasure of Bames6s boo!s

(#) e0plain how Bames typically constructs her plots

(%) e0emplify Bames6s preoccupation with descriptive writing

+. 'he second paragraph serves primarily to

(A) propose an alternative to two e0treme opinions described earlier

() present previously mentioned positions in greater detail

(") contradict an assertion cited previously

(#) introduce a controversial interpretation

(%) analy*e a dilemma in greater depth

. 'he passage supports which one of the following statements about detective fiction8

(A) 'here are as many different detectivenovel conventions as there are writers of crimenovels.

() #etective fiction has been characteri*ed by e0tremely high literary 4uality.(") #etective fiction has been largely ignored by literary critics.

(#) 'here is very little agreement among critics about the basic elements of typical detectivenovel.

(%) ;riters of detective fiction have customarily followed certain conventions inconstructing their novels.

3. 'he passage suggests that both ;augh and 5a!es consider Bames6s novels to have



(A) too much material that is e0traneous to the solution of the crime

() too little characteri*ation to enable the reader to solve the crime

(") too few suspects to generate suspense

(#) too simple a plot to hold the attention of the reader

(%) too convoluted a plot for the reader to understand

2. It can be inferred from the passage that, in the author6s view, traditional detective fiction ischaracteri*ed by

(A) concern for the wea!nesses and doubts of the characters

() transparent devices to advance the plot

(") the attribution of intuition to the detective

(#) the straightforward assignment of culpability for the crime

(%) attention to the concepts of morality and responsibility

7. 'he author characteri*es the position of some critics as inverted snobbery/ (line 17) because they hold which one of the following views8

(A) "ritics of literature must ac!nowledge that they are less talented than creators ofliterature.

() "ritics should hesitate to disparage popular authors.

(") =. #. Bames6s novels should focus less on characters from the %nglish landed gentry.

(#) #etective fiction should be content to remain an unambiguous literary genre.

(%) =. #. Bames should be less fastidious bout portraying violence.

. ;hich one of the follow 4uotations about literature best e0emplifies the familiar/ attitudementioned in lines 3-8

(A) 'he fantasy and whimsy characteristic of this writer6s novels 4ualify them as truly greatwor!s of literature./

() 'he greatest wor! of early %nglish literature happens to be a highly humorouscollection of tales./

(") A truly great wor! of literature should place demand upon its readers, rather than divertthem./

(#) Although many critics are condescending about bestselling novels, I would not wish tochallenge the opinion of millions of readers./

(%) A novel need only satisfy the re4uirements of its particular genre to be considered a truewor! of literature./

)any :ative *mericans vie% the archaeological e-cavation and museum display ofancestral s(eletal remains and items #uried %ith them as a spiritual desecration. * num#er

of legal remedies that either prohi#it or regulate such activities may #e availa#le to :ative*merican communities, if they can esta#lish standing in such cases. In disinterment cases,courts have traditionally a6rmed the standing of three classes of plaintisC the deceased’sheirs, the o%ner of the property on %hich the grave is located, and parties, includingorgani&ations or distant relatives of the deceased, that have a clear interest in thepreservation of a particular grave. If an archaeologically discovered grave is of recenthistorical origin and associated %ith an identia#le :ative *merican community, :ative*mericans are li(ely to esta#lish standing in a suit to prevent disinterment of the remains,#ut in cases %here the grave is ancient and located in an area %here the community of



:ative *mericans associated %ith the grave has not recently lived, they are less li(ely to #esuccessful in this regard. Indeed, in most cases involving ancient graves, to recogni&e that:ative *mericans have standing %ould represent a signicant e-pansion of common la%. Incases %here standing can #e achieved, ho%ever, common la% may provide a #asis for some:ative *merican claims against archaeologists and museums.

7roperty la%, for e-ample, can #e useful in esta#lishing :ative *merican claims to

artifacts that are retrieved in the e-cavation of ancient graves and can #e considered thecommunal property of :ative *merican tri#es or communities. In +harrier $3 Bell, a UnitedStates appellate court ruled that the common la% doctrine of a#andonment, %hich allo%sthe nder of a#andoned property to claim o%nership, does not apply to o#jects #uried %iththe deceased. !he court ruled that the practice of #urying items %ith the #ody of thedeceased +is not intended as a means of relin"uishing o%nership to a stranger and that tointerpret it as such +could render a grave su#ject to despoliation either immediately afterinterment orRafter removal of the descendants of the deceased from the neigh#orhood ofthe cemetery. !his ruling suggests that artifacts e-cavated from :ative *merican ancestralgraves should #e returned to representatives of tri#al groups %ho can esta#lish standing insuch cases.

)ore generally, United Sates courts have upheld the distinction #et%een individual andcommunal property, holding that an individual :ative *merican does not have title to

communal property o%ned and held for common use #y his or her tri#e. *s a result,museums cannot assume that they have valid title to cultural property merely #ecause theypurchased in good faith an item that %as originally sold in good faith #y an individualmem#er of a :ative *merican community.

-. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to provide an answer to which one of the following4uestions8

(A) ow should the legal protection of >ative American burial grounds be enhanced8

() ;hat characteristics of >ative American burial grounds enhance their chances for protection by the law8

(") In what ways does the law protect the rights of >ative Americans in regards to thecontents of ancestral graves8

(#) ;hy are the courts concerned with protecting >ative American burial grounds fromdesecration8

(%) y what means can >ative Americans establish their rights to land on which theirancestors are buried8

1:. It can be inferred that a court would be most li!ely to deny standing in a disinterment case towhich one of the following >ative American plaintiffs8

(A) one who see!s, as one of several beneficiaries of his father6s estate, to protect thefather6s burial site

() one who see!s to prevent tenants on her land from ta!ing artifacts from a grave locatedon the property

(") one who represents a tribe whose members hope to prevent the disinterment of remainsfrom a distant location from which the tribe recently moved

(#) one who see!s to have artifacts that have been removed from a grave determined to bethat of her second cousin returned to the grave

(%) one who see!s the return of artifacts ta!en from the ancient burial grounds of disparatetribes and now displayed in a museum

11. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of cases involving ancient



graves8

(A) 5nce a plaintiff6s standing has been established, such cases are usually more difficult toresolve than are cases involving more recent graves.

() 'he distinction between individual and communal property is usually an issue in suchcases.

(") %ven when a plaintiff6s standing has been established, property law cannot be used as a basis for the claims of >ative Americans in most such cases.

(#) In most such cases, common law does not currently provide a clear basis for establishingthat >ative Americans have standing.

(%) "ommon law is rarely used as a basis for the claims of >ative Americans who haveestablished standing in such cases.

1&. 'he passage suggests that in ma!ing the ruling in )harrier ( Bell the court is most li!ely tohave considered the answer to which one of the following 4uestions8

(A) Are the descendants of the deceased still alive8

() ;hat was the reason for burying the ob$ects in 4uestion8

(") ow long after interment had buried ob$ects been claimed by stranger8

(#) #id the descendants of the deceased remain in the neighborhood of the cemetery8

(%) "ould the property on which buried ob$ects were found be legally considered to beabandoned property8

1+. 'he author uses the second paragraph to

(A) illustrate the contention that common law may support the claims of >ative Americansto the contents of ancestral graves

() e0emplify the difficulties that >ative Americans are li!ely to encounter in claimingancestral remains

(") introduce a discussion of the distinction between individual and communal property(#) confirm the contention that cases involving ancient graves present unresolved legal

problems

(%) suggest that property law is applicable in most disinterment cases


(A) =rior to an appellate court6s ruling in )harrier ( Bell , >ative Americans had no legalgrounds for demanding the return of artifacts e0cavated from ancient graves.

() =roperty law offers the most promising remedies to >ative Americans see!ing to recover communally owned artifacts that were sold to museums without tribal authori*ation.

(") 'he older the grave, the more difficult it is for >ative Americans to establish standing in

cases concerning the disposition of archaeologically e0cavated ancestral remains.(#) In cases in which >ative Americans can establish standing, common law can be useful

in protecting ancestral remains and the artifacts buried with them.

(%) >ative Americans are unli!ely to ma!e significant progress in the recovery of cultural property until common law is significantly e0panded to provide them with standing incases involving the e0cavation of ancient graves.

8hen the same ha#itat types ;forests, oceans, grasslands etc.= in regions of dierentlatitudes are compared, it #ecomes apparent that the overall num#er of species increases



from pole to e"uator. !his latitudinal gradient is pro#a#ly even more pronounced thancurrent records indicate, since researchers #elieve that most undiscovered species live inthe tropics.

ne hypothesis to e-plain this phenomenon, the +time theory holds that diversespecies adapted to today’s climatic conditions have had more time to emerge in the tropicalregions, %hich, unli(e the temperate and arctic &ones, have #een unaected #y a succession

of ice ages. Ho%ever, ice ages have caused less disruption in some temperate regions thanin others and have not interrupted arctic conditions.

*lternatively, the species'energy hypothesis proposes the follo%ing positive correlationsCincoming energy from the Sun correlated %ith rates of gro%th and reproduction> rates ofgro%th and reproduction %ith the amount of living matter ;#iomass= at a given moment> andthe amount of #iomass %ith num#er of species. Ho%ever, since organisms may die rapidly,high production rates can e-ist %ith lo% #iomass. *nd high #iomass can e-ist %ith fe%species. )oreover, the mechanism proposed3greater energy in4u- leading to #iggerpopulations, there#y lo%ering the pro#a#ility of local e-tinction3remains untested.

* third hypothesis centers on the tropics’ climatic sta#ility, %hich provides a morerelia#le supply of resources. Species can thus survive even %ith fe% types of food, andcompeting species can tolerate greater overlap #et%een their respective niches. othcapa#ilities ena#le more species to e-ist on the same resources. Ho%ever, the ecology of

local communities cannot account for the origin of the latitudinal gradient. $ocali&edecological processes such as competition do not generate regional pools of species, and it isthe total num#er of species availa#le regionally for coloni&ing any particular area that ma(esthe dierence #et%een, for e-ample, a forest at the e"uator and one at higher latitude.

* fourth and most plausi#le hypothesis focuses on regional speciation, and in particularon rates of speciation and e-tinction. *ccording to this hypothesis, if speciation rates#ecome higher to%ard the tropics, and are not negated #y e-tinction rates, then thelatitudinal gradient %ould result3and #ecome increasingly steep.

!he mechanism for this rate'of'speciation hypothesis is that most ne% animal species,and perhaps plant species, arise #ecause a population su#group #ecomes isolated. !hissu#group evolves dierently and eventually cannot inter#reed %ith mem#ers of the originalpopulation. !he uneven spread of a species over a large geographic area promotes this

mechanismC at the edges, small populations spread out and form isolated groups. Sincesu#groups in an arctic environment are more li(ely to face e-tinction than those in thetropics, the latter are more li(ely to survive long enough to adapt to local conditions andultimately #ecome ne% species.

13. ;hich one of the following most accurately e0pressed the main idea of the passage8

(A) At present, no single hypothesis e0plaining the latitudinal gradient in numbers of speciesis more widely accepted than any other.

() 'he tropical climate is more conductive to promoting species diversity than are arctic ortemperate climates.

(") Several e0planations have been suggested for global patterns in species distribution, buta hypothesis involving rates of speciation seems most promising.

(#) #espite their differences, the various hypotheses regarding a latitudinal gradient inspecies diversity concur in prediction that the gradient can be e0pected to increase.

(%) In distinguishing among the current hypotheses for distribution of species, the mostimportant criterion is whether a hypothesis proposes a mechanism that can be testedand validated.

12. ;hich one of the following situations is most consistent with the speciesenergy hypothesisas described in the passage8



(A) 'he many plants in a large agricultural tract represent a limited range of species.

() An animal species e0periences a death rate almost as rapid as its rate of growth andreproduction.

(") ;ithin the small number of living organisms in a desert habitat, many different speciesare represented.

(#) In a tropical rain forest, a species with a large population is found to e0hibit instances oflocal e0tinction.

(%) In an arctic tundra, the plants and animals e0hibit a slow rate of growth andreproduction.

17. As presented in the passage, the principles of the time theory most strongly support whichone of the following predictions8

(A) In the absence of additional ice ages, the number of species at high latitudes couldeventually increase significantly.

() >o future ice ages are li!ely to change the climatic conditions that currently characteri*etemperate regions.

(") If no further ice ages occur, climatic conditions at high latitudes might eventuallyresemble those at today6s tropical latitudes.

(#) esearchers will continue to find many more new species in the tropics than in the arcticand temperate *ones.

(%) Duture ice ages are li!ely to interrupt the climatic conditions that now characteri*e highlatitude regions.

1. ;hich one of the following, if true, most clearly wea!ens the rateofspeciation hypothesisas it is described in the passage8

(A) A remote subgroup of a tropical species is reunited with the original population and proves unable to interbreed with members of this original population.

() Investigation of a small area of a tropical rain forest reveals that many competing speciesare able to coe0ist on the same range of resources.

(") A correlation between higher energy influ0, larger populations and lower probability oflocal e0tinction is definitively established.

(#) esearchers find more undiscovered species during an investigation of an arctic regionthan they had anticipated.

(%) <ost of the isolated subgroups of mammalian life within a tropical *one are found toe0perience rapid e0tinction.

1-. ;hich one of the following inferences about the biological characteristics of a temperate*one grassland is most strongly supported by the passage8

(A) It has more different species than does a tropical*one forest.

() Its climatic conditions have been severely interrupted in the past by succession of iceages.

(") If it has a large amount of biomass, it also has a large number of different species.

(#) It has a larger regional pool of species than does an arctic grassland.

(%) If population groups become isolated at its edges, they are li!ely to adapt to localconditions and become new species.





&1. ;hich one of the following best describes the main idea of the passage8

(A) Although they disagree about the degree to which economic motives influenced ritain6sabolition of slavery, #rescher and %ltis both concede that moral persuasion byabolitionists was a significant factor.

() Although both #rescher and %ltis have 4uestioned ;illiams6 analysis of the motivation

behind ritain6s abolition of slavery, there is support for part of ;illiams6 conclusion.(") ecause he has ta!en into account the populist characteristics of ritish abolitionism,

#rescher6s e0planation of what motivated ritain6s abolition of slavery is finally more persuasive than that of %ltis.

(#) >either %ltis nor #rescher has succeeded in e0plaining why support for ritain6sabolition of slavery appears to have cut across lines of party, class, and religion.

(%) Although flawed in certain respects, ;illiams6s conclusions regarding the economiccondition of ritish slave colonies early in the nineteenth century have been largelyvindicated.

&&. It can be inferred that %ltis cites the views of certain notables/ (line +3) in order to

(A) support the claim that ritish traditions of liberty were not as strong as #rescher believed them to be

() support the contention that a strong labor force was important to ritain6s economy

(") emphasi*e the importance of slavery as an institution in preindustrial ritain

(#) indicate that the laboring classes provided little support for the abolition of slavery

(%) establish that laborers in preindustrial ritain had few civil rights

&+. ;hich one of the following best states ;illiams6 view of the primary reason for ritain6sabolition of the slave trade and the emancipation of slaves in its colonies8

(A) ritish populism appealed to people of varied classes, parties, and religions.

() oth capitalists and wor!ers in ritain accepted the moral precepts of abolitionists.(") Dorced labor in the colonies could not produce enough goods to satisfy ritishconsumers.

(#) 'he operation of colonies based on forced labor was no longer economicallyadvantageous.

(%) ritish wor!ers became convinced that forced labor in the colonies prevented paidwor!ers from receiving higher wages.

&. According to %ltis, low wages and #raconian vagrancy laws in ritain in the seventeenthand eighteenth centuries were intended to

(A) protect laborers against unscrupulous employment practices

() counter the move to enslave unemployed laborers(") ensure a cheap and productive wor! force

(#) ensure that the wor! force e0perienced no unemployment

(%) ensure that products produced in ritish colonies employing forced labor could competeeffectively with those produced in ritain

&3. It can be inferred that the author of the passage views #rescher6s presentation of ritishtraditions concerning liberty as







(%) It was played primarily in >ew For! "ity $a** clubs.

. ;hich one of the following best describes the author6s attitude toward <iles #avis6 music8

(A) uneasy ambivalence

() cautious neutrality

(") grudging respect(#) moderate commendation

(%) appreciative advocacy

3. ;hich one of the following creative processes is most similar to <iles #avis6 typical studio procedure of the late 1-2:s, as described in the fourth paragraph of the passage8

(A) 'he producer of a television comedy show suggests a setting and general topic for acomedy s!etch and then lets the comedians write their own script.

() An actor digresses from the written script and improvises during a monologue in order tointroduce a feeling of spontaneity to the performance.

(") A conductor rehearses each section of the orchestra separately before assembling them to

rehearse the entire piece together.(#) An artist has several photographers ta!e pictures pertaining to a certain assigned theme

and then assembles them into a pictorial collage.

(%) A teacher has each student in a writing class write an essay on an assigned topic and thensubmits the best essays to be considered for publication in a $ournal.

2. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most undermine the author6s e0planation for theway <iles #avis is regarded by $a** critics8

(A) <any $a** musicians who speciali*e in improvisational playing are greatly admired by $a** critics.

() <any $a** musicians whose careers have been characteri*ed by several radical changes

in style are greatly admired by $a** critics.(") Several $a** musicians who perform e0clusively on electronic instruments are very

highly regarded by $a** critics.

(#) 'he $a** innovators who are held in the highest regard by $a** critics had brief yet brilliant careers.

(%) Ba** critics are !nown to have a higher regard for musicality than for mere technicalvirtuosity.

y the mid'fourteenth century, professional associations of canon la%yers ;legaladvocates in Ahristian ecclesiastical courts, %hich dealt %ith cases involving marriage,inheritance, and other issues= had appeared in most of 8estern Europe, and a #ody ofprofessional standards had #een dened for them. ne might e-pect that the professional

associations %ould play a prominent role in enforcing these standards of conduct, as otherguilds often did, and as modern professional associations do, #ut that seems not to havehappened. *dvocates’ professional organi&ations sho%ed little fervor for disciplining theirerring mem#ers. Some even attempted to ho##le eorts at enforcement. !he 5lorentineguild of la%yers, for e-ample, for#ade its mem#ers to play any role in disciplinaryproceedings against other guild mem#ers. In the fe% recorded episodes of disciplinaryenforcement, the initiative for disciplinary action apparently came from a dissatised client,not from fello% la%yers.

*t rst glance, there seem to #e t%o possi#le e-planations for the rarity of disciplinary



proceedings. )edieval canon la%yers may have generally o#served the standards ofprofessional conduct scrupulously. *lternatively, it is possi#le that deviations from theesta#lished standards of #ehavior %ere not uncommon, #ut that canonical disciplinarymechanisms %ere so ine6cient that most delin"uents escaped detection and punishment.

