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39
11. NREGS Update. http://www.nregaconsortium.in/downloads/NREGA%20
Update%202%20(1-15%20Mar).pdf.
12. Kumar and Rohit (2010),”Guidelines for Implementation of
Works on Individual Land under NREGA”. The Project Report
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.
http://knowledge.nrega.net/1039/1/draft_guidelines.pdf
13. Prof. Samar et al(2009),“A Quick Appraisal of NREGS and Strategies for
the Next Level”.Center for Management in Agriculture Indian Institute of
Management ,Vastrapur, Ahmedabad.
14. http://www.nrega.net/pin/reports-and-resources/reports-submitted-to-the-
ministry-of-rural-development/reports-28-jan-2010/IIM_Ahmedabad.pdf
15. Awanish (2010),”Musings on (MG) NREGA-II”.
http://knowledge.nrega.net/1045/2/Musings_on.pdf
16. Meghna Kohli (2009), The National Rural Employment Gurantee Act
(NREGA), 2005 and its Impact on Economic Development.
http://jurisonline.in/2009/08/the-national-rural-employment-gurantee-act-
nrega-2005-and-its-impact-on-economic-development/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_India
17. MGNREGA. http://nrega.nic.in/MISreport.html.
18. S.Sanker.(2011),” Information, Access and Targeting: The National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme in India”. Oxford Development Studies
pages 69-95.http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cods20?open=39" "vol_39
19. http://www.righttofoodindia.org/data/ega_english.pdf
20. MGNREGA. http://nrega.nic.in/MISreport.html.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE, METHODOLOGY AND
PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter an attempt is made to briefly review the relevant literature
on Rural Development Programmes in India namely Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Several institutions, committee,
commissions and individuals conducted studies relating to various aspects of
Rural Development Programmes in various States in India. The findings and
recommendations of such important studies are reviewed in this chapter.
2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Pothuluru and Someshwar (1992)1 made a study on labour absorption
through Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) in the Mothubur block
in Nalgonda District to analyse the employment opportunities generated under
various schemes of IRDP and the nature of the job opportunities offer for the total
of 327 economically active household members. Nearly 68 per cent were self
employed and rest of them were wage earners. About 66 per cent of cultivators
were self employed and 11 per cent of family members were wage earners. In the
service sector of rural artisans households, 90 per cent were self employed.
41
Among the agricultural labour households, half of the family members were self
employed and the rest were engaged in wage employment.
The analysis of labour absorption through IRDP showed that various
schemes and programmes had helped the creation of employment opportunities to
the rural poor. However, employment generation was far below the benefits
anticipated as per the IRDP manual.
Neela Mukherjee2 (1993) studied the two selected objectives of Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana in particular, out of the several objectives, as creating assets in
favour of rural poor for their direct and continuing benefit and improving overall
quality of life in rural areas, in her paper with the caption “Women’s Participation
and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana”. The major findings of the study are that the
effectiveness of such programmes depends on who decides on how a programme
is going to benefit rural women and the role played by rural women in such a
programme. The author concluded that if rural women are able to participate in
planning, decision-making and implementing different programmes, they will get
an opportunity to express themselves and exercise their choice in deciding upon
their priorities and even influencing male-dominated decisions. As a result, the
output would turn out to be much better and practical.
42
Satyanarayanan Reddy and Renuka (1994)3 considered Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) as a sub-scheme of Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP) at District level.
A distinguishing feature of DWCRA is that it is a group strategy with
family as a unit of assistance under IRDP. The women members of DWCRA
formed groups of 10-15 each for taking up economic activities suited to their skill,
aptitude and local conditions. The group strategy was adopted to motivate the
rural women to come together and break social bonds which denied them income
generating and self-fulfilling opportunities.
The scheme of DWCRA aimed mainly at providing opportunities of
employment to women members of rural families below the poverty line. The
assistance sanctioned to each group had to be shared by the Central Government,
State Government and the UNICEF in equal proportion.