!%o considerations ma(e it clear that the second of these e-planations is more plausi#le.5irst, the English civil la% courts, %hose ethical standards %ere similar to those of

ecclesiastical courts, sho% many more e-amples of disciplinary actions against legalpractitioners than do the records of church courts. !his discrepancy could %ell indicate thatthe disciplinary mechanisms of the civil courts functioned more e6ciently than those of thechurch courts. !he alternative inference, namely, that ecclesiastical advocates %ere lessprone to ethical lapses than their counterparts in the civil courts, seems inherently %ea(,especially since there %as some overlap of personnel #et%een the civil #ar and theecclesiastical #ar.

Second, church authorities themselves complained a#out the failure of advocates tomeasure up to ethical standards and deplored the shortcomings of the disciplinary system.

!hus the Aouncil of asel declared that canon la%yers failed to adhere to the ethicalprescriptions laid do%n in numerous papal constitutions and directed Aardinal Aesarian toaddress the pro#lem. In England, %here medieval church records are e-traordinarily rich,similar complaints a#out the failure of the disciplinary system to reform unethical practices

%ere very common.Such criticisms seem to have had a parado-ical result, for they apparently reinforced the

professional solidarity of la%yers at the e-pense of the enforcement of ethical standards. !hus the profession’s critics may actually have induced advocates to organi&e professionalassociations for self'defense. !he critics’ attac(s may also have persuaded la%yers to assigna higher priority to defending themselves against attac(s #y nonprofessionals than todisciplining %ay%ard mem#ers %ithin their o%n ran(s.

7. ;hich one of the following best states the main conclusion of the passage8

(A) =rofessional organi*ations of medieval canon lawyers probably only enforced ethicalstandards among their own members when provo!ed to do so by outside criticisms.

() =rofessional organi*ations of medieval civil lawyers seem to have maintained stricter

ethical standards for their own members than did professional organi*ations ofmedieval canon lawyers.

(") =rofessional organi*ations of medieval canon lawyers apparently served to defend theirmembers against critics6 attac!s rather than to enforce ethical standards.

(#) 'he ethical standards maintained by professional associations of medieval canonlawyers were chiefly laid down in papal constitutions.

(%) %thical standards for medieval canon lawyers were not laid down until professionalorgani*ations for these lawyers had been formed.

. According to the passage, which one of the following statements about law courts inmedieval %ngland is true8

(A) Some %nglish lawyers who practiced in civil courts also practiced in church courts, butothers served e0clusively in one court or the other.

() %nglish canon lawyers were more li!ely to initiate disciplinary proceedings against theircolleagues than were %nglish civil lawyers.

(") %nglish civil lawyers maintained more stringent ethical standards than did civil lawyersin the rest of %urope.

(#) %nglish ecclesiastical courts had originally been modeled upon %nglish civil courts.



(%) %nglish ecclesiastical courts !ept richer and more thorough records than did %nglish civilcourts.

-. 'he author refers to the Dlorentine guild of lawyers in the first paragraph most probably inorder to

(A) introduce a theory about to be promoted

() illustrate the type of action referred to in the previous sentence

(") underline the universality of a method discussed throughout the paragraph

(#) point out a flaw in an argument presented earlier in the paragraph

(%) rebut an anticipated ob$ection to a thesis $ust proposed

1:. 'he author refers to the "ouncil of asel (line 7) primarily in order to

(A) provide an e0ample of the type of action needed to establish professional standards forcanon lawyers

() contrast the reactions of %nglish church authorities with the reactions of other bodies toviolations of professional standards by canon lawyers

(") bolster the argument that violations of professional standards by canon lawyers did ta!e place

(#) e0plain how rules of conduct for canon lawyers were established

(%) describe the development of a disciplinary system to enforce professional standardsamong canon lawyers

11. According to the information in the passage, for which one of the following ethicalviolations would documentation of disciplinary action against a canon lawyer be most li!elyto e0ist8

(A) betraying a client6s secrets to the opposing party

() bribing the $udge to rule in favor of a client

(") misrepresenting credentials in order to gain admission to the lawyers6 guild(#) spreading rumors in order to discredit an opposing lawyer

(%) !nowingly helping a client to misrepresent the truth

1&. ;hich one of the following is most analogous to the professional solidarity/ referred to inlines 32378

(A) <embers of a teachers6 union go on stri!e when they believe one of their colleagues to be falsely accused of using an inappropriate te0tboo!.

() In order to protect the reputation of the press in the face of a largely hostile public, a $ournalist conceals distortions in a colleague6s news article.

(") Several do*en recording artists agree to participate in a concert to benefit an endangeredenvironmental habitat.

(#) In order to e0pedite governmental approval of a drug, a government official is persuadedto loo! the other way when a pharmaceutical manufacturer conceals evidence that thedrug may have minor side effects.

(%) A popular politician agrees to campaign for another, less popular politician belonging tothe same political party.

1+. 'he passage suggests that which one of the following is most li!ely to have been true of



medieval guilds8

(A) Dew guilds of any importance e0isted before the midfourteenth century.

() <any medieval guilds e0ercised influence over the actions of their members.

(") <ost medieval guilds maintained more e0acting ethical standards than did theassociations of canon lawyers.

(#) <edieval guilds found it difficult to enforce discipline among their members.

(%) 'he ethical standards of medieval guilds varied from one city to another.

1. 'he author would be most li!ely to agree with which one of the following regarding thehypothesis that medieval canon lawyers observed standards of professional conductscrupulously8

(A) It is untrue because it is contradicted by documents obtained from the ecclesiasticalcourts.

() It is unli!ely because it describes behavior mar!edly different from behavior observed inthe same situation in modern society.

(") It is unli!ely because it describes behavior mar!edly different from behavior observed ina similar area of medieval society.

(#) It is impossible to assess intelligently because of the dearth of civil and ecclesiasticaldocuments.

(%) It is directly supported by documents obtained from civil and ecclesiastical courts.

)any #irds that form 4oc(s compete through aggressive interaction for priority of accessto resources such as food and shelter. !he result of repeated interactions #et%een 4oc(mem#ers is that each #ird gains a particular social status related to its ghting a#ility, %ithpriority of access to resources increasing %ith higher status. *s the num#er and intensity ofinteractions #et%een #irds increase, ho%ever, so increase the costs to each #ird in terms ofenergy e-penditure, time, and ris( of injury. !hus, #irds possessing attri#utes that reducethe num#er of costly interactions in %hich they must #e involved, %ithout leading to a

reduction in status, are at an advantage. *n e-ternal signal, such as a plumage type,announcing ghting a#ility and there#y o#viating the actual need to ght, could #e one suchattri#ute.

!he &oologist Doh%er asserted that plumage variations in +Harris sparro%s support thestatus signaling hypothesis ;SSH=. He reported that almost %ithout e-ception #irds %ithdar(er throats %in con4icts %ith individuals having lighter plumage. He claimed that evenamong #irds of the same age and se- the amount of dar( plumage predicts relativedominance status.

Ho%ever, Doh%er’s data do not support his assertionsC in one of his studies dar(er #irds%on only < out of < con4icts> %ithin another, focusing on con4icts #et%een #irds of thesame age group or se-, dar(er #irds %on 1 and lost 1@. !here are indications that plumagepro#a#ly does signal #road age'related dierences in status among Harris sparro%sC adults,usually dar( throated, have higher status than juveniles, %ho are usually light throated>

moreover, juveniles dyed to resem#le adults are dominant over undyed juveniles. Ho%ever,the Harris sparro%s’ age'related plumage dierences do not signal the status of individual#irds %ithin an age class, and thus cannot properly #e included under the term +statussignaling.

!he #est evidence for status signaling is from the greater titmouse. E-periments sho% astrong correlation #et%een the %idth of the #lac( #reast'plumage stripe and status asmeasured #y success in aggressive interactions. *n analysis of factors li(ely to #e associated%ith #reast'stripe %idth ;se-, age, %ing length, #ody %eight= has demonstrated social statusto #e the only varia#le that correlates %ith stripe %idth %hen the other varia#les are held



constant.

*n ingenious e-periment provided further evidence for status signaling in the greatertitmouse. ne of three stued titmouse dummies %as mounted on a feeding tray. 8hen alive #ird approached, the dummy %as turned #y radio control to face the #ird and present its#reast stripe in +display. 8hen presented %ith a dummy having a narro%er #reast stripethan their o%n, #irds approached closely and #ehaved aggressively. Ho%ever, %hen

presented %ith a dummy having a #roader #reast stripe than their o%n, live #irds actedsu#missive and did not approach.

13. According to the passage, the status signaling hypothesis holds that the ability to display arecogni*able e0ternal signal would have the effect on an individual bird of

(A) enabling it to attract a mate of high status

() allowing it to avoid costly aggressive interactions

(") decreasing its access to limited resources

(#) ma!ing it less attractive to predatory species

(%) increasing its fighting ability

12. 'he author refers to the fact that adult arris sparrows are usually dar! throated (lines +1+&), in order to do which one of the following8

(A) support the conclusion that plumage variation among arris sparrows probably does notsignal individual status

() argue that plumage variation among arris sparrows helps to confirm the statussignaling hypothesis

(") indicate that in light of plumage variation patterns among arris sparrows, the statussignaling hypothesis should probably be modified

(#) demonstrate that arris sparrows are the most appropriate sub$ects for the study of statussignaling among birds

(%) suggest that the signaling of agerelated differences in status is widespread among birds

that form floc!s

17. ;hich one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the validity of theresults of the e0periment discussed in the last paragraph8

(A) 'he live birds all came from different titmouse floc!s.

() 'he physical characteristics of the stuffed dummies varied in ways other than $ust breaststripe width.

(") >o live $uvenile birds were included in the e0periment.

(#) 'he food placed in the feeding tray was not the !ind of food normally eaten by titmice inthe wild.

(%) %ven the live birds that acted aggressively did not actually physically attac! the stuffeddummies.

1. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A hypothesis is introduced and studies relevant to the hypothesis are discussed andevaluated.

() A natural phenomenon is presented and several e0planations for the phenomenon aree0amined in detail.

(") ehavior is described, possible underlying causes for the behavior are reported, and the





population gro%th. *n increase in population, particularly %ithin the elite segment of society,necessitated ever more intense farming. *gricultural intensication e-erted stress on the soiland led to a decline in productivity ;the amount of food produced through each unit of la#orinvested=. *t the same time, the gro%th of the elite class created increasing demands forceremonial monuments and lu-uries, diverting needed la#or from the elds. !he theoryholds that these stresses %ere communicated3and amplied3throughout the area as

)ayan states engaged in %arfare to ac"uire la#orers and food, and refugees 4edimpoverished areas. !he most vulnera#le states thus #egan to #rea( do%n, and eachdo%nfall triggered others, until the entire civili&ation collapsed.

If there is a central 4a% in $o%e’s e-planation, it is that the entire edice rests on theassumption that the availa#le evidence paints a true picture of ho% the collapse proceeded.Ho%ever, it is di6cult to (no% ho% accurately the archaeological record re4ects historicactivity, especially of a comple- civili&ation such as the )ayans’, and a hypothesis can #etested only against the #est availa#le data. It is "uite possi#le that our understanding of thecollapse might #e radically altered #y #etter data. 5or e-ample, $o%e’s assumption a#outmonument construction and the occupation span of a site might %ell #e disproved if furtherinvestigations of Alassic )ayan sites esta#lished that some remained heavily settled longafter the custom of carving dynastic monuments had ceased.

&&. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A method used to analy*e evidence is described, an e0planation of the evidence issuggested, and then a conclusion is drawn from the evidence.

() A hypothesis is presented, evidence supporting the hypothesis is provided, and then thehypothesis is affirmed.

(") An analysis of a study is presented, contradictory evidence is e0amined, and then adirection for future studies is suggested.

(#) 'he basis of a study is described, a theory that e0plains the available evidence is presented, and a possible flaw in the study is pointed out.

(%) An observation is made, evidence supporting the observation is presented, and thencontradictions in the evidence are discussed.

&+. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) In The $ynamics of Apocalypse, Bohn Cowe successfully proves that the collapse of"lassic <ayan civili*ation was set in motion by increasing population and decreasing productivity.

() In The $ynamics of Apocalypse, Bohn Cowe brea!s new ground in solving the mysteryof the collapse of "lassic <ayan civili*ation through his use of dated monuments tocreate a stepbystep account of the collapse.

(") In The $ynamics of Apocalypse, Bohn Cowe successfully uses e0isting data to documentthe reduction and then cessation of new construction throughout "lassic <ayancivili*ation.

(#) Although Bohn Cowe6s study is based on a careful e0amination of the historical record, itdoes not accurately reflect the circumstances surrounding the collapse of "lassic <ayancivili*ation.

(%) ;hile Bohn Cowe6s theory about the collapse of "lassic <ayan civili*ation appearscredible, it is based on an assumption that cannot be verified using the archaeologicalrecord.

&. ;hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the assumption Cowe ma!es about



the relationship between monument construction and "lassic <ayan cities8

(A) A person assumes that the shortage of fresh produce on the shelves of a grocery store isdue to the effects of poor weather conditions during the growing season.

() A person assumes that a movie theater only shows foreign films because the titles of thefilms shown there are not familiar to the person.

(") A person assumes that a restaurant is under new ownership because the restaurant6smenu has changed drastically since the last time the person ate there.

(#) A person assumes that a corporation has been sold because there is a new name for thecorporation on the sign outside the building where the company is located.

(%) A person assumes a friend has sold her stamp collection because the friend has stopped purchasing new stamps.

&3. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would describe the method Cowe used toconstruct a stepbystep chronology of the actual collapse of "lassic <ayan civili*ation as

(A) daringly innovative but flawed

() generally accepted but 4uestionable

(") very reliable but outdated

(#) unscientific but effective

(%) unconventional but brilliant

&2. 'he author of the passage would most li!ely agree with which one of the followingstatements about the use of the archaeological record to reconstruct historic activity8

(A) ;ith careful analysis, archaeological evidence can be used to reconstruct accurately thehistoric activity of a past civili*ation.

() Archaeological evidence is more useful for reconstructing the daytoday activities of aculture than its longterm trends.

(") 'he accuracy of the archaeological record for reconstructing historic activity isdependent on the duration of the particular civili*ation.

(#) 'he archaeological record is not an appropriate source of data for reconstructing historicactivity.

(%) istoric activity can be reconstructed from archaeological evidence, but it is ultimatelyimpossible to confirm the accuracy of the reconstruction.

LSAT 25 SECTION I




conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer

sheet.

7ainter 5rida Kahlo ;/0/2'/0<J= often used harro%ing images derived from her )e-icanheritage to e-press suering caused #y a disa#ling accident and a stormy marriage.Suggesting much personal and emotional content, her %or(s3many of them self'portraits3have #een e-haustively psychoanaly&ed, %hile their political content has #een less studied.

?et Kahlo %as an ardent political activist %ho in her art sought not only to e-plore her o%nroots, #ut also to champion )e-ico’s struggle for an independent political and cultural



identity.

Kahlo %as in4uenced #y )ar-ism, %hich appealed to many intellectuals in the /0@2s and/02s, and #y )e-ican nationalism. Interest in )e-ico’s culture and history had revived inthe nineteenth century, and #y the early /022s, )e-ican indigenista tendencies ranged froma violently anti'Spanish ideali&ation of *&tec )e-ico to an emphasis on contemporary)e-ican Indians as the (ey to authentic )e-ican culture. )e-ican nationalism, reacting

against contemporary United States political intervention in la#or disputes as %ell as againstpast domination #y Spain, identied the *&tecs as the last independent rulers of anindigenous political unit. Kahlo’s form of %e#icanidad, a romantic nationalism that focusedupon traditional art uniting all indigenistas, revered the *&tecs as a po%erful pre'Aolum#iansociety that had united a large area of the )iddle *mericas and that %as thought to have#een #ased on communal la#or, the )ar-ist ideal.

In her paintings, Kahlo repeatedly employed *&tec sym#ols, such as s(eletons or#leeding hearts that %ere traditionally related to the emanation of life from death and lightfrom dar(ness. !hese images of destruction coupled %ith creation spea( not only to Kahlo’spersonal #attle for life, #ut also to the )e-ican struggle to emerge as a nation3 #yimplication, to emerge %ith the political and cultural strength admired in the *&teccivili&ation. Self5portrait on the Border bet)een %e#ico and the United States ;/0@=, fore-ample, sho%s Kahlo %earing a #one nec(lace, holding a )e-ican 4ag, and standing

#et%een a highly industriali&ed United States and an agricultural, preindustrial )e-ico. nthe United States side are mechanistic and modern images such as smo(estac(s, light #ul#s,and ro#ots. In contrast, the organic and ancient sym#ols on the )e-ican side3a #lood'drenched Sun, lush vegetation, an *&tec sculpture, a pre'Aolum#ian temple, and a s(ullalluding to those that lined the %alls of *&tec temples3emphasi&e the interrelation of life,death, the earth, and the cosmos.

Kahlo portrayed *&tec images in the fol(loric style of traditional )e-ican paintings,there#y heightening the clash #et%een modern materialism and indigenous tradition>similarly, she favored planned economic development, #ut not at the e-pense of culturalidentity. Her use of familiar sym#ols in a readily accessi#le style also served her goal of#eing popularly understood> in turn, Kahlo is vie%ed #y some )e-icans as a mythic gurerepresentative of nationalism itself.

1. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main point of the passage8(A) 'he doctrines of <ar0ist ideology and <e0ican nationalism heavily influenced <e0ican

painters of Gahlo6s generation.

() Gahlo6s paintings contain numerous references to the A*tecs as an indigenous <e0ican people predating %uropean influence.

(") An important element of Gahlo6s wor! is conveyed by symbols that reflect her advocacyof indigenous <e0ican culture and <e0ican political autonomy.

(#) 'he use of A*tec images and symbols in Gahlo6s art can be traced to the late nineteenthcentury revival of interest in <e0ican history and culture.

(%) Gahlo used A*tec imagery in her paintings primarily in order to foster contemporary

appreciation for the authentic art of traditional <e0ican culture.&. ;ith which one of the following statements concerning psychoanalytic and political

interpretations of Gahlo6s wor! would the author be most li!ely to agree8

(A) 'he psychoanalytic interpretations of Gahlo6s wor! tend to challenge the politicalinterpretations.

() =olitical and psychoanalytic interpretations are complementary approaches to Gahlo6swor!.



(") ecent political interpretations of Gahlo6s wor! are causing psychoanalytic critics torevise their own interpretations.

(#) Unli!e the political interpretations, the psychoanalytic interpretations ma!e use of biographical facts of Gahlo6s life.

(%) Gahlo6s mythic status among the audience Gahlo most wanted to reach is based upon the

psychoanalytic rather than the political content of her wor!.

+. ;hich one of the following stances toward the United States does the passage mention ascharacteri*ing <e0ican nationalists in the early twentieth century8

(A) opposition to United States involvement in internal <e0ican affairs

() desire to decrease emigration of the <e0ican labor force to the United States

(") desire to improve <e0ico6s economic competitiveness with the United States

(#) reluctance to imitate the United States model of rapid industriali*ation

(%) advocacy of a government based upon that of the <ar0ist Soviet Union rather than thatof the United States

. In the conte0t of the passage, which one of the following phrases could best be substitutedfor the word romantic/ (line &) without substantially changing the author6s meaning8

(A) dreamy and escapist

() nostalgic and idealistic

(") fanciful and imaginative

(#) transcendental and impractical

(%) overwrought and sentimental

3. 'he passage mentions each of the following as an A*tec symbol or image found in Gahlo6s paintings %?"%=' a

(A) s!eleton

() sculpture

(") serpent

(#) s!ull

(%) bleeding heart

2. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the third paragraph8

(A) contrast of opposing ideas

() reconciliation of conflicting concepts

(") interrelation of complementary themes

(#) e0plication of a principle6s implications

(%) support for a generali*ation by means of an e0ample

7. 'he passage implies that Gahlo6s attitude toward the economic development of <e0ico was

(A) enthusiastic

() condemnatory

(") cautious

(#) noncommittal





ob$ectivist principles within legal discourse by replacing that discourse with alternativeforms of legal narrative.

(#) Some legal scholars have contended that those who feel e0cluded from ob$ectivist legalsystems would be empowered by the construction of a new legal language that betterreflected ob$ectivist principles.

(%) Some legal scholars have argued that the basic flaw inherent in ob$ectivist theory can beremedied by recogni*ing that it is not possible to obtain a single neutral description of a particular event.

1:. According to the passage, which one of the following is true about the intellectual systemsmentioned in line 118

(A) 'hey have long assumed the possibility of a neutral depiction of events.

() 'hey have generally remained uns!ewed by particular points of view.

(") 'heir discursive practices have yet to be analy*ed by legal scholars.

(#) 'hey accord a privileged position to the language of emotion and e0perience.

(%) 'he accuracy of their basic tenets has been confirmed by psychologists.

11. ;hich one of the following best describes the sense of cognition/ referred to in line + ofthe passage8

(A) logical thin!ing uninfluenced by passion

() the interpretation of visual cues

(") human thought that encompasses all emotion and e0perience

(#) the reasoning actually employed by $udges to arrive at legal $udgments

(%) sudden insights inspired by the power of personal stories

1&. It can be inferred from the passage that ;illiams, ell, And <atsuda believe which one ofthe following to be central component of legal reform8

(A) incorporating into the law the latest developments in the fields of psychology and philosophy

() eradicating from legal $udgments discourse with a particular point of view

(") granting all participants in legal proceedings e4ual access to training in the forms andmanipulation of legal discourse

(#) ma!ing the law more responsive to the discursive practices of a wider variety of people

(%) instilling an appreciation of legal history and methodology in all the participants in alegal proceeding

1+. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the author6s attitude toward proposalsto introduce personal stories into legal discourse8

(A) strongly opposed

() somewhat s!eptical

(") ambivalent

(#) strongly supportive

(%) unreservedly optimistic

1. 'he passage suggests that ;illiams, ell, and <atsuda would most li!ely agree with which



one of the following statements regarding personal stories8

(A) =ersonal stories are more li!ely to adhere to the principles of ob$ectivism than are otherforms of discourse.

() =ersonal stories are more li!ely to deemphasi*e differences in bac!ground and trainingthan are traditional forms of legal discourse.

(") =ersonal stories are more li!ely to restore tran4uility to the legal establishment than aremore adversarial forms of discourse.

(#) =ersonal stories are more li!ely to lead to the accurate reconstruction of facts than aretraditional forms of legal narrative.

(%) =ersonal stories are more li!ely to be influenced by a person6s e0pectations, values, and beliefs than are other forms of discourse.

13. ;hich one of the following statements about legal discourse in legal systems based onob$ectivism can be inferred from the passage8

(A) In most ;estern societies the legal establishment controls access to training in legaldiscourse.

() %0pertise in legal discourse affords power in most ;estern societies.

(") Cegal discourse has become progressively more abstract for some centuries.

(#) Cegal discourse has traditionally denied the e0istence of neutral ob$ective observers.

(%) 'raditional legal discourse see!s to reconcile dissonant world views.

12. 'hose who re$ect ob$ectivism would regard the law6s 4uest for truth/ (line 1312) as mostsimilar to which one of the following8

(A) a hunt for an imaginary animal

() the search for a valuable mineral among worthless stones

(") the painsta!ing assembly of a $igsaw pu**le

(#) comparing an apple with an orange(%) the scientific analysis of a chemical compound

)any people complain a#out corporations, #ut there are also those %hose criticism goesfurther and %ho hold corporations morally to #lame for many of the pro#lems in 8esternsociety. !heir criticism is not reserved solely for fraudulent or illegal #usiness activities, #ute-tends to the #asic corporate practice of ma(ing decisions #ased on %hat %ill ma-imi&eprots %ithout regard to %hether such decisions %ill contri#ute to the pu#lic good. thers,mainly economists, have responded that this criticism is 4a%ed #ecause it inappropriatelyapplies ethical principles to economic relationships.

It is only #y e-tension that %e attri#ute the "uality of morality to corporations, forcorporations are not persons. Aorporate responsi#ility is an aggregation of theresponsi#ilities of those persons employed #y the corporation %hen they act in and on

#ehalf of the corporation. Some corporations are o%ner operated, #ut in many corporationsand in most larger ones there is a syndicate of o%ners to %hom the chief e-ecutive o6cer,or AE, %ho runs the corporation is said to have a duciary o#ligation.

!he economists argue that a AE’s sole responsi#ility is to the o%ners, %hose primaryinterest, e-cept in charita#le institutions, is the protection of their prots. AEs are #ound,as a condition of their employment, to see( a prot for the o%ners. ut suppose anoncharita#le organi&ation is o%ner operated, or, for some other reason, its AE is noto#ligated to ma-imi&e prots. !he economists’ vie% is that even if such a AE’s purpose isto loo( to the pu#lic good and nothing else, the AE should still %or( to ma-imi&e prots,



#ecause that %ill turn out #est for the pu#lic any%ay.

ut the economists’ position does not hold up ;to continue in the same condition %ithoutfailing or losing eectiveness or force +you seem to #e holding up under the strain= undercareful scrutiny. 5or one thing, although there are, no dou#t, strong underlying dynamics innational and international economies that tend to ma(e the pursuit of corporate interestcontri#ute to the pu#lic good, there is no guarantee3either theoretically or in practice3that

a given AE %ill #enet the pu#lic #y ma-imi&ing corporate prot. It is a#surd to deny thepossi#ility, say, of a paper mill legally ma-imi&ing its prots over a ve'year period #ydecimating a forest for its %ood or polluting a la(e %ith its industrial %aste. 5urthermore,%hile o#ligations such as those of corporate AEs to corporate o%ners are #inding in a#usiness or legal sense, they are not morally paramount. !he AE could ma(e a case to theo%ners that certain prota#le courses of action should not #e ta(en #ecause they are li(elyto detract ;to diminish the importance, value, or eectiveness of something> often used %ithfrom= from the pu#lic good. !he economic conse"uences that may #efall the AE for doingso, such as penalty or dismissal, ultimately do not e-cuse the individual from theresponsi#ility for acting morally.

17. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage8

(A) Although "%5s may be legally obligated to ma0imi*e their corporations6 profits, this

obligation does not free them from the moral responsibility of considering theimplications of the corporations6 actions for the public good.

() Although morality is not easily ascribed to nonhuman entities, corporations can be saidto have an obligation to act morally in the sense that they are made up of individualswho must act morally.

(") Although economists argue that ma0imi*ing a corporation6s profits is li!ely to turn out best for the public, a "%56s true obligations is still to see! a profit for the corporation6sowners.

(#) Although some people critici*e corporations for ma!ing unethical decisions, economistsargue that such criticisms are unfounded because ethical considerations cannot beapplied to economics.

(%) Although critics of corporations argue that "%5s ought to consider the public good whenma!ing financial decisions, the results of such decisions in fact always benefit the public.

1. 'he discussion of the paper mill in lines &2 is intended primarily to

(A) offer an actual case of unethical corporate behavior

() refute the contention that ma0imi*ation of profits necessarily benefits the public

(") illustrate that ethical restrictions on corporations would be difficult to enforce

(#) demonstrate that corporations are responsible for many social ills

(%) deny that corporations are capable of acting morally

1-. ;ith which one of the following would the economists mentioned in the passage be mostli!ely to agree8

(A) %ven "%5s of charitable organi*ations are obligated to ma0imi*e profits.

() "%5s of owneroperated noncharitable corporations should ma!e decisions based primarily on ma0imi*ing profits.

(") 5wneroperated noncharitable corporations are less li!ely to be profitable than othercorporations.



(#) It is highly unli!ely that the actions of any particular "%5 will benefit the public.

(%) "%5s should attempt to ma0imi*e profits unless such attempts result in harm to theenvironment.

&:. 'he conception of morality that underlies the author6s argument in the passage is beste0pressed by which one of the following principles8

(A) ;hat ma!es actions morally right is their contribution to the public good.

() An action is morally right if it carries the ris! of personal penalty.

(") Actions are morally right if they are not fraudulent or illegal.

(#) It is morally wrong to try to ma0imi*e one6s personal benefit.

(%) Actions are not morally wrong unless they harm others.

&1. 'he primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) illustrate a parado0

() argue for legal reform

(") refute a claim

(#) e0plain a decision

(%) define a concept

8hat it means to +e-plain something in science often comes do%n to the application ofmathematics. Some thin(ers hold that mathematics is a (ind of language3a systematiccontrivance of signs, the criteria for the authority of %hich are internal coherence, elegance,and depth. !he application of such a highly articial system to the physical %orld, theyclaim, results in the creation of a (ind of statement a#out the %orld. *ccordingly, %hatmatters in the sciences is nding a mathematical concept that attempts, as other languagedoes, to accurately descri#e the functioning of some aspect of the %orld.

*t the center of the issue of scientic (no%ledge can thus #e found "uestions a#out therelationship #et%een language and %hat it refers to. * discussion a#out the role played #ylanguage in the pursuit of (no%ledge has #een going on among linguists for several

decades. !he de#ate centers around %hether language corresponds in some essential %ayto o#jects and #ehaviors, ma(ing (no%ledge a solid and relia#le commodity> or, on the otherhand, %hether the relationship #et%een language and things is purely a matter of agreed'upon conventions, ma(ing (no%ledge tenuous, relative, and ine-act.

$ately the latter theory has #een gaining %ider acceptance. *ccording to linguists %hosupport this theory, the %ay language is used varies depending upon changes in acceptedpractices and theories among those %ho %or( in particular discipline. !hese linguists arguethat, in the pursuit of (no%ledge, a statement is true only %hen there are no promisingalternatives that might lead one to "uestion it. Aertainly this characteri&ation %ould seem to#e applica#le to the sciences. In science, a mathematical statement may #e ta(en toaccount for every aspect of a phenomenon it is applied to, #ut, some %ould argue, there isnothing inherent in mathematical language that guarantees such a correspondence. Underthis vie%, acceptance of a mathematical statement #y the scientic community3#y virtue of the statement’s predictive po%er or methodological e6ciency3transforms %hat is #asicallyan analogy or metaphor into an e-planation of the physical process in "uestion, to #e heldas true until another, more compelling analogy ta(es its place.

In pursuing the implications of this theory, linguists have reached the point at %hichthey must as(C If %ords or sentences do not correspond in an essential %ay to life or to ourideas a#out life, then just %hat are they capa#le of telling us a#out the %orldL In science andmathematics, then, it %ould seem e"ually necessary to as(C If models of electrolytes orEWmc@, say, do not correspond essentially to the physical %orld, then just %hat functions dothey perform in the ac"uisition of scientic (no%ledgeL ut this "uestion has yet to #e



signicantly addressed in the sciences.

&&. ;hich one of the following statements most accurately e0presses the passage6s main point8

(A) Although scientists must rely on both language and mathematics in their pursuit ofscientific !nowledge, each is an imperfect tool for perceiving and interpreting aspectsof the physical world.

() 'he ac4uisition of scientific !nowledge depends on an agreement among scientists toaccept some mathematical statements as more precise than others while ac!nowledgingthat all mathematics is ine0act.

(") If science is truly to progress, scientists must temporarily abandon the pursuit of new!nowledge in favor of a systematic analysis of how the !nowledge they already possesscame to be accepted as true.

(#) In order to better understand the ac4uisition of scientific !nowledge, scientists mustinvestigate mathematical statements6 relationship to the world $ust as linguists studylanguage6s relationship to the world.

(%) ;ithout the debates among linguists that preceded them, it is unli!ely that scientists

would ever have begun to e0plore the essential role played by mathematics in theac4uisition of scientific !nowledge.

&+. ;hich one of the following statements, if true, lends the most support to the view thatlanguage has an essential correspondence to things it describes8

(A) 'he categories of physical ob$ects employed by one language correspond remar!ably tothe categories employed by another language that developed independently of the first.

() 'he categories of physical ob$ects employed by one language correspond remar!ably tothe categories employed by another language that derives from the first.

(") 'he categories of physical ob$ects employed by spea!ers of a language correspondremar!ably to the categories employed by other spea!ers of the same language.

(#) 'he sentence structures of languages in scientifically sophisticated societies vary littlefrom language to language.

(%) >ative spea!ers of many languages believe that the categories of physical ob$ectsemployed by their language correspond to natural categories of ob$ects in the world.

&. According to the passage, mathematics can be considered a language because it

(A) conveys meaning in the same way that metaphors do

() constitutes a systematic collection of signs

(") corresponds e0actly to aspects of physical phenomena

(#) confers e0planatory power on scientific theories

(%) relies on previously agreedupon conventions

&3. 'he primary purpose of the third paragraph is to

(A) offer support for the view of linguists who believe that language has an essentialcorrespondence to things

() elaborate the position of linguists who believe that truth is merely a matter of convention

(") illustrate the differences between the essentialist and conventionalist position in thelinguists6 debate

(#) demonstrate the similarity of the linguists6 debate to a current debate among scientists



about the nature of e0planation

(%) e0plain the theory that mathematical statements are a !ind of language

&2. ased on the passage, linguists who subscribes to the theory described in lines &1& wouldhold that the statement the ball is red/ is true because

(A) spea!ers of %nglish have accepted that the ball is red/ applies to the particular physicalrelationship being described

() spea!ers of %nglish do not accept that synonyms for ball/ and red/ e0press theseconcepts as elegantly

(") 'he ball is red/ corresponds essentially to every aspect of the particular physicalrelationship being described

(#) ball/ and red/ actually refer to an entity and a property respectively

(%) ball/ and red/ are mathematical concepts that attempt to accurately describe some particular physical relationship in the world

LSAT 26 SECTION IV





sheet.

It has recently #een discovered that many attri#utions of paintings to the seventeenth'century 9utch artist Dem#randt may #e false. !he contested paintings are not minor %or(s,%hose removal from the Dem#randt corpus %ould leave it relatively unaectedC they are atits very center. In her recent #oo(, Svetlana *lpers uses these cases of disputed attri#utionas a point of departure for her provocative discussion of the radical distinctiveness ofDem#randt’s approach to painting.

*lpers argues that Dem#randt e-ercised an unprecedentedly rm control over his art, hisstudents, and the distri#ution of his %or(s. 9espite Gary Sch%art&’ #rilliant documentation of Dem#randt’s complicated relations %ith a %ide circle of patrons, *lpers ta(es the vie% thatDem#randt refused to su#mit to the prevailing patronage system. He preferred, she claims,to sell his %or(s on the open mar(et and to play the entrepreneur. *t a time %hen 9utchartists %ere organi&ing into professional #rotherhoods and academies, Dem#randt stoodapart. In fact, *lpers’ portrait of Dem#randt sho%s virtually every aspect of his art pervaded#y economic motives. Indeed, so complete %as Dem#randt’s involvement %ith the mar(et,she argues, that he even presented himself as commodity, vie%ing his studio’s products ase-tensions of himself, sent out into the %orld to earn money. *lpers asserts thatDem#randt’s enterprise is found not just in his paintings, #ut in his refusal to limit hisenterprise to those paintings he actually painted. He mar(eted Dem#randt.

*lthough there may #e some truth in the vie% that Dem#randt %as an entrepreneur %ho

made some aesthetic decisions on the #asis of %hat he (ne% the mar(et %anted, *lpers’emphasis on economic factors sacrices discussions of the aesthetic "ualities that ma(eDem#randt’s %or( uni"ue. 5or e-ample, *lpers asserts that Dem#randt deli#erately left his%or(s unnished so as to get more money for their revision and completion. She implies thatDem#randt actually %ished the Aouncil of *msterdam to refuse the great +laudius +i$ilis,%hich they had commissioned for their ne% to%n hall, and she argues that +he must havecalculated that he %ould #e a#le to get more money #y retouching XtheY painting. Aertainlythe picture is painted %ith very #road stro(es #ut there is no evidence that it %asdeli#erately left unnished. !he fact is that the loo( of a %or( li(e +laudius +i$ilis must also



#e understood as the conse"uence of Dem#randt’s po%erful and profound meditations onpainting itself. *lpers ma(e no mention of the pictorial dialectic that can #e discerned#et%een, say, the lessons Dem#randt a#sor#ed from the Haarlem school of paintings andthe styles of his native $eiden. !he trou#le is that %hile Dem#randt’s artistic enterprise mayindeed not #e reduci#le to the %or(s he himself painted, it is not reduci#le to mar(etingpractices either.

1. ;hich one of the following best summari*es the main conclusion of the author of the passage8

(A) embrandt differed from other artists of his time both in his aesthetic techni4ues and inhis desire to meet the demands of the mar!etplace.

() 'he aesthetic 4ualities of embrandt6s wor! cannot be understood without considerationof how economic motives pervaded decisions he made about his art.

(") embrandt was one of the first artists to develop the notion of a wor! of art as acommodity that could be sold in an open mar!etplace.