According to Iyer (1994)4 the primary objective of Jawahar Rojgar Yojana
was to generate employment through manual labour and the secondary objective
was to create durable community asset in the process of employment generation.
According to official statistics 3,330 million mandays were generated under JRY
in the country during the period from 1980-90 to 1993-94. Till late (1993) the
JRY was being operated uniformly all over the country without specifically
focusing on the backward Districts in the States. A policy shift occurred in the
43
second half of 1993. Accordingly, two significant changes were made. The first
was the change in criteria for allocation of funds to Districts. Formerly, the
district-wise allocation was made using an index of backwardness formulated on
certain criteria. But later, the Central Government changed this norm to include
only two parameters, namely proportion of rural SC/ST population in a district to
total SC/ST population in the State and (2) inverse of the District’s Agricultural
Productivity, in the ratio of 50:50 respectively. The main implications were:
1. District with low agricultural productivity got higher JRY allocation.
2. Weightage for SC/ST population decreased from 60 per cent to
50 per cent.
3. No more weightage was given for percentage of agricultural labourers.
Erappa (1995)5 found that the land held by SC/ST was 7.6 per cent of the
land holdings in Karnataka (Chinnappa Commission Report 1990) and it was
estimated that more than 70 per cent of SC/ST beneficiaries utilised IRDP in
Karnataka. The distribution of schemes sanctioned under broad heads for SC/ST
showed, that dairy occupied the first place, which accounts for about 53 per cent
of the total Schemes assisted under IRDP. Then follows animal husbandry
schemes and schemes related to agriculture. It was found that SC/ST
beneficiaries were gradually delinking their traditional occupations and getting
into the main stream of production process. Out of 45, a little less than 50 per
44
cent of the animal husbandry schemes were sanctioned to SC/ST beneficiaries.
Thus IRDP programme helped more number of SC/ST beneficiaries to move
above the poverty line.
Datt (1995)6 who reviewed Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, says that in the earlier
Rural Employment Programmes, Central and State assistance was stipulated with
the condition that central assistance would finance 80 per cent and the states share
would be 20 per cent.
The main objectives were: (1) generation of gainful employment for the
unemployed and under employed men and women in rural areas; (2) creation of
sustained employment by strengthening the rural infrastructure; (3) creating
community social assets, (4) creating assets in favour of the poor for their direct
and continuing benefits, and (5) to bring about overall improvement in the quality
of life in rural areas. Wages under JRY were paid at the rate notified for the
prescribed schedule of employment under the Minimum Wages Act for the
relevant works.
The performance of DWCRA units and the extent to which the scheme has
succeeded in achieving its stipulated objectives are the two major objectives of the
study carried out by U.T. Damayanthi7(1999) in Thrissur district. The study
found that only 15 per cent of the total sample beneficiaries made marked
improvement in their household income. In terms of improvement in the asset
45
position, a positive change was seen in the case of 15 per cent respondents. The
overall impact of the programme on the beneficiaries was found less.
Smith Sengupta (2001)8 in his article entitled “A Significant Position of
Commercial freight is moved on the highways” states that the global economy has
been found highly competitive and the Indian producers must maximize the
efficiency of production and distribution. The author highlights the contribution of
rural roads in connecting the urban areas. Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST)
owns all the National Highways and National Highway Authority of India
(NHAI). The road maintenance, planning and monitoring come under the purview
of the road & Building Division of Public Works Department (PWD).
John Makana Gekonge (2001)9 in his article entitled “Planning
Commission, Government of India (1974-79) observed that “it will be necessary
to formulate Integrated Development Programmes on the basis of assessment of
the resources endowment and the other infrastructure facilities. In these
programmes high priority will be given to expansion of basic economic and social
infrastructure covering transportation, communication, credit market centres
education, health and administrative improvement from this observation. It is
clear that in order to ensure the regional development of backward areas, the
existence of atleast minimum level of regional transport plan available within
resources is a must”.