(#) embrandt6s artistic achievement cannot be understood solely in terms of decisions hemade on the basis of what would sell in the mar!etplace.

(%) embrandt was an entrepreneur whose artistic enterprise was not limited to the paintingshe actually painted himself.

&. According to the passage, Alpers and Schwart* disagree about which one of the following8

(A) the degree of control embrandt e0ercised over the production of his art

() the role that embrandt played in organi*ing professional brotherhoods and academies

(") the !inds of relationships embrandt had with his students

(#) the degree of embrandt6s involvement in the patronage system

(%) the role of the patronage system in seventeenthcentury olland

+. In the third paragraph, the author of the passage discusses aesthetic influences on

embrandt6s wor! most probably in order to(A) suggest that many critics have neglected to study the influence of the aarlem school

painters on embrandt6s wor!

() suggest that )laudius )iilis is similar in style to many paintings from the seventeencentury

(") suggest that embrandt6s style was not affected by the aesthetic influences that Alpers points out

(#) argue that embrandt6s style can best be understood as a result of the influences of hisnative Ceiden

(%) indicate that Alpers has not ta!en into account some important aspects of embrandt6swor!

. ;hich one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for Alpers6 argumentabout )laudius )iilis8

(A) embrandt was constantly revising his prints and paintings because he was never fullysatisfied with stylistic aspects of his earlier drafts.

() 'he wor!s of many seventeenthcentury #utch artists were painted with broad stro!esand had an unfinished loo!.



(") <any of embrandt6s contemporaries eschewed the patronage system and sold theirwor!s on the open mar!et.

(#) Artists were fre4uently able to raise the price of a painting if the buyer wanted the wor!revised in some way.

(%) embrandt did not allow his students to wor! on paintings that were commissioned by

public officials.

3. It can be inferred that the author of the passage and Alpers would be most li!ely to agree onwhich one of the following8

(A) embrandt made certain aesthetic decision on the basis of what he understood about thedemands of the mar!etplace.

() 'he embrandt corpus will not be affected if attributions of paintings to embrandt arefound to be false.

(") Stylistic aspects of embrandt6s painting can be better e0plained in economic terms thanin historical or aesthetic terms.

(#) "ertain aesthetic aspects of embrandt6s art are the result of his e0perimentation with

different painting techni4ues.(%) <ost of embrandt6s best!nown wor!s were painted by his students, but were sold

under embrandt6s name.

)edievalists usually distinguish medieval pu#lic la% from private la%C the former %asconcerned %ith government and military aairs and the latter %ith the family, social status,and land transactions. E-amination on medieval %omen’s lives sho%s this distinction to #eoverly simplistic. *lthough medieval %omen %ere legally e-cluded from roles thatcategori&ed as pu#lic, such as solider, justice, jury mem#er, or professional administrativeo6cial, %omen’s control of land3usually considered a private or domestic phenomenon3had important political implications in the feudal system of thirteenth'century England.Since land e"ualed %ealth and %ealth e"ualed po%er, certain %omen e-ercised in4uence #ycontrolling land. Unli(e unmarried %omen %ho %ere legally su#ject to their guardians or

married %omen %ho had no legal identity separate from their hus#ands, %omen %ho %ere%ido%s had autonomy %ith respect to ac"uiring or disposing of certain property, suing incourt, incurring lia#ility for their o%n de#ts, and ma(ing %ills.

*lthough feudal lands %ere normally transferred through primogeniture ;the eldest soninheriting all=, %hen no sons survived, the surviving daughters inherited e"ual shares under%hat %as (no%n as parti#le inheritance. In addition to controlling any such land inheritedfrom her parents and any #ridal do%ry3property a %oman #rought to the marriage from hero%n family3a %ido% %as entitled to use of one'third of her late hus#and’s lands. Aalled+do%er in England, this grant had greater legal importance under common la% than did the#ridal do%ry> no marriage %as legal unless the groom endo%ed the #ride %ith this propertyat the %edding ceremony. In /@/< )agna Aarta guaranteed a %ido%’s right to claim herdo%er %ithout paying a ne> this document also strengthened %ido%’s a#ility to control land#y prohi#iting forced remarriage. *fter /@@ %omen could also #enet from jointureC the

groom could agree to hold part or all of his lands jointly %ith the #ride, so that if one spousedied, the other received these lands.

Since many %ido%s had inheritances as %ell as do%ers, %ido%s %ere fre"uently thenancial heads of the family> even though legal theory assumed the maintenance of theprinciple of primogeniture, the amount of land the %ido% controlled could e-ceed that of herson or of other male heirs. *nyone %ho held feudal land e-ercised authority over the peopleattached to the land3(nights, rental tenants, and peasants3and had to hire estateadministrators, oversee accounts, receive rents, protect tenants from outside encroachment,punish tenants for not paying rents, appoint priests to local parishes, and act as guardians of



tenants’ children and e-ecutors of their %ills. )any married %omen fullled these duties asdeputies for hus#ands a%ay at court or at %ar, #ut %ido%s could act on their o%n #ehalf.8ido%’s legal independence is suggested #y their fre"uent appearance in thirteenth'centuryEnglish legal records. )oreover, the scope of their s%ay is indicated #y the fact that somecontrolled not merely single estates, #ut multiple counties.


(A) 'he traditional view of medieval women as legally e0cluded from many public officesfails to consider thirteenthcentury women in %ngland who were e0empted from suchrestrictions.

() 'he economic independence of women in thirteenthcentury %ngland was primarilydetermined not by their marital status, but by their status as heirs to their parents6estates.

(") 'he laws and customs of the feudal system in thirteenthcentury %ngland enabled somewomen to e0ercise a certain amount of power despite their legal e0clusion from most public roles.

(#) #uring the thirteenth century in %ngland, widows gained greater autonomy and legal

rights to their property than they had had in previous centuries.(%) ;idows in thirteenthcentury %ngland were able to ac4uire and dispose of lands through

a number of different legal processes.

7. ;ith which one of the following statements about the views held by the medievalistsmentioned in line 1 would the author of the passage most probably agree8

(A) 'he medieval role of landowners was less affected by thirteenthcentury changes in lawthan these medievalists customarily have recogni*ed.

() 'he realm of law labeled public by these medievalists ultimately had greater politicalimplications than that labeled private.

(") 'he amount of wealth controlled by medieval women was greater than these

medievalists have recorded.(#) 'he distinction made by these medievalists between private law and public law fails to

consider some of the actual legal cases of the period.

(%) 'he distinction made by these medievalists between private and public law fails toaddress the political importance of control over land in the medieval era.

. ;hich one of the following most accurately e0presses the meaning of the world sway/ as itis used in line 2: of the passage8

(A) vacillation

() dominion

(") predisposition

(#) inclination

(%) mediation

-. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the function of the second paragraphof the passage8

(A) providing e0amples of specific historical events as support for the conclusion drawn inthe third paragraph



() narrating a se4uence of events whose outcomes discussed in the third paragraph

(") e0plaining how circumstances described in the first paragraph could have occurred

(#) describing the effects of an event mentioned in the first paragraph

(%) evaluating the arguments of a group mentioned in the first paragraph

1:. According to information in the passage, a widow in early thirteenthcentury %ngland couldcontrol more land than did her eldest son if

(A) the widow had been granted the customary amount of dower land and the eldest soninherited the rest of the land

() the widow had three daughters in addition to her eldest son

(") the principle of primogeniture had been applied in transferring the lands owned by thewidow6s late husband

(#) none of the lands held by the widow6s late husband had been placed in $ointure

(%) the combined amount of land the widow had ac4uired from her own family and fromdower was greater than the amount inherited by her son

11. ;hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as a reason why a married womanmight have fulfilled certain duties associated with holding feudal land in thirteenthcentury%ngland8

(A) the legal statutes set forth by <agna "arta

() the rights a woman held over her inheritance during her marriage

(") the customary division of duties between husbands and wives

(#) the absence of the woman6s husband

(%) the terms specified by the woman6s $ointure agreement

1&. 'he phrase in %ngland/ (line +:+1) does which one of the following8

(A) It suggests that women in other countries also received grants of their husbands6 lands.

() It identifies a particular code of law affecting women who were surviving daughters.

(") It demonstrates that dower had greater legal importance in one %uropean county than inothers.

(#) It emphasi*es that women in one %uropean country had more means of controlling property than did women in other %uropean countries.

(%) It traces a legal term bac! to the time at which it entered the language.


(A) e0plain a legal controversy of the past in light of modern theory

() evaluate the economic and legal status of a particular historical group

(") resolve a scholarly debate about legal history(#) trace the historical origins of a modern economic situation

(%) provide new evidence about a historical event

!he de#ate over the environment crisis is not ne%C an-iety a#out industry’s impact onthe environment has e-isted for over a century. 8hat is ne% is the e-treme polari&ation ofvie%s. )ounting evidence of humanity’s capacity to damage the environment irreversi#lycoupled %ith suspicions that government, industry, and even science might #e impotent toprevent environmental destruction have provo(ed accusatory polemics on the part of



environmentalists. In turn, these polemics have elicited a corresponding #ac(lash fromindustry. !he sad eect of this polari&ation is that it is no% even more di6cult for industrythan it %as a hundred years ago to respond appropriately to impact analyses that demandaction.

Unli(e today’s adversaries, earlier ecological reformers shared %ith advocates ofindustrial gro%th a condence in timely corrective action. George 7. )arsh’s pioneering

conservation tract %an and (ature ;/B1J= elicited %ide acclaim %ithout em#ittered denials.%an and (ature castigated Earth’s despoilers for heedless greed, declaring that humanity+has #rought the face of the Earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the )oon.ut no entrepreneur of industrialists sought to refute )arsh’s accusations, to defend thegutting of forests or the slaughter of %ildlife as economically essential, or to dismiss hisecological %arnings as hysterical. !o the contrary, they generally agreed %ith him.

8hyL )arsh and his follo%ers too( environmental improvement and economic progressas givensC they disputed not the desira#ility of con"uering nature #ut the #ungling %ay in%hich the con"uest %as carried out. lame %as not personali&ed, )arsh denounced generalgreed rather than particular entrepreneurs, and the media did not hound malefactors.5urther, corrective measures seemed to entail no sacrice, to demand no draconianremedies. Self'interest under%rote most prescri#ed reforms. )arsh’s emphasis on futureste%ardship %as then a %idely accepted ideal ;if not practice=. His ecological admonitions

%ere in (eeping %ith the Enlightenment premise that humanity’s mission %as to su#due andtransform nature.

:ot until the /012s did a gloomier perspective gain popular ground. 5redric Alements’e"uili#rium model of ecology, developed in the /02s, seemed consistent %ith mountingenvironmental disasters. In this vie%, nature %as most fruitful %hen least altered. $eftundistur#ed, 4ora and fauna gradually attained ma-imum diversity and sta#ility.9espoliation th%arted the culmination or shortened the duration of this #enecent clima-Ctechnology did not improve nature #ut destroyed it.

!he e"uili#rium model #ecame an ecological mysti"ueC environmental interference %asno% ta#oo, %ilderness adored. :ature as unnished fa#ric perfected #y human ingenuitygave %ay to the image nature de#ased and endangered #y technology. In contrast to theEnlightenment vision of nature, according to %hich rational managers construct an evermore improved environment, t%entieth'century reformers’ vision of nature calls for areduction of human interference in order to restore environmental sta#ility.

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage8

(A) <ounting evidence of humanity6s capacity to damage the environment should motivateaction to prevent further damage.

() 'he ecological mysti4ue identified with Drederic "lements has become a religiousconviction among ecological reformers.

(") 9eorge =. <arsh6s ideas about conservation and stewardship have heavily influenced the present debate over the environment.

(#) 'he views of ecologists and industrial growth advocates concerning the environmenthave only recently become polari*ed.

(%) 9eneral greed, rather than particular individuals or industries, should be blamed for theenvironmental crisis.

13. 'he author refers to the e4uilibrium model of ecology as an ecological mysti4ue/ (liens 333) most li!ely in order to do which one of the following8

(A) underscore the fervor with which twentiethcentury reformers adhere to the e4uilibriummodel

() point out that the e4uilibrium model of ecology has recently been supported by empirical



scientific research

(") e0press appreciation for how plants and animals attain ma0imum diversity and stabilitywhen left alone

(#) indicate that the idea of twentiethcentury ecological reformers are often so theoreticalas to be difficult to understand

(%) indicate how widespread support is for the e4uilibrium model of ecology in the scientificcommunity

12. ;hich one of the following practices is most clearly an application of Drederic "lements6e4uilibrium model of ecology8

(A) introducing a species into an environment to which it is not help control the spread ofanother species that no longer has any natural predators

() developing incentives for industries to ta!e corrective measures to protect theenvironment

(") using scientific methods to increase the stability of plants and animals in areas wherespecies are in danger of becoming e0tinct

(#) using technology to develop plant and animal resources but balancing that developmentwith stringent restrictions on technology

(%) setting areas of land aside to be maintained as wilderness from which the use ofe0traction of natural resources is prohibited

17. 'he passage suggests that 9eorge =. <arsh and today6s ecological reformers would be mostli!ely to agree with which one of the following statements8

(A) egulating industries in order to protect the environment does not conflict with the selfinterest of those industries.

() Solving the environmental crisis does not re4uire drastic and costly remedies.

(") uman despoliation of the %arth has caused widespread environmental damage.

(#) %nvironmental improvement and economic progress are e4ually important goals.

(%) ather than blaming specific industries, general greed should be denounced as the causeof environmental destruction.

1. 'he passage is primarily concerned with which one of the following8

(A) providing e0amples of possible solutions to a current crisis

() e0plaining how conflicting viewpoints in a current debate are e4ually valid

(") determining which of two conflicting viewpoints in a current debate is more persuasive

(#) outlining the bac!ground and development of conflicting viewpoints in a current debate

(%) demonstrating wea!nesses in the arguments made by one side in a current debate

Decently the focus of historical studies of dierent ethnic groups in the United States hasshifted from the transformation of ethnic identity to its preservation. 8hereas earlierhistorians argued that the ethnic identity of various immigrant groups to the United States#lended to form an *merican national character, the ne% scholarship has focused on thetransplantation of ethnic cultures to the United States. 5ugita and ’rien’s Japanese

!merican 2thnicity provides an e-ample of this recent trend> it also e-emplies a pro#lemthat is common to such scholarship.

In comparing the rst three generations of Fapanese *mericans ;the Issei, :isei, and





(%) 'he nature of the community has been altered by Bapanese American participation innew professional communities and nonethnic voluntary associations.

&1. ;hich one of the following provides an e0ample of a research study that has conclusionmost analogous to that argued for by the historians mentioned in line 8

(A) a study showing how musical forms brought from other countries have persisted in the

United States

() a study showing the organi*ation and function of ethnic associations in the United States

(") a study showing how architectural styles brought from other counties have merged toform an American style

(#) a study showing how cultural traditions have been preserved for generations inAmerican ethic neighborhoods

(%) a study showing how different religious practices brought from other countries have been sustained in the United States

&&. According to the passage, which one of the following is true about the focus of historicalstudies on ethnic groups in the United States8

(A) "urrent studies are similar to earlier studies in claiming that a sense of peoplehood helps preserve ethnic community.

() "urrent studies have clearly identified factors that sustain ethnic community ingenerations that have been e0posed to the pluralism of American life.

(") "urrent studies e0amine the cultural practices that ma!e up the American nationalcharacter.

(#) %arlier studies focused on how ethnic identities became transformed in the UnitedStates.

(%) %arlier studies focused on the factors that led people to immigrate to the United States.

&+. 'he author of the passage 4uotes Dugita and 56rien in lines +2+- most probably in orderto

(A) point out a wea!ness in their hypothesis about the strength of community ties amongBapanese Americans

() show how they support their claim about the notability of community cohesion forBapanese Americans

(") indicate how they demonstrate the high degree of adaptation of Bapanese Americans toUnited States culture

(#) suggest that they have inaccurately compared Bapanese Americans to other ethnic groupsin the United States

(%) emphasi*e their contention that the Bapanese American sense of peoplehood e0tended beyond local and family ties

&. 'he passage suggests that the author would be most li!ely to describe the hypothesismentioned in line 7 as

(A) highly persuasive

() original but poorly developed

(") difficult to substantiate



(#) illogical and uninteresting

(%) too similar to earlier theories

&3. 'he passage suggests which one of the following about the historians mentioned in line -8

(A) 'hey have been unable to provide satisfactory e0planations for the persistence of%uropean ethnic communities in the United States.

() 'hey have suggested that %uropean cultural practices have survived although thecommunity ties of %uropean ethnic groups have wea!ened.

(") 'hey have hypothesi*ed that %uropean ethnic communities are based on family tiesrather than on a sense of national consciousness.

(#) 'hey have argued that %uropean cultural traditions have been transformed in the UnitedStates because of the pluralism of American life.

(%) 'hey have claimed that the community ties of %uropean Americans are still as strong asthey were when the immigrants first arrived.

&2. As their views are discussed in the passage, Dugita and 56rien would be most li!ely to

agree with which one of the following8(A) 'he community cohesion of an ethnic group is not affected by the length of time it has been in the United States.

() An ethnic group in the United States can have a high degree of adaptation to UnitedStates culture and still sustain strong community ties.

(") 'he strength of an ethnic community in the United States is primarily dependent on thestrength of local and family ties.

(#) igh levels of education and occupational mobility necessarily erode the communitycohesion of an ethnic group in the United States.

(%) It has become increasingly difficult for ethnic groups to sustain any sense of ethnicidentity in the pluralism of United States life.

LSAT 27 SECTION I






sheet.

)ost o6ce %or(ers assume that the messages they send to each other via electronicmail are as private as a telephone call or a face'to'face meeting. !hat assumption is %rong.*lthough it is illegal in many areas for an employer to eavesdrop on private conversations ortelephone calls3even if they ta(e place on a company'o%ned telephone3there are no clear

rules governing electronic mail. In fact, the "uestion of ho% private electronic mailtransmissions should #e has emerged as one of the more complicated legal issues of theelectronic age.

7eople’s opinions a#out the degree of privacy that electronic mail should have varydepending on %hose electronic mail system is #eing used and %ho is reading the messages.9oes a government o6ce, for e-ample, have the right to destroy electronic messagescreated in the course of running the government, there#y denying pu#lic access to suchdocumentsL Some hold that government o6ces should issue guidelines that allo% their stato delete such electronic records, and defend this practice #y claiming that the messages



thus deleted already e-ist in paper versions %hose destruction is for#idden. pponents ofsuch practices argue that the paper versions often omit such information as %ho receivedthe messages and %hen they received them, information commonly carried on electronicmail systems. Government o6cials, opponents maintain, are civil servants> the pu#lic shouldthus have the right to revie% any documents created during the conducting of government#usiness.

uestions a#out electronic mail privacy have also arisen in the private sector. Decently,t%o employees of an automotive company %ere discovered to have #een communicatingdisparaging information a#out their supervisor via electronic mail. !he supervisor, %ho had#een monitoring the communication, threatened to re the employees. 8hen the employeesled a grievance complaining that their privacy had #een violated, they %ere let go. $ater,their court case for unla%ful termination %as dismissed> the company’s la%yers successfullyargued that #ecause the company o%ned the computer system, its supervisors had the rightto read anything created on it.

In some areas, la%s prohi#it outside interception of electronic mail #y a third party%ithout proper authori&ation such as a search %arrant. Ho%ever, these la%s do not cover+inside interception such as occurred at the automotive company. In the past, courts haveruled that intero6ce communications may #e considered private only if employees have a+reasona#le e-pectation of privacy %hen they send the messages. !he fact is that no

a#solute guarantee of privacy e-ists in any computer system. !he only solution may #e forusers to scram#le their o%n messages %ith encryption codes> unfortunately, such comple-codes are li(ely to undermine the principal virtue of electronic mailC its convenience.

1. ;hich one of the following statements most accurately summari*es the main point of the passage8

(A) Until the legal 4uestions surrounding the privacy of electronic mail in both the publicand private sectors have been resolved, office wor!ers will need to scramble theirelectronic mail messages with encryption codes.

() 'he legal 4uestions surrounding the privacy of electronic mail in the wor! place can best be resolved by treating such communications as if they were as private as telephoneconversations or facetoface meetings.

(") Any attempt to resolve the legal 4uestions surrounding the privacy of electronic mail inthe wor!place must ta!e into account the essential difference between publicsector and private sector business.

(#) At present, in both the public and private sectors, there seem to be no clear generalanswers to the legal 4uestions surrounding the privacy of electronic mail in thewor!place.

(%) 'he legal 4uestions surrounding the privacy of electronic mail in the wor!place ofelectronic mail in the wor!place can best be resolved by allowing supervisors in publicsector but not privatesector offices to monitor their employees6 communications.

&. According to the passage, which one of the following best e0presses the reason some people

use to oppose the deletion of electronic mail records at government offices8

(A) Such deletion reveals the e0tent of government6s unhealthy obsession with secrecy.

() Such deletion runs counter to the notion of government6s accountability to itsconstituency.

(") Such deletion clearly violates the legal re4uirement that government offices !eepduplicate copies of all their transactions.

(#) Such deletion violates the government6s own guidelines against destruction of electronic



records.

(%) Such deletion harms relations between government employees and their supervisors.

+. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A problem is introduced, followed by specific e0amples illustrating the problem@ a possible solution is suggested, followed by an ac!nowledgment of its shortcomings.

() A problem is introduced, followed by e0plications of two possible solutions to the problem@ the first solution is preferred to the second, and reasons are given for why it isthe better alternative.

(") A problem is introduced, followed by analysis of the historical circumstances that helped bring the problem about a possible solution is offered and re$ected as being only a partial remedy.

(#) A problem is introduced, followed by enumeration of various 4uestions that need to beanswered before a solution can be found@ one possible solution is proposed and arguedfor.

(%) A problem is introduced, followed by descriptions of two contrasting approaches to

thin!ing about the problem@ the second approach is preferred to the first, and reasonsare given for why it is more li!ely to yield a successful solution.

. ased on the passage, the author6s attitude towards interception of electronic mail can mostaccurately be described as@

(A) outright disapproval of the practice

() support for employers who engage in it

(") support for employees who lose their $obs because of it

(#) intellectual interest in its legal issues

(%) cynicism about the motives behind the practice

3. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most li!ely hold which one of thefollowing opinions about an encryption system that could encodes and decode electronicmail messages with a single !eystro!e8

(A) It would be an unreasonable burden on a company6s ability to monitor electronic mailcreated by its employees.

() It would significantly reduce the difficulty of attempting to safeguard the privacy ofelectronic mail.

(") It would create substantial legal complications for companies trying to preventemployees from revealing trade secrets to competitors.

(#) It would guarantee only a minimal level of employee privacy, and so would not be worththe cost involved in installing such a system.

(%) It would re4uire a change in the legal definition of reasonable e0pectation of privacy/as it applies to employeremployee relations.

2. 9iven the information in the passage, which one of the following hypothetical events isC%AS' li!ely to occur8

(A) A court rules that a government office6s practice of deleting its electronic mail is not inthe public6s best interests.

() A privatesector employer is found liable for wiretapping an office telephone



conversation in which two employees e0changed disparaging information about theirsupervisor.

(") A court upholds the right of a government office to destroy both paper and electronicversions of its inhouse documents.

(#) A court upholds a privatesector employer6s right to monitor messages sent between

employees over the company6s inhouse electronic mail system.(%) A court rules in favor of a privatesector employee whose supervisor stated that inhouse

electronic mail would not be monitored but later fired the employee for communicatingdisparaging information via electronic mail.

7. 'he author6s primary purpose in writing the passage is to

(A) demonstrate that the individual right to privacy has been eroded by advances incomputer technology

() compare the legal status of electronic mail in the public and private sectors

(") draw an e0tended analogy between the privacy of electronic mail and the privacy oftelephone conversations or facetoface meeting

(#) illustrate the comple0ities of the privacy issues surrounding electronic mail in thewor!place

(%) e0plain why the courts have not been able to rule definitely on the issue of the privacy of electronic mail

8hile a ne% surge of critical interest in the ancient Gree( poems conventionally ascri#edto Homer has ta(en place in the last t%enty years or so, it %as nonspecialists rather thanprofessional scholars %ho studied the poetic aspects of the Iliad and the ,dyssey #et%een,roughly, /0< and /02. 9uring these years, %hile such nonacademic intellectuals asSimone 8eil and Erich *uer#ach %ere trying to dene the "ualities that made these epicaccounts of the !rojan 8ar and its aftermath great poetry, the "uestions that occupied thespecialists %ere directed else%hereC +9id the !rojan 8ar really happenL +9oes the #ard preserve Indo'European fol( memoriesL +Ho% did the poems get %ritten do%nL Something%as driving scholars a%ay from the actual %or(s to peripheral issues. Scholars produced#oo(s a#out archaeology, a#out gift'e-change in ancient societies, a#out the developmentof oral poetry, a#out virtually anything e-cept the Iliad and the ,dyssey themselves asuni"ue re4ections or distillations of life itself3as, in short, great poetry. !he o#servations ofthe English poet *le-ander 7ope seemed as applica#le in /02 as they had #een %hen he%rote them in //<C according to 7ope, the remar(s of critics +are rather 7hilosophical,Historical, GeographicRor rather anything than Aritical and 7oetical.

Ironically, the modern manifestation of this +nonpoetical emphasis can #e traced to theprofoundly in4uential %or( of )ilman 7arry, %ho attempted to demonstrate in detail ho% theHomeric poems, #elieved to have #een recorded nearly three thousand years ago, %ere theproducts of a long and highly developed tradition of oral poetry a#out the !rojan 8ar. 7arryproposed that this tradition #uilt up its diction and its content #y a process of constantaccumulation and renement over many generations of storytellers. ut after 7arry’s deathin /0<, his legacy %as ta(en up #y scholars %ho, unli(e 7arry, forsoo( intensive analysis ofthe poetry itself and focused instead on only one element of 7arry’s %or(C the creativelimitations and possi#ilities of oral composition, concerning on -ed elements andin4e-i#ilities, focusing on the things that oral poetry allegedly can and cannot do. !hedryness if this (ind of study drove many of the more inventive scholars a%ay from thepoems into the rapidly developing eld of Homer’s archaeological and historical #ac(ground.

*ppropriately, )ilman 7arry’s son *dam %as among those scholars responsi#le for arene%ed interest in Homer’s poetry as literary art. uilding on his father’s %or(, the younger7arry argued that the Homeric poems e-ist #oth %ithin and against a tradition. !he Iliad and





(A) 'hey reconciled omer6s poetry with archaeological and historical concerns.

() 'hey ac!nowledged the tradition of oral poetry, but focused on the uni4ueness ofomer6s poetry within the tradition.

(") 'hey occupied themselves with the 4uestion of what 4ualities made for great poetry.

(#) 'hey emphasi*ed the boundaries of oral poetry.

(%) 'hey called for a revival of omer6s popularity.

1+. ;hich one of the following best describes the organi*ation of the passage8

(A) A situation is identified and its origins are e0amines.

() A series of hypotheses is reviewed and one is advocated.

(") 'he wor!s of two influential scholars are summari*ed.

(#) Several issues contributing to a currently debate are summari*ed.

(%) 'hree possible solutions to a longstanding problem are posed.

Even in the midst of its resurgence as a vital tradition, many sociologists have vie%edthe current form of the po%%o%, a ceremonial gathering of native *mericans, as a sign thattri#al culture is in decline. 5ocusing on the dances and rituals that have recently come to #eshared #y most tri#es, they suggest that an intertri#al movement is no% in ascension andclaim the inevita#le outcome of this tendency is the eventual dissolution of tri#es and thecomplete assimilation of native *mericans into Euroamerican society. 7roponents of this+7an'Indian theory point to the greater fre"uency of travel and communication #et%eenreservations, the greater ur#ani&ation of native *mericans, and, most recently, theirincreasing politici&ation in response to common grievances as the chief causes of the shiftto%ard intertri#alism.

Indeed, the rapid diusion of dance styles, outts, and songs from one reservation toanother oers compelling evidence that intertri#alism has #een increasing. Ho%ever, thesesociologists have failed to note the concurrent revitali&ation of many traditions uni"ue toindividual tri#es. *mong the $a(ota, for instance, the Sun 9ance %as revived, after a forty'year hiatus, during the /0<2s. Similarly, the lac( $egging Society of the Kio%a and theHethus(a Society of the 7onca3#oth traditional groups %ithin their respective tri#es3havegained ne% popularity. #viously, a more comple- societal shift is ta(ing place than thetheory of 7an'Indianism can account for.

*n e-amination of the theory’s underpinnings may #e critical at this point, especiallygiven that native *mericans themselves chafe most against the 7an'Indian classication.$i(e other assimilationist theories %ith %hich it is associated, the 7an'Indian vie% ispredicted upon an a priori assumption a#out the nature of cultural contactC that uponcontact minority societies immediately #egin to succum# in every respect3#iologically,linguistically, and culturally3to the majority society. Ho%ever, there is no evidence that thisis happening to native *merican groups.

?et the fact remains that intertri#al activities are a major facet of native *mericancultural today. Aertain dances at po%%o%s, for instance, are announced as intertri#al, othersas traditional. $i(e%ise, speeches given at the #eginnings of po%%o%s are often delivered in

English, %hile the prayer that follo%s is usually spo(en in a native language. Aultural#orro%ing is, of course, old ne%s. 8hat is important to note is the conscious distinctionnative *mericans ma(e #et%een tri#al and intertri#al tendencies.

!ri#alism, although greatly altered #y modern history, remains a potent force amongnative *mericans. It forms a #asis for tri#al identity, and aligns music and dance %ith othersocial and cultural activities important to individual tri#es. Intertri#al activities, on the otherhand, reinforce native *merican identity along a #roader front, %here this identity is directlythreatened #y outside in4uences.




(A) #espite the fact that sociologists have only recently begun to understand its importance,intertribalism has always been an influential factor in native American culture.

() >ative Americans are currently struggling with an identity crisis caused primarily by thetwo competing forces of tribalism and intertribalism.

(") 'he recent growth of intertribalism is unli!ely to eliminate tribalism because the two

forces do not oppose one another but instead reinforce distinct elements of nativeAmerican interact with the broader community around them.

(#) 'he tendency toward intertribalism, although prevalent within native American culture,has had a minimal effect on the way native Americans interact with the broadercommunity around them.

(%) #espite the recent revival of many native American tribal traditions, the recent trendtoward intertribalism is li!ely to erode cultural differences among the various nativeAmerican tribes.

13. 'he author most li!ely states that cultural borrowing is of course, old news/ (line 7) primarily to

(A) ac!nowledge that in itself the e0istence of intertribal tendencies at powwows isunsurprising

() suggest that native Americans6 use of %nglish in powwows should be accepted asunavoidable

(") argue that the deliberate distinction of intertribal and traditional dances is not a recentdevelopment

(#) suggest that the recent increase in intertribal activity is the result of native Americans borrowing from nonnative Americans

(%) indicate that the powwow itself could have originated by combining practices drawnfrom both native and nonnative American cultures

12. 'he author of the passage would most li!ely agree with which one of the followingassertions8

(A) 'hough some believe the current form of the powwow signals the decline of tribalculture, the powwow contains elements that indicate the continuing strength oftribalism.

() 'he logical outcome of the recent increase in intertribal activity is the eventualdisappearance of tribal culture.

(") >ative Americans who participate in both tribal and intertribal activities usually basetheir identities on intertribal rather than tribal affiliations.

(#) 'he conclusions of some sociologists about the health of native American cultures show

that these sociologists are in fact biased against such cultures.(%) Until it is balanced by revitali*ation of tribal customs, intertribalism will continue to

wea!en the native American sense of identity.

17. 'he primary function of the third paragraph is to

(A) search for evidence to corroborate the basic assumption of he theory of =anIndianism

() demonstrate the incorrectness of the theory of =anIndianism by pointing out that nativeAmerican groups themselves disagree with the theory



(") e0plain the origin of the theory of =anIndianism by showing how it evolved from otherassimilationist theories

(#) e0amine several assimilationist theories in order to demonstrate that they rest on acommon assumption

(%) critici*e the theory of =anIndianism by pointing out that it rests upon an assumption for

which there is no supporting evidence

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the author6s attitude towards thetheory of =anIndianism8

(A) critical of its tendency to attribute political motives to cultural practices

() discomfort at its negative characteri*ation of cultural borrowing by native Americans

(") hopeful about its chance for preserving tribal culture

(#) offended by its claim that assimilation is a desirable conse4uence of cultural contact

(%) s!eptical that it is a complete e0planation of recent changes in native American society

1-. ;ith which one of the following statements would the author of the passage be most li!ely

to agree8(Intertribal activities, on the other hand, reinforce native American identity along a broader front, where this identity is directly threatened by outside influences.)

(A) 'he resurgence of the powwow is a sign that native American customs are beginning tohave an important influence on %uroamerican society.

() Although native Americans draw conscious distinctions between tribal and intertribalactivities, there is no difference in how the two types of activity actually functionwithin the conte0t of native American society.

(") ;ithout intertribal activities, it would be more difficult for native Americans to maintainthe cultural differences between native American and %uroamerican society.

(#) 'he powwow was recently revived, after an e0tended hiatus, in order to strengthennative Americans6 sense of ethnic identity.

(%) 'he degree of urbani*ation, intertribal communication, and politici*ation among nativeAmericans has been e0aggerated by proponents of the theory of =anIndianism.

&:. ;hich one of the following situations most clearly illustrates the phenomenon ofintertribalism, as that phenomenon is described in the passage8

(A) a native American tribe in which a number of powerful societies attempt to prevent therevival of a traditional dance

() a native American tribe whose members attempt to learn the native languages of severalother tribes

(") a native American tribe whose members attempt to form a political organi*ation in orderto redress several grievances important to that tribe

(#) a native American tribe in which a significant percentage of the members have forsa!etheir tribal identity and become assimilated into %uroamerican society

(%) a native American tribe whose members often travel to other parts of the reservation inorder to visit friends and relatives

&1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the following8

(A) identifying an assumption common to various assimilationist theories and thencritici*ing these theories by showing this assumption to be false



() arguing that the recent revival of a number of tribal practices shows sociologists aremista!en in believing intertribilism to be a potent force among native Americansocieties

(") 4uestioning the belief that native American societies will eventually be assimilated into%uroamerican society by arguing that intertribalism helps strengthen native American

identity(#) showing how the recent resurgence of tribal activities is a deliberate attempt to

counteract the growing influence of intertribalism

(%) proposing an e0planation of why the ascension of intertribalism could result in theeventual dissolution of tribes and complete assimilation of native American into%uroamerican society

Scientists typically advocate the analytic method of studying comple- systemsC systemsare divided into component parts that are investigated separately. ut nineteenth'centurycritics of this method claimed that %hen a system’s parts are isolated its comple-ity tends to#e lost. !o address the perceived %ea(ness of the analytic method these critics put for%arda concept called organicism, %hich posited that the %hole determines the nature of its partsand that the parts of a %hole are interdependent.

rganicism depended upon the theory of internal relations, %hich states that relations#et%een entities are possi#le only %ithin some %hole that em#races them, and that entitiesare altered #y the relationships into %hich they enter. If an entity stands in a relationship%ith another entity, it has some property as a conse"uence. 8ithout this relationship, andhence %ithout the property, the entity %ould #e dierent3and so %ould #e another entity.

!hus, the property is one of the entity’s dening characteristics. Each of an entity’srelationships li(e%ise determines a dening characteristic of the entity.

ne pro#lem %ith the theory of internal relations is that not all properties of an entityare dening characteristicsC numerous properties are accompanying characteristics3even ifthey are al%ays present, their presence does not in4uence the entity’s identity. !hus, even if it is admitted that every relationship into %hich an entity enters determines somecharacteristic of the entity, it is not necessarily true that such characteristics %ill dene the

entity> it is possi#le for the entity to enter into a relationship yet remain essentiallyunchanged.

!he ultimate di6culty %ith the theory of internal relations is that it renders theac"uisition of (no%ledge impossi#le. !o truly (no% an entity, %e must (no% all of itsrelationships> #ut #ecause the entity is related to everything in each %hole of %hich it is apart, these %holes must #e (no%n completely #efore the entity can #e (no%n. !his seems to#e a prere"uisite impossi#le to satisfy.

rganicists’ criticism of the analytic method arose from their failure to fully comprehendthe method. In rejecting the analytic method, organicists overloo(ed the fact that #efore theproponents of the method analy&ed the component parts of a system, they rst determined#oth the la%s applica#le to the %hole system and the initial conditions of the system>proponents of the method thus did not study parts of a system in full isolation from thesystem as a %hole. Since organicists failed to recogni&e this, they never advanced any

argument to sho% that la%s and initial conditions of comple- systems cannot #e discovered.Hence, organicists oered no valid reason for rejecting the analytic method or for adoptingorganicism as a replacement for it.

&&. ;hich one of the following most completely and accurately summari*es the argument of the passage8

(A) y calling into 4uestion the possibility that comple0 systems can be studied in theirentirety, organicists offered an alternative to the analytic method favored by nineteenthcentury scientists.



() 5rganicists did not offer a useful method of studying comple0 systems because they didnot ac!nowledge that there are relationship into which an entity may enter that do notalter the entity6s identity.

(") 5rganicism is flawed because it relies on a theory that both ignores the fact that not allcharacteristics of entities are defining and ultimately ma!es the ac4uisition of

!nowledge impossible.(#) 5rganicism does not offer a valid challenge to the analytic method both because it relies

on faulty theory and because it is based on a misrepresentation of the analytic method.

(%) In critici*ing the analytic method, organicists neglected to disprove that scientists whoemploy the method are able to discover the laws and initial conditions of the systemsthey study.

&+. According to the passage, organicists6 chief ob$ection to the analytic method was that themethod

(A) oversimplified systems by isolating their components

() assumed that a system can be divided into component parts

(") ignored the laws applicable to the system as a whole(#) claimed that the parts of a system are more important than the system as a whole

(%) denied the claim that entities enter into relationships

&. 'he passage offers information to help answer each of the following 4uestions %?"%='@

(A) ;hy does the theory of internal relations appear to ma!e the ac4uisition of !nowledgeimpossible8

() ;hy did the organicists propose replacing the analytic method8

(") ;hat is the difference between a defining characteristic and an accompanyingcharacteristic8

(#) ;hat did organicists claim are the effects of an entity entering into a relationship withanother entity8

(%) ;hat are some of the advantages of separating out the parts of a system for study8

&3. 'he passage most strongly supports the ascription of which one of the following views toscientists who use the analytic method8

(A) A comple0 system is best understood by studying its component parts in full isolationfrom the system as a whole.

() 'he parts of a system should be studied with an awareness of the laws and initialconditions that govern the system.

(") It is not possible to determine the laws governing a system until the system6s parts are

separated from one another.(#) ecause the parts of a system are interdependent, they cannot be studied separately

without destroying the system6s comple0ity.

(%) Studying the parts of a system individually eliminate the need to determine whichcharacteristics of the parts are defining characteristics.

&2. ;hich one of the following is a principle upon which the author bases an argument againstthe theory of the internal relations8



(A) An ade4uate theory of comple0 systems must define the entities of which the system iscomposed.

() An acceptable theory cannot have conse4uences that contradict its basic purpose.

(") An ade4uate method of study of comple0 systems should reveal the actual comple0ity of the system it studies.

(#) An acceptable theory must describe the laws and initial conditions of a comple0 system.

(%) An acceptable method of studying comple0 systems should not study parts of the systemin isolation from the system as a whole.

LSAT 28 SECTION IV






sheet.

pponents of compulsory national service claim that such a program is not in (eeping%ith the li#eral principles upon %hich 8estern democracies are founded. !his reasoning isreminiscent of the argument that a ta- on one’s income is undemocratic #ecause it violatesone’s right to property. Such conceptions of the li#eral state fail to ta(e into account theintricate character of the social agreement that undergirds our li#erties. It is only in theconte-t of a community that the notion of individual rights has any application> individualrights are meant to dene the limits of people’s actions %ith respect to other people. Implicitin such a conte-t is the concept of shared sacrice. 8ere no ta-es paid, there could #e nola% enforcement, and the enforcement of la% is of #enet to everyone in society. !hus, eachof us must #ear a share of the #urden to ensure that the community is protected.

!he responsi#ility to defend one’s nation against outside aggression is surely no lessthan the responsi#ility to help pay for la% enforcement %ithin the nation. !herefore, thestate is certainly %ithin its rights to compel citi&ens to perform national service %hen it is

needed for the #enet of society.It might #e o#jected that the cases of ta-ation and national service are not analogousC

8hile ta-ation must #e coerced, the military is "uite a#le to nd recruits %ithout resorting toconscription. 5urthermore, proponents of national service do not limit its scope to only thoseduties a#solutely necessary to the defense of the nation. !herefore, it may #e contended,compulsory national service oversteps the accepta#le #oundaries of governmentalinterference in the lives of its citi&ens.

y responding thus, the opponent of national service has already allo%ed that it is aright of government to demand service %hen it is needed. ut %hat is the true scope of theterm +needL If it is granted, say, that present ta- policies are legitimate intrusions on theright to property, then it must also #e granted that need involves more than just %hat isnecessary for a sound national defense. Even the most conservative of politicians admitsthat ta- money is rightly spent on programs that, %hile not necessary for the survival of thestate, are nevertheless of great #enet to society. Aan the opponent of national service trulyclaim that activities of the military such as "uelling civil disorders, re#uilding dams and#ridges, or assisting the victims of natural disasters3all e-traneous to the defense of societyagainst outside aggression3do not provide a similar #enet to the nationL Upon re4ection,opponents of national service must concede that such a #roadened conception of %hat isnecessary is in (eeping %ith the ideas of shared sacrice and community #enet that areessential to the functioning of a li#eral democratic state.

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the author6s attitude toward the



relationship between citi*enship and individual rights in a democracy8

(A) confidence that individual rights are citi*ens6 most important guarantees of personalfreedom

() satisfaction at how individual rights have protected citi*ens from unwarrantedgovernment intrusion

(") alarm that so many citi*ens use individual rights as an e0cuse to ta!e advantage of oneanother

(#) concern that individual rights represent citi*ens6 only defense against governmentinterference

(%) dissatisfaction at how some citi*ens cite individual rights as a way of avoiding certainobligations to their government

&. 'he author indicates all politicians agree about the

(A) legitimacy of funding certain programs that serve the national good

() use of the military to prevent domestic disorders

(") similarity of conscription and compulsory ta0ation

(#) importance of broadening the definition of necessity

(%) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles

+. ;hich one of the following most accurately characteri*es what the author means by the termsocial agreement/ (line )8

(A) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their individual libertiesis limited somewhat by their obligations to one another

() an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways thatinfringe upon each other6s pursuit of individual liberty

(") an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the government for

redress when government actions limit their rights(#) an agreement between citi*ens and their government detailing which government actions

do or do not infringe upon citi*en6s personal freedoms

(%) an agreement between citi*ens and their government stating that the government hasright to suspend individual liberties whenever it sees fit

. According to the author, national service and ta0ation are analogous in the sense that both

(A) do not re4uire that citi*ens be compelled to help bring them about

() are at odds with the notion of individual rights in a democracy

(") re4uire different degrees of sacrifice from different citi*ens

(#) allow the government to overstep its boundaries and interfere in the lives of citi*ens

(%) serve ends beyond those related to the basic survival of the state

3. ased on the information in the passage, which one of the following would most li!ely befound ob$ectionable by those who oppose compulsory national service8

(A) the use of ta0 revenues to prevent the theft of national secrets by foreign agents

() the use of ta0 revenues to fund relief efforts for victims of natural disasters in othernations

(") the use of ta0 revenues to support the up!eep of the nation6s standing army



(#) the use of ta0 revenues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic dams and bridges

(%) the use of ta0 revenues to aid citi*ens who are victims of natural disasters

Fames 7orter ;/02<'/02= %as the rst scholar to identify the *frican in4uence on visualart in the *mericans, and much of %hat is (no%n a#out the cultural legacy that *frican'

*merican artists inherited from their *frican fore#ears has come to us #y %ay of his %or(.7orter, a painter and art historian, #egan #y studying *frican'*merican crafts of theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries. !his research revealed that many of the householditems created #y *frican'*merican men and %omen3%al(ing stic(s, jugs, and te-tiles3displayed characteristics that lin(ed them iconographically to artifacts of 8est *frica. 7orterthen %ent on to esta#lish clearly the range of the cultural territory inherited #y later *frican'*merican artists.

*n e-ample of this aspect of 7orter’s research occurs in his essay +Do#ert S. 9uncanson,)id%estern Domantic'Dealist. !he %or( of 9uncanson, a nineteenth'century painter of theHudson Diver school, li(e that of his predecessor in the movement, Foshua Fohnston, %ascommonly thought to have #een created #y a Euro'*merican artist. 7orter proveddenitively that #oth 9uncanson and Fohnston %ere of *frican ancestry. 7orter pu#lished thisnding and thousands of others in a comprehensive volume tracing the history of *frican'

*merican art. *t the time of its rst printing in /0J, only t%o other #oo(s devotede-clusively to the accomplishments of *frican'*merican artists e-isted. oth of these #oo(s%ere %ritten #y *lain $eDoy $oc(e, a professor at the university %here 7orter also taught.8hile these earlier studies #y $oc(e are interesting for #eing the rst to survey the eld,neither addressed the critical issue of *frican precursors> 7orter’s #oo( addressed this issue,painsta(ingly integrating the history of *frican'*merican art into the larger history of art inthe *mericas %ithout separating it from those "ualities that gave it its uni"ue ties to *fricanartisanship. 7orter may have #een especially attuned to these ties #ecause of his consciouseort to maintain them in his o%n paintings, many of %hich com#ine the style of the genreportrait %ith evidence of an e-tensive (no%ledge of the cultural history of various *fricanpeoples.

In his later years, 7orter %rote additional chapters for later editions of his #oo(,constantly revising and correcting his ndings, some of %hich had #een #ased of necessity

on fragmentary evidence. *mong his later achievements %ere his denitive rec(oning of the#irth year of the painter 7atric( Deason, long a point of scholarly uncertainty, and hisidentication of an unmar(ed grave in San 5rancisco as that of the sculptor Edmonia $e%is.*t his death, 7orter left e-tensive notes for unnished project aimed at e-ploring thein4uence of *frican art on the art of the 8estern %orld generally, a #ody of research %hoseriches scholars still have not e-hausted.

2. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage8

(A) ecause the connections between AfricanAmerican art and other art in the Americashad been established by earlier scholars, =orter6s wor! focused on showing AfricanAmerican art6s connections to African artisanship.

() In addition to showing the connections between AfricanAmerican art and African

artisanship, =orter6s most important achievement was illustrating the lin!s betweenAfricanAmerican art and other art in Americas.

(") #espite the fact that his last boo! remains unfinished, =orter6s wor! was the first todevote its attention e0clusively to the accomplishments of AfricanAmerican artists.

(#) Although showing the connections between AfricanAmerican art and Africanartisanship, =orter6s wor! concentrated primarily on placing AfricanAmerican art inthe conte0t of ;estern art in general.

(%) ;hile not the first body of scholarship to treat the sub$ect of AfricanAmerican art,



=orter6s wor! was the first to show the connections between AfricanAmerican art andAfrican artisanship.

7. 'he discussion of Coc!e6s boo!s is intended primarily to

(A) argue that =orte6s boo! depended upon Coc!e6s pioneering scholarship

() highlight an important way in which =orter6s wor! differed from previous wor! in hisfield

(") suggest an e0planation for why =orter6s boo! was little !nown outside academic circles

(#) support the claim that =orter was not the first to notice African influences in AfricanAmerican art

(%) argue that Coc!e6s e0ample was a ma$or influence o =orter6s decision to publish hisfindings

. 'he passage states which one of the following about the 1-+ edition of =orter6s boo! onAfricanAmerican art8

(A) It received little scholarly attention at first.

() It was revised and improved upon in later editions.(") It too! issue with several of Coc!e6s conclusions.

(#) It is considered the definitive version of =orter6s wor!.

(%) It e0plored the influence of African art on western art in general.

-. 9iven the information in the passage, =orter6s identification of the ancestry of #uncansonand Bohnston provides conclusive evidence for which one of the following statements8

(A) Some of the characteristics defining the udson iver school are iconographicallylin!ed to ;eston African artisanship.

() Some of the wor!s of #uncanson and Bohnston are not in the style of the udson iverschool.

(") Some of the wor! of %uroAmerican painters displays similarities to AfricanAmericancrafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

(#) Some of the wor!s of the udson iver school were done by AfricanAmerican painters.

(%) Some of the wor!s of #uncanson and Bohnston were influenced by ;est Africanartifacts.

1:. ;hich one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage about thestudy that =orter left unfinished at his death8

(A) If completed, it would have contradicted some of the conclusions contained in his earlier boo!.

() If completed, it would have amended some of the conclusions contained in his earlier

boo!.

(") If completed, it would have brought up to date the comprehensive history of AfricanAmerican art begun in his earlier boo!.

(#) If completed, it would have e0panded upon the pro$ect of his earlier boo! by broadeningthe scope of in4uiry found in the earlier boo!.

(%) If completed, it would have supported some of the theories put forth by =orter6scontemporaries since the publication of his earlier boo!.



11. ;hich of the following hypothetical observations is most closely analogous to thediscoveries =orter made about AfricanAmerican crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies8

(A) "ontemporary aitian social customs have a uni4ue character dependent on but differentfrom both their African and Drench origins.

() =opular music in the United States, some of which is based on African musicaltraditions, often influences music being composed on the African continent.

(") <any novels written in "anada by "hinese immigrants e0hibit narrative themes verysimilar to those found in "hinese fol!tales.

(#) %0tensive Indian immigration to %ngland has made traditional Indian foods nearly as popular there as the traditional %nglish foods that had been popular there before Indianimmigration.

(%) Some <e0ican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art ofnative peoples as a response to the Spanish influences that had predominated in<e0ican art.

1&. 'he passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about =orter6sown paintings8

(A) 'hey often contained figures or images derived from the wor! of African artisans.

() 'hey fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.

(") 'hey were used in =orter6s boo! to show the e0tent of African influence on AfricanAmerican art.

(#) 'hey were a deliberate attempt to prove his theories about art history.

(%) 'hey were done after all of his academic wor! had been completed.

1+. ased on the passage, which one of the following, if true, would have been most relevant tothe pro$ect =orter was wor!ing on at the time of his death8

(A) AfricanAmerican crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have certainresemblances to %uropean fol! crafts of earlier periods.

() 'he paintings of some twentiethcentury %uropean artists prefigured certain stylisticdevelopments in >orth African graphic art.

(") 'he designs of many of the 4uilts made by AfricanAmerican women in the nineteenthcentury reflect designs of %uropean trade goods.

(#) After the movement of large numbers of AfricanAmericans to cities, the Africaninfluences in the wor! of many AfricanAmerican painters increased.

(%) Several portraits by certain twentiethcentury %uropean painters were modeled aftere0amples of "entral African ceremonial mas!s.

et%een Fune /0B and )ay /0BB, the #odies of at least J2 #ottlenose dolphins out ofa total coastal population of ,222 to <,222 %ashed ashore on the *tlantic coast of theUnited States. Since some of the dead animals never %ashed ashore, the overall disaster%as presuma#ly %orse> perhaps <2 percent of the population died. * dolphin die'o of thischaracter and magnitude had never #efore #een o#served> furthermore, the dolphinse-hi#ited a startling range of symptoms. !he research team that e-amined the die'o notedthe presence of #oth s(in lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart,%hich suggested a massive opportunistic #acterial infection of already %ea(ened animals.

!issues from the stric(en dolphins %ere analy&ed for a variety of to-ins. reveto-in, a



to-in produced #y the #looming of the alga &tychodiscus bre$is, %as present in eight out ofseventeen dolphins tested. !ests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated#iphenyls ;7As= %ere present in almost all animals tested.

!he research team concluded that #reveto-in poisoning %as the most li(ely cause of theillnesses that (illed the dolphins. *lthough &3 bre$is is ordinarily not found along the *tlanticcoast, an unusual #loom of this organism3such #looms are called +red tides #ecause of the

reddish color imparted #y the #looming algae3did occur in the middle of the aectedcoastline in cto#er /0B. !hese researchers #elieve the to-in accumulated in the tissue ofsh and then %as ingested #y dolphins that preyed on them. !he emaciated appearance ofmany dolphins indicated that they %ere meta#oli&ing their #lu##er reserves, there#yreducing their #uoyancy and insulation ;and adding to overall stress= as %ell as releasingstores of previously accumulated synthetic pollutants, such as 7As, %hich furthere-acer#ated their condition. !he com#ined impact made the dolphins vulnera#le toopportunistic #acterial infection, the ultimate cause of death.

5or several reasons, ho%ever, this e-planation is not entirely plausi#le. 5irst, #ottlenosedolphins and &3 bre$is red tides are #oth common in the Gulf of )e-ico, yet no dolphin die'o of a similar magnitude has #een noted there. Second, dolphins #egan dying in Fune,hundreds of miles north of and some months earlier than the cto#er red tide #loom. 5inally,the specic eects of #reveto-in on dolphins are un(no%n, %hereas 7A poisoning is (no%n

to impair functioning of the immune system and liver and to cause s(in lesions> all of thesepro#lems are o#served in the diseased animals. *n alternative hypothesis, %hich accountsfor these facts, is that a sudden in4u- of pollutants, perhaps from oshore dumping,triggered a cascade of disorders in animals %hose systems %ere already heavily laden %ithpollutants. *lthough #reveto-in may have #een a contri#uting factor, the event that actuallyprecipitated the die'o %as a sharp increase in the dolphins’ e-posure to syntheticpollutants.

1. 'he passage is primarily concerned with assessing

(A) the effects of a devastating bacterial infection in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins

() the progress by which illnesses in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were correctlydiagnosed

(") the wea!nesses in the research methodology used to e0plore the dolphin dieoff (#) possible alternative e0planations for the massive dolphin dieoff

(%) relative effects of various marine pollutants on dolphin mortality

13. ;hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as evidence for the e0planation ofthe dolphin dieoff offered in the final paragraph8

(A) the release of stored breveto0ins from the dolphins6 blubber reserves

() the date on which offshore dumping was !nown to have occurred nearby

(") the presence of dumping sites for ="s in the area

(#) the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins

(%) the effects of ="s on liver function in dolphins

12. ;hich one of the following is most analogous to the approach ta!en by author of the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph8

(A) A physics teacher accepts the data from a student6s e0periment but 4uestions thestudent6s conclusions.

() An astronomer provides additional observations to support another astronomer6s theory.

(") A coo! revises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for those used in



the original.

(#) A doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed by anotherdoctor.

(%) A microbiologist sets out to replicate the e0periment that yielded a classic theory of cellstructure.

17. ;hich one of the following most accurately describes the organi*ation of the last paragraph8

(A) 5ne e0planation is critici*ed and different e0planation is proposed.

() An argument is advanced and then refuted by means of an opposing argument.

(") 5b$ections against a hypothesis are advanced, the hypothesis is e0plained more fully,and then the ob$ections are re$ected.

(#) >ew evidence in favor of a theory is described, and then the theory is reaffirmed.

(%) #iscrepancies between two e0planations are noted, and a third e0planation is proposed.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree with whichone of the following statements about breveto0in8

(A) It may have been responsible for the dolphins6 s!in lesions but could not havecontributed to the bacterial infection.

() It forms more easily when both P( breis and synthetic pollutants are present in theenvironment simultaneously.

(") It damages liver function and immune system responses in bottlenose dolphins but maynot have triggered this particular dolphin dieoff.

(#) It is unli!ely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin dieoff.

(%) It is unli!ely to have caused the dieoff because it was not present in the dolphins6environment when the dieoff began.

1-. 'he e0planation for the dolphin dieoff given by the research team most strongly supports

which one of the following8(A) 'he biological mechanism by which breveto0in affects dolphins is probably different

from that by which it affects other marine animals.

() ;hen P( breis blooms in an area where it does not usually e0ist, it is more to0ic than itis in its usual habitat.

(") 5pportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with breveto0in poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.

(#) 'he dolphins6 emaciated state was probably a symptom of =" poisoning rather than of breveto0in poisoning.

(%) ;hen a dolphin metaboli*es its blubber, the ="s released may be more dangerous to

the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber.&:. 'he author refers to dolphins in the 9ulf of <e0ico in the last paragraph in order to

(A) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where P( breis is common

() compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on Atlantic coastdolphins

(") cast doubt on the belief that P( breis contributes substantially to dolphin dieoffs

(#) illustrate the fact that dolphins in relatively pollutionfree waters are healthier than



dolphins in polluted waters

(%) provide evidence for the argument that P( breis was probably responsible for thedolphins6 deaths

&1. ;hich one of the following factors is e0plicitly cited as contributing to the dolphins6 deathsin both theories discussed in the passage8

(A) the dolphins6 diet

() the presence of P( breis in the 9ulf of <e0ico

(") the wide variety of to0ins released by the red tide bloom of 5ctober 1-7

(#) the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins6 bodies

(%) the bacterial infection caused by a generali*ed failure of the dolphins6 immune systems

In England #efore /112, a hus#and controlled his %ife’s property. In the late seventeenthand eighteenth centuries, %ith the shift from land'#ased to commercial %ealth, marriage#egan to incorporate certain features of a contract. Historian have traditionally argued thatthis trend represented a gain for %omen, one that re4ects changing vie%s a#out democracyand property follo%ing the English Destoration in /112. Susan Staves contests this vie%> sheargues that %hatever gains marriage contracts may #rie4y have represented for %omen%ere undermined #y judicial decisions a#out %omen’s contractual rights.

Sifting ;to go through especially to sort out %hat is useful or valua#le +sifted theevidence often used %ith through +sift through a pile of old letters= through the tangleddetails of court cases, Staves demonstrates that, despite surface changes, a rhetoric ofe"uality, and occasional decisions supporting %omen’s nancial po%er, denitions of men’sand %omen’s property remained inconsistent3generally to %omen’s detriment. 5ore-ample, do%er lands ;property inherited #y %ives after their hus#ands’ deaths= could not#e sold, #ut +curtsey property ;inherited #y hus#ands from their %ives= could #e sold.5urthermore, comparatively ne% concepts that developed in conjunction %ith the marriagecontract, such as jointure, pin money ;pin moneyC money given #y a man to his %ife for hero%n use=, and separate maintenance, %ere compromised #y peculiar rules. 5or instance, if a%oman spent her pin money ;money paid #y the hus#and according to the marriagecontract for %ife’s personal items= on possessions other than clothes she could not sellthem> in eect they #elonged to her hus#and. In addition, a %ife could sue for pin moneyonly up to a year in arrears3%hich rendered a suit impractical. Similarly, separatemaintenance allo%ances ;stated sums of money for the %ife’s support if hus#and and %ifeagreed to live apart= %ere complicated #y the fact that if a couple tried to agree in amarriage contract on an amount, they %ere admitting that a supposedly indissolu#le #ondcould #e dissolved, an assumption courts could not recogni&e. Eighteenth'century historiansunderplayed these inconsistencies, calling them +little contrarieties that %ould soon vanish.Staves sho%s, ho%ever, that as judges gained po%er over decisions on marriage contracts,they tended to fall #ac( on pre'/112 assumptions a#out property.

Staves’ %or( on %omen’s property has general implications for other studies a#out%omen in eighteenth'century England. Staves revised her previous claim that separatemaintenance allo%ances proved the %ea(ening of patriarchy> she no% nds that an

oversimplication. She also challenges the contention #y historians Feanne and $a%renceStone that in the late eighteenth century %ealthy men married %ido%s less often than#efore #ecause couples #egan marring for love rather than for nancial reasons. Stavesdoes not completely undermine their contention, #ut she does counter their assumption that%ido%s had more money than never'married %omen. She points out that jointure property ;a%ido%’s lifetime use of an amount of money specied in the marriage contract= %as oftenlost on remarriage.

&&. ;hich one of the following best e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) As notions of property and democracy changed in late seventeenthand eighteenth





&2. According to the passage, Staves indicates that which one of the following was true of $udicial decisions on contractual rights8

(A) Budges fre4uently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married women6s property.

() Budges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women6s contractual rights but

claimed that such inconsistencies would soon vanish.(") Budges6 decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions about property

that had been common before 122:.

(#) Budges had little influence on the development and application of laws concerningmarried women6s property.

(%) Budges recogni*ed the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning marriedwomen6s property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would protect women.

&7. 'he passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 3 would be most li!ely to agreewith which one of the following statements8

(A) 'he shift from landbased to commercial wealth changed views about property but did

not significantly benefit married women until the late eighteenth century.() #espite initial $udicial resistance to women6s contractual rights, marriage contracts

represented a significant gain for married women.

(") Although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a rhetoric ofe4uality, they did not ultimately benefit married women.

(#) "hanging views about property and democracy in postestoration %ngland had aneffect on property laws that was beneficial to women.

(%) Although contractual rights protecting women6s property represented a small gain formarried women, most laws continued to be more beneficial for men than for women.

LSAT 2002 SECTION III






sheet.

!he myth persists that in /J0@ the 8estern Hemisphere %as an untamed %ilderness andthat it %as European settlers %ho harnessed and transformed its ecosystems. utscholarship sho%s that forests, in particular, had #een altered to varying degrees %ell #eforethe arrival of Europeans. :ative populations had converted much of the forests tosuccessfully cultivated stands, especially #y means of #urning. :evertheless, someresearchers have maintained that the e-tent, fre"uency, and impact of such #urning %asminimal. ne geographer claims that climatic change could have accounted for some of thechanges in forest composition> another argues that #urning #y native populations %as doneonly sporadically, to augment the eects of natural res.

Ho%ever, a large #ody of evidence for the routine practice of #urning e-ists in thegeographical record. ne group of researchers found, for e-ample, that sedimentarycharcoal accumulations in %hat is no% the northeastern United States are greatest %here(no%n native *merican settlements %ere greatest. ther evidence sho%s that, %hile thecharacteristics and impact of res set #y native populations varied regionally according topopulation si&e, e-tent of resource management techni"ues, and environment, all such res



had mar(edly dierent eects on vegetation patter than did natural res. Aontrolled #urningcrated grassy openings such as meado%s and glades. urning also promoted a mosaic"uality to :orth and south *merican ecosystems, creating forests in many dierent stages of ecological development. )uch of the mature forestland %as characteri&ed #y openher#aceous undergro%th, another result of the clearing #rought a#out #y #urning.

In :orth *merican, controlled #urning crated conditions favora#le to #erries and other

re'tolerant and sun'loving foods. urning also converted mi-ed stands of trees tohomogeneous forest, for e-ample the longleaf, slash pine, and scru# oa( forests of thesoutheastern U.S. natural res do account for some of this vegetation, #ut regular #urningclearly e-tended and maintained it. urning also in4uenced forest composition in the tropics,%here natural res are rare. *n e-ample is the pine'dominant forests of :icaragua, %here%arm temperatures and heavy rainfall naturally favor mi-ed tropical or rain forests. 8hilethere are primarily gro% in cooler, drier, higher elevations, regions %here such vegetation isin large part natural and even prehuman. !oday, the :icaraguan pines occur %here there has#een clearing follo%ed #y regular #urning, and the same is li(ely to have occurred in thepastC such forests ere present %hen Europeans arrived and %ere found only in areas %herenative settlements %ere su#stantial> %hen these settlements %ere a#andoned, the landreturned to mi-ed hard%oods. !his succession is also evident else%here in similar lo%tropical elevations in the Aari##ean and )e-ico.

1. ;hich one of the following most accurately e0presses the main idea of the passage8

(A) #espite e0tensive evidence that native populations had been burning >orth and SouthAmerican forests e0tensively before 1-&, some scholars persist in claiming that such burning was either infre4uent or the result of natural causes.

() In opposition to the widespread belief that in 1-& the ;estern hemisphere wasuncultivated, scholars unanimously agree that naive population were substantiallyaltering >orth and South American forests well before the arrival of %uropeans.

(") Although some scholars minimi*e the scope and importance of the burning of forestsengaged in by native populations of >orth and South American before 1-&, evidenceof the fre4uency and impact of such burning is actually 4uite e0tensive.

(#) ;here scholars had once believed that >orth and South American forests remaineduncultivated until the arrival of %uropeans, there is now general agreement that native populations had been cultivating the forests since well before 1-&.

(%) ;hile scholars have ac!nowledged that >orth and South American forests were being burned well before 1-&, there is still disagreement over whether such burning was theresult of natural causes or of the deliberate actions of native populations.

&. It can be inferred that a forest burned as described in the passage would have been C%AS'li!ely to display

(A) numerous types of hardwood trees

() e0tensive herbaceous undergrowth

(") a variety of firetolerant plants(#) various stages of ecological maturity

(%) grassy opening such as meadows or glades

+. ;hich one of the following is a type of forest identified by the author as a product ofcontrolled burning in recent times8

(A) scrub oa! forests in the southeastern U.S.

() slash pine forests in the southeastern U.S.



(") pine forests in 9uatemala at high elevations

(#) pine forests in <e0ico at high elevations

(%) pine forests in >icaragua at low elevations

. ;hich one of the following is presented by the author as evidence of controlled burning inthe tropics before the arrival of %uropeans8

(A) e0tensive homogeneous forests at high elevation

() e0tensive homogeneous forests at low elevation

(") e0tensive heterogeneous forests at high elevation

(#) e0tensive heterogeneous forests at low elevation

(%) e0tensive sedimentary charcoal accumulations at high elevation

3. ;ith which one of the following would the author be most li!ely to agree8

(A) 'he longterm effects of controlled burning could $ust as easily have been caused bynatural fires.

() erbaceous undergrowth prevents many forests from reaching full maturity.

(") %uropean settlers had little impact on the composition of the ecosystems in >orth andSouth America.

(#) "ertain species of plants may not have been as widespread in >orth American withoutcontrolled burning.

(%) >icaraguan pine forests could have been created either by natural fires or by controlled burning.

2. As evidence fro the routine practice of forest burning by native populations before thearrival of %uropeans, the author cites all of the following %?"%='@

(A) 'he similar characteristics of fires in different regions.

() 'he simultaneous presence of forests at varying stages of maturity

(") 'he e0istence of herbaceous undergrowth in certain forests

(#) 'he heavy accumulation of charcoal near populous settlements

(%) 'he presence of meadows and glades in certain forests.

7. 'he succession/ mentioned in line 37 refers to

(A) forest clearing followed by controlled burning of forests

() tropical rain forest followed by pine forest

(") %uropean settlement followed by abandonment of land

(#) homogeneous pine forest followed by mi0ed hardwoods

(%) correct the geographical record


(A) refute certain researchers6 view

() support a common belief

(") counter certain evidence

(#) synthesi*e two viewpoints

(%) correct the geographical record



Intellectual authority is dened as the authority of arguments that prevail #y virtue ofgood reasoning and do not depend on coercion or convention. * contrasting notion,institutional authority, refers to the po%er of social institutions to enforce acceptance ofarguments that may or may not possess intellectual authority. !he authority %ielded #y legalsystems is especially interesting #ecause such systems are institutions that nonethelessaspire to a purely intellectual authority. ne judge goes so far as to claim that courts are

merely passive vehicles for applying the intellectual authority of the la% and possess nocoercive po%ers of their o%n.

In contrast, some critics maintain that %hatever authority judicial pronouncements haveis e-clusively institutional. Some of these critics go further, claiming that intellectualauthority does not really e-ist3i.e., it reduces to institutional authority. ut it can #ecountered that these claims #rea( do%n %hen a su6ciently #road historical perspective ista(enC :ot all arguments accepted #y institutions %ithstand the test of time, and some %ell'reasoned arguments never receive institutional imprimatur. !he reasona#le argument thatgoes unrecogni&ed in its o%n time #ecause it challenges institutional #eliefs is common inintellectual history> intellectual authority and institutional consensus are not the same thing.

ut the critics might respond, intellectual authority is only recogni&ed as such #ecauseof institutional consensus. 5or e-ample, if a musicologist %ere to claim that an allegedmusical genius %ho, after several decades, had not gained respect and recognition for his or

her compositions is pro#a#ly not a genius, the critics might say that #asing a judgment on aunit of time3+several decades3is an institutional rather than an intellectual construct.8hat, the critics might as(, ma(es a particular num#er of decades reasona#le evidence #y%hich to judge geniusL !he ans%er, of course, is nothing, e-cept for the fact that suchinstitutional procedures have proved useful to musicologists in ma(ing such distinctions inthe past.

!he analogous legal concept is the doctrine of precedent, i.e., a judge’s merely decidinga case a certain %ay #ecoming a #asis for deciding later cases the same %ay3a puree-ample of institutional authority. ut eh critics miss the crucial distinction that %hen a

judicial decision is #adly reasoned, or simply no longer applies in the face of evolving socialstandards or practices, the notion of intellectual authority is introducedC judges reconsider,revise, or in some cases thro% out in the reconsideration of decisions, leading one to dra%the conclusion that legal systems contain a signicant degree of intellectual authority even

if the thrust of their po%er is predominantly institutional.

-. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage8

(A) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems possess a degree of institutional authority due to their ability to enforceacceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate $udicial decisions.

() Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional, thesessystems are more correctly seen as vehicles for applying the intellectual authority of thelaw while possessing no coercive power of their own.

(") Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems in fact wield institutional authority by virtue of the fact that intellectual

authority reduces to institutional authority.(#) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional, these

systems possesses a degree of intellectual authority due to their ability to reconsider badly reasoned or socially inappropriate $udicial decisions.

(%) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems in fact wield e0clusively institutional authority in that they possess the powerto enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate $udicial decisions.



1:. 'hat some arguments never receive institutional imprimatur/ (line &&&+) most li!elymeans that these arguments

(A) fail to gain institutional consensus

() fail to challenge institutional beliefs

(") fail to conform to the e0ample of precedent

(#) fail to convince by virtue of good reasoning

(%) fail to gain acceptance e0cept by coercion

11. ;hich one of the following, if true, most challenges the author6s contention that legalsystems contain a significant degree of intellectual authority8

(A) Budges often act under time constraints and occasionally render a badly reasoned orsocially inappropriate decision.

() In some legal systems, the percentage of $udicial decisions that contain faulty reasoningis far higher than it is in other legal systems.

(") <any socially inappropriate legal decisions are thrown out by $udges only after citi*ens begin to voice opposition to them.

(#) In some legal systems, the percentage of $udicial decisions that are reconsidered andrevised is far higher than it is in other legal systems.

(%) Budges are rarely willing to rectify the e0amples of faulty reasoning they discover whenreviewing previous legal decisions.

1&. 9iven the information in the passage, the author is C%AS' li!ely to believe which one of thefollowing8

(A) Institutional authority may depend on coercion intellectual authority never does.

() Intellectual authority may accept wellreasoned arguments institutional authority neverdoes.

(") Institutional authority may depend on convention intellectual authority never does.(#) Intellectual authority sometimes challenges institutional beliefs institutional authority

never does.

(%) Intellectual authority sometimes conflicts with precedent institutional authority neverdoes.

1+. 'he author discusses the e0ample from musicology primarily in order to

(A) distinguish the nothing of institutional authority from that of intellectual authority

() given an e0ample of an argument possessing intellectual authority that did not prevail inits own time

(") identify an e0ample in which the ascription of musical genius did not withstand the test

of time(#) illustrate the claim that assessing intellectual authority re4uires an appeal to institutional

authority

(%) demonstrate that the authority wielded by the arbiters of musical genius is entirelyinstitutional

1. ased on the passage, the author would be most li!ely to hold which one of the followingviews about the doctrine of precedent8



(A) it is the only tool $udges should use if they wish to achieve a purely intellectualauthority.

() It is a useful tool in theory but in practice it invariably conflicts with the demands ofintellectual authority.

(") It is a useful tool but lac!s intellectual authority unless it is combined with the

reconsidering of decisions.(#) It is often an unreliable tool because it prevents $udges from reconsidering the

intellectual authority of past decisions.

(%) It is an unreliable tool that should be abandoned because it lac!s intellectual authority.

In e-plaining the foundations of the discipline (no%n as historical sociology3thee-amination of history using the methods of sociology3historical sociologist 7hilip *#ramsargues that, %hile people are made #y society as much as society is made #y people,sociologists’ approach to the su#ject is usually to focus on only one of these forms ofin4uence to the e-clusion of the other. *#rams insists on the necessity for sociologists tomove #eyond these one'sided approaches to understand society as an entity constructed #yindividuals %ho are at the same time constructed #y their society. *#rams refers to thiscontinuous process as +structuring.

*#rams also sees history as the result of structuring. 7eople, #oth individually and asmem#ers of collectives, ma(e history. ut our ma(ing of history is itself formed and informednot only #y the historical conditions %e inherit from the past, #ut also #y the prior formationof our o%n identities and capacities, %hich are shaped #y %hat *#rams calls+contingencies3social phenomena over %hich %e have varying degrees of control.Aontingencies include such things as the social conditions under %hich %e come of age, thecondition of our household’s economy, the ideologies availa#le to help us ma(e sense of oursituation, and accidental circumstances. !he %ays in %hich contingencies aect ourindividual or group identities create a structure of forces %ithin %hich %e are a#le to act, andthat partially determines the sorts of actions %e are a#le to perform.

In *#rams analysis, historical structuring, li(e social structuring, is manifold andunremitting. !o understand it, historical sociologists must e-tract from it certain signicant

episodes, or events, that their methodology can then analy&e and interpret. *ccording to*#rams, these events are points at %hich action and contingency meet, points thatrepresent a cross section of the specic social and individual forces in play at a given time.*t such moments, individuals stand forth as agents of history not simply #ecause theypossess a uni"ue a#ility to act, #ut also #ecause in them %e see the force of the specicsocial conditions that allo%ed their actions to come forth. Individuals can +ma(e their mar(on history, yet in individuals one also nds the convergence of %ider social forces. In orderto capture the various facets of this mutual interaction, *#rams recommends a fourfoldstructure to %hich he #elieves the investigations of historical sociologists should conformCrst, description of the event itself> second, discussion of the social conte-t that helped#ring the event a#out and gave it signicance> third, summary of the life history of theindividual agent in the event> and fourth, analysis of the conse"uences of the event #oth forhistory and for the individual.

13. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the central idea of the passage8(A) Abrams argues that historical sociology re$ects the claims of sociologists who assert that

the sociological concept of structuring cannot be applied to the interactions betweenindividuals and history.

() Abrams argues that historical sociology assumes that, despite the views of sociologists tothe contrary, history influences the social contingencies that affect individuals.

(") Abrams argues that historical sociology demonstrates that, despite the views of



sociologists to the contrary, social structures both influence and are influenced by theevents of history.

(#) Abrams describes historical sociology as a discipline that unites two approaches ta!en by sociologists to studying the formation of societies and applies the resultingcombined approach to the study of history.

(%) Abrams describes historical society as an attempt to compensate for the shortcoming oftraditional historical methods by applying the methods established in sociology.

12. 9iven the passage6s argument, which one of the following sentences most logicallycompletes the last paragraph8

(A) 5nly if they adhere to this structure, Abrams believes, can historical sociologistsconclude with any certainty that the events that constitute the historical record areinfluenced by the actions of individuals

() 5nly if they adhere to this structure, Abrams believes, will historical sociologists be ableto counter the standard sociological assumption that there is very little connection between history and individual agency.

(") Unless they can agree to adhere to this structure, Abrams believes, historical sociologistsris! having their discipline treated as little more than an interesting but ultimatelyindefensible ad$unct to history and sociology.

(#) y adhering to this structure, Abrams believes, historical sociologists can shed light onissues that traditional sociologists have chosen to ignore in their onesided approachesto the formation of societies.

(%) y adhering to this structure, Abrams believes, historical sociologists will be able to better portray the comple0 connections between human agency and history.

17. 'he passage states that a contingency could be each of the following %?"%='@

(A) a social phenomenon

() a form of historical structuring(") an accidental circumstance

(#) a condition controllable to some e0tent by an individual

(%) a partial determinant of an individual6s actions

1. ;hich one of the following is most analogous to the ideal wor! of a historical sociologist asoutlined by Abrams8

(A) In a report on the enactment of a bill into law, a $ournalist e0plains why the need for the bill arose, s!etches the biography of the principal legislator who wrote the bill, and ponders the effect that the bill6s enactment will have both one society and on thelegislator6s career.

() In a consultation with a patient, a doctor reviews the patient6s medical history, suggests possible reasons for the patient6s current condition, and recommends steps that the patient should ta!e in the future to ensure that the condition improves or at least doesnot get any worse.

(") In an analysis of a historical novel, a critic provides information to support the claim thatdetails of the wor!6s setting are accurate, e0plains why the sub$ect of the novel was of particular interest to the author, and compares the novel with some of the author6s other



boo!s set in the same period.

(#) In a presentation to stoc!holders, a corporation6s chief e0ecutive officer describes thecorporations6 most profitable activities during the past year, introduces the vice president largely responsible for those activities, and discusses new pro$ects the vice president will initiate in the coming year.

(%) In developing a film based on a historical event, a filmma!er conducts interviews with participants in the event, bases part of the film6s screenplay on the interviews, andconcludes the screenplay with a se4uence of scenes speculating on the outcome of theevent had certain details been different.

1-. 'he primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to

(A) outline the merits of Abram6s conception of historical sociology

() convey the details of Abrams6s conception of historical sociology

(") anticipate challenges to Abrams6s conception of historical sociology

(#) e0amine the roles of !ey terms used in Abrams6s conception of historical sociology

(%) identify the basis of Abrams6s conception of historical sociology

&:. ased on the passage, which one of the following is the C%AS' illustrative e0ample of theeffect of a contingency upon an individual8

(A) the effect of the fact that a person e0perienced political in$ustice on that person6sdecision to wor! for political reform

() the effect of the fact that a person was raised in an agricultural region on that person6sdecision to pursue a career in agriculture

(") the effect of the fact that a person lives in a particular community on that person6sdecision to visit friends in another community

(#) the effect of the fact that a person6s parents practiced a particular religion on that person6s decision to practice that religion

(%) the effect of the fact that a person grew up in financial hardship on that person6s decisionto help others in financial hardship

ne of the greatest challenges facing medical students today, apart from a#sor#ingvolumes of technical information and learning ha#its of scientic thought, is that ofremaining empathetic to the needs of patients in the face of all this rigorous training.De"uiring students to immerse themselves completely in medical course%or( ris(sdisconnecting them from the personal and ethical aspects of doctoring, and such strictlyscientic thin(ing is insu6cient for grappling %ith modern ethical dilemmas. 5or thesereasons, aspiring physicians need to develop ne% %ays of thin(ing a#out and interacting%ith patients. !raining in ethics that ta(es narrative literature as its primary su#ject is onemethod of accomplishing this.

*lthough training in ethics is currently provided #y medical schools, this training relies

heavily on an a#stract, philosophical vie% of ethics. *lthough the conceptual clarity provided#y a traditional ethics course can #e valua#le, theori&ing a#out ethics contri#utes little tothe understanding of everyday human e-perience or to preparing medical students for themultifarious ethical dilemmas they %ill face as physicians. * true foundation in ethics must#e predicated on an understanding of human #ehavior that re4ects a %ide array ofrelationships and readily adapts to various perspectives, for this is %hat is re"uired todevelop empathy. Ethics courses dra%ing on narrative literature can #etter help studentsprepare for ethical dilemmas precisely #ecause such literature attaches its readers soforcefully to the concrete and varied %ould of human events.



!he act of reading narrative literature is uni"uely suited to the development of %hatmight #e called 4e-i#le ethical thin(ing. !o grasp the development of character, to tangle%ith heightening moral crises, and to engage oneself %ith the story not as one’s o%n #utnevertheless as something recogni&a#le and %orthy of attention, readers must use theirmoral imagination. Giving oneself over to the ethical con4icts in a story re"uires thea#andonment of strictly a#solute, inviolate sets of moral principles. Deading literature also

demands that the reader adopt another person’s point of vie% Zthat of the narrator or acharacter in a story3and thus re"uires the a#ility to depart from one’s personal ethicalstance and e-amine moral issues from ne% perspectives.

It does not follo% that readers, including medical professionals, must relin"uish all moralprinciples, as is the case %ith situational ethics, in %hich decisions a#out ethical choices aremade on the #asis of intuition ad are entirely relative to the circumstances in %hich theyarise. Such an e-tremely relativistic stance %ould have as little #enet for the patient orphysician as %ould a dogmatically a#solutist one. 5ortunately, the incorporation of narrativeliterature into the study of ethics, %hile serving as a corrective to the later stance, need notlead to the former. ut it can give us something that is lac(ing in the traditionalphilosophical study of ethics3namely, a deeper understanding of human nature that canserve as a foundation for ethical reasoning and allo% greater 4e-i#ility in the application ofmoral principles.

&1. ;hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage8

(A) 'raining in ethics that incorporates narrative literature would better cultivate fle0ibleethical thin!ing and increase medical students6 capacity for empathetic patient care ascompared with the traditional approach of medical schools to such training.

() 'raditional abstract ethical training, because it is too heavily focused on theoreticalreasoning, tends to decrease or impair that medical student6s sensitivity to modernethical dilemmas.

(") 5nly a properly designed curriculum that balances situational, abstract, and narrativeapproaches to ethics will ade4uately prepare the medical student for comple0 ethicalconfrontations involving actual patients.

(#) >arrativebased instruction in ethics is becoming increasingly popular in medicalschools because it re4uires students to develop a capacity for empathy by e0aminingcomple0 moral issues from a variety of perspectives.

(%) 'he study of narrative literature in medical schools would nurture moral intuition,enabling the future doctor to ma!e ethical decisions without appeal to general principles.

&&. ;hich one of the following most accurately represents the author6s use of the term moralimagination in line +8

(A) a sense of curiosity, aroused by reading, that leads one to follow actively thedevelopment of problems involving the characters depicted in narratives.

() A faculty of see!ing out and recogni*ing the ethical controversies involved in humanrelationships and identifying oneself with one side or another in such controversies

(") A capacity to understand the comple0ities of various ethical dilemmas and to fashioncreative and innovative solutions to them

(#) An ability to understand personal aspects of ethically significant situations even if one isnot a direct participant and to empathi*e with those involved in them.

(%) An ability to act upon ethical principles different from one6s own for the sa!e of variety.



&+. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would most li!ely agree with which oneof the following statements8

(A) 'he heavy load of technical coursewor! in today6s medical schools often !eeps themfrom giving ade4uate emphasis to courses in medical ethics.

() Students learn more about ethics through the use of fiction than through the use of non

fictional readings.(") 'he traditional method of ethical training in medical schools should be supplemented or

replaced by more direct practical e0perience with reallife patients in ethically difficultsituations.

(#) 'he failing of an abstract, philosophical training in ethics can be remedied only byreplacing it with a purely narrativebased approach.

(%) >either scientific training nor traditional philosophical ethics ade4uately preparesdoctors to deal with the emotional dimension of patients6 needs.

&. 原稿缺

&3. ;hich one of the following is most li!ely the author6s overall purpose in the passage8

(A) 'o advise medical schools on how to implement a narrativebased approach to ethics intheir curricula.

() 'o argue that the current methods of ethics education are counterproductive to theformation of empathetic doctorpatient relationships.

(") 'o argue that the ethical content of narrative literature foreshadows the pitfalls ofsituational ethics.

(#) 'o propose an approach to ethical training in medical school that will preserve thehuman dimension of medicine.

(%) 'o demonstrate the value of a welldesigned ethics education for medical students.

&2. 'he passage ascribes each of the following characteristics to the use of narrative literature inethical education %?"%='@

(A) It tends to avoid the e0treme relativism of situational ethics.

() It connects students to varied types of human events.

(") It can help lead medical students to develop new ways of dealing with patients.

(#) It re4uires students to e0amine moral issues from new perspectives.

(%) It can help insulate future doctors from the shoc! of the ethical dilemmas they willconfront.

&7. 'he author6s attitude regarding the traditional method of teaching ethics in medical schoolcan most accurately be described as

(A) un4ualified disapproval of the method and disapproval of all of its effects() reserved $udgment regarding the method and disapproval of all of its effects

(") partial disapproval of the method and clinical indifference toward its effects

(#) partial approval of the method and disapproval of all of its effects

(%) partial disapproval of the method and approval of some of its effects



LSAT 01 SECTION III

1. &. # +. % . A 3. A

2. " 7. " . A -. 1:. #

11. 1&. A 1+. # 1. # 13.

12. 17. 1. % 1-. % &:. A

&1. &&. # &+. A &. # &3. %

&2. A &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 02 SECTION I

1. " &. +. # . 3. A

2. # 7. % . -. 1:. %

11. " 1&. # 1+. A 1. # 13. #

12. A 17. A 1. 1-. % &:. "&1. A &&. &+. % &. &3.

&2. " &7. A &. # &-. +:.

LSAT 03 SECTION II

1. &. " +. A . " 3. "

2. # 7. % . % -. # 1:.

11. 1&. A 1+. " 1. # 13. "

12. 17. # 1. A 1-. % &:.



&1. &&. " &+. " &. A &3. #

&2. # &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 04 SECTION IV

1. A &. # +. # . % 3. %

2. " 7. # . A -. " 1:. "

11. " 1&. 1+. % 1. 13. #12. 17. % 1. % 1-. " &:.

&1. A &&. " &+. % &. &3. %

&2. " &7. " &. &-. +:.

LSAT 05 SECTION III

1. % &. # +. A . " 3. #

2. " 7. " . " -. % 1:. "

11. # 1&. A 1+. # 1. A 13. #

12. % 17. % 1. # 1-. &:. A

&1. % &&. A &+. " &. # &3. #

&2. " &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 06 SECTION I

1. % &. " +. A . % 3.

2. # 7. % . # -. A 1:. A

11. # 1&. # 1+. # 1. A 13. #

12. 17. 1. # 1-. # &:. "

&1. " &&. A &+. " &. % &3. %

&2. A &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 07 SECTION III

1. % &. # +. " . 3. #

2. A 7. A . # -. A 1:.

11. " 1&. " 1+. % 1. # 13.

12. # 17. " 1. % 1-. A &:. #

&1. " &&. " &+. # &. % &3.

&2. &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 08 SECTION III

1. A &. % +. A . " 3.

2. A 7. A . " -. A 1:. "

11. % 1&. 1+. # 1. A 13. #

12. 17. # 1. % 1-. " &:. #

&1. &&. &+. % &. # &3. "

&2. &7. &. % &-. +:.

LSAT 09 SECTION III1. # &. A +. # . A 3. %

2. 7. A . # -. 1:. A

11. 1&. " 1+. " 1. # 13. %

12. 17. # 1. A 1-. " &:.

&1. " &&. # &+. A &. % &3.

&2. # &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 10 SECTION I



1. &. A +. # . % 3. "

2. % 7. " . A -. A 1:. "

11. 1&. A 1+. 1. 13. #

12. " 17. A 1. # 1-. &:.

&1. " &&. # &+. " &. " &3. %

&2. " &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 11 SECTION III

1. A &. # +. . % 3. "

2. 7. % . # -. 1:. "

11. 1&. % 1+. A 1. " 13. %

12. % 17. 1. A 1-. # &:. #

&1. # &&. &+. # &. % &3.

&2. A &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 12 SECTION III

1. # &. % +. . % 3. #

2. " 7. " . A -. % 1:.

11. A 1&. 1+. % 1. # 13. "12. " 17. # 1. A 1-. % &:. %

&1. % &&. &+. &. % &3.

&2. # &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 13 SECTION III

1. # &. % +. . " 3.

2. % 7. % . % -. " 1:. #

11. % 1&. A 1+. A 1. " 13. %

12. % 17. # 1. A 1-. " &:. A

&1. A &&. A &+. &. A &3. %

&2. " &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 14 SECTION III

1. A &. # +. . " 3. #

2. A 7. " . " -. % 1:.

11. A 1&. # 1+. # 1. % 13. #

12. % 17. 1. " 1-. A &:. #

&1. A &&. # &+. # &. " &3.

&2. A &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 15 SECTION III

1. " &. % +. A . 3. #

2. # 7. A . % -. " 1:.

11. " 1&. 1+. # 1. " 13.

12. " 17. " 1. A 1-. # &:. %&1. A &&. &+. " &. " &3. A

&2. # &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 16 SECTION I

1. " &. A +. # . A 3. #

2. 7. . % -. % 1:. "

11. 1&. A 1+. A 1. # 13.

12. " 17. " 1. # 1-. &:. #



&1. A &&. % &+. &. " &3. "

&2. A &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 17 SECTION I

1. " &. % +. # . # 3. A

2. % 7. # . -. 1:. %

11. A 1&. 1+. A 1. A 13. 12. " 17. A 1. % 1-. &:. #

&1. &&. % &+. # &. " &3. #

&2. % &7. &. " &-. +:.

LSAT 18 SECTION III

1. A &. % +. " . % 3. A

2. 7. . " -. A 1:. #

11. A 1&. " 1+. # 1. 13.

12. % 17. 1. # 1-. A &:. #

&1. &&. % &+. # &. &3. #

&2. A &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 19 SECTION IV

1. &. # +. " . " 3. "

2. % 7. . A -. % 1:. A

11. " 1&. 1+. # 1. % 13.

12. " 17. % 1. A 1-. % &:. %

&1. # &&. " &+. # &. " &3. A

&2. A &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 20 SECTION IV

1. &. % +. # . A 3.

2. 7. % . -. A 1:.

11. 1&. # 1+. % 1. # 13. "

12. A 17. # 1. 1-. A &:.

&1. " &&. " &+. &. &3. A

&2. A &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 21 SECTION I

1. &. A +. " . # 3. %

2. 7. # . " -. 1:. A

11. " 1&. 1+. " 1. # 13.

12. % 17. A 1. A 1-. # &:. A

&1. " &&. # &+. " &. % &3. "

&2. % &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 22 SECTION IV1. % &. +. " . % 3. "

2. 7. " . -. " 1:. "

11. # 1&. # 1+. 1. 13. %

12. 17. A 1. A 1-. &:. "

&1. % &&. &+. &. # &3. A

&2. # &7. % &. &-. +:.

LSAT 23 SECTION III



1. A &. % +. . % 3. A

2. # 7. # . " -. " 1:. %

11. # 1&. 1+. A 1. # 13. "

12. % 17. A 1. % 1-. # &:.

&1. &&. A &+. # &. " &3.

&2. A &7. " &. &-. +:.

LSAT 24 SECTION II

1. &. % +. A . % 3. #

2. 7. " . A -. 1:. "

11. A 1&. 1+. 1. " 13.

12. A 17. 1. A 1-. % &:. #

&1. &&. # &+. % &. % &3.

&2. % &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 25 SECTION I

1. " &. +. A . 3. "

2. % 7. " . # -. " 1:. A

11. A 1&. # 1+. # 1. 13. 12. A 17. A 1. 1-. &:. A

&1. " &&. # &+. A &. &3.

&2. A &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 26 SECTION IV

1. # &. # +. % . # 3. A

2. " 7. % . -. " 1:. %

11. # 1&. A 1+. 1. # 13. A

12. % 17. " 1. # 1-. " &:. %

&1. " &&. # &+. &. " &3. A

&2. &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 27 SECTION I

1. # &. +. A . # 3.

2. " 7. # . " -. 1:. A

11. " 1&. # 1+. A 1. " 13. A

12. A 17. % 1. % 1-. " &:.

&1. " &&. # &+. A &. % &3.

&2. &7. &. &-. +:.

LSAT 28 SECTION IV

1. % &. A +. A . % 3.

2. % 7. . -. # 1:. #

11. " 1&. A 1+. % 1. # 13. %

12. A 17. A 1. % 1-. % &:. "&1. # &&. " &+. % &. &3. A

&2. " &7. # &. &-. +:.

LSAT 2002 SECTION III

1. " &. A +. % . 3. #

2. A 7. # . A -. # 1:. A

11. % 1&. 1+. # 1. " 13. #

12. % 17. 1. A 1-. % &:. "



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LSAT Passages Compilation