46
Aphay Pethe Manju (2002)10
in his article entitled “Funding Urban
infrastructure from Government to Markets”, says such funding improves the
economy’s competitiveness, generates high productivity and supports
strong economic growth; poor infrastructure, however, can significantly impede
economic growth and be a substantial drain on the economy’s resources”.
Siba Sankar Mohanty (2004)11
said that the NREGP-2004 in its present
form undermines the Government’s commitment towards providing 100 days of
employment to all rural, urban poor and lower middle class households. There is
no provision for the time bound extension of the so called guarantee to the whole
of rural India. The civil society should be very careful of any attempt by the
policymakers to escape from their responsibility in formulating an effective
employment guarantee policy than towards its successful implementation.
Amitabh Kundu, Niranjan Saranji (2005)12
in their article discussed the
issue of exclusion of certain sections of the population from the ambit of the
programme. The exclusion was the outcome of revision of draft NREG Bill. This
exclusion had come in the terms (a) number of days of employment (b) economic
status (c) nature of work and (d) excluding the urban population. He pointed out
the rationale for excluding urban areas from the scope of guaranteed employment
by probing into the socio economic deprivation and vulnerability of population in
small and medium cities/towns was to highlight the fact of how the lack of
47
employment has affected the urban demographic growth and the implication of
urban exclusion. The generation of employment programme on a sustainable basis
can strengthen rural-urban linkages and promote balanced regional development.
Kanagaraj (2005)13
found that panchayat level federation (PLF) plays a
significant role in improving the status of women in rural as well as urban areas.
The Government of India has implemented various development programmes viz
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) Training Rural Youth for Self Employment
(TRYSEM) and Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) for women to
increase the standard of living of the weaker sections of the community.
One such programme is the "Self-help group" programme functioning in
rural urban areas for the purpose of eradicating poverty and it serves as a
monitoring agency for a particular coverage area and the federation is
democratically elected and evaluates all the activities carried out by the group of
SHG, under one panchayat. The federation can give support, motivate and train
members apart from networking with other agencies. For village development, the
goals of the federation are imparting continuous help to self help groups and
coordinating all government and non-governmental organizations of the
federations departments on how for the members understand the concept at
various levels of the federation that participate effectively in the decision making
48
and understand the financial details and carry on the day today activities
independently.
Ranga Reddy Amitabha Ray Premsingh (2005)14
say that it is vital to
unleash the high sustainable growth and to promote equitable development.
Government policies play a vital role in the development of rural infrastructure.
Roads are the primary mode of transport in India. The roads carry most of the
traffic of the country (85 per cent passengers and 15 per cent of freight). The total
network of High Ways is 19,81,409km, of which 11,75,352km (59 per cent) are
surfaced roads. The Golden Quadrilateral 5,846 kilometres is connecting the four
major cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The North-South (4076
kms) and East-West (3640 kms) corridors (NS-EW-7716 kms.) connecting
Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari with South and Silchar in the East to
Porbandar in the West. Centrally sponsored scheme Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana. (PMGSY) – in December 2000, has the vital role of playing rural road
connectivity of 1.70 lakh habitations and 3.68km of rural roads. The expenditure
is of Rs.1,33,000 crore. In the process, National Rural Roads Development
Agency (NRRDA) has been established as a society under the Ministry of Rural
Development to support the rural road network. Hence the World Bank (IDA-
International Development Agency) and ADB (Asian Developemnt Bank) work
for the rural road development. Government is committed to provide necessary
49
environment and the infrastructure support for the economy to grow at 7-8 per
cent with the CRF.
Suman Billa (2005)15
has analyzed the Integrating role of NREGP in the
rural job Market. He pointed out the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Programme is the most ambitious Rural Development Programme to be launched
in the country till date. There is an increasing trend of migration to the urban
areas as the rural areas are unable to provide viable employment opportunities.
The NREGP is designed to provide succour to the most vulnerable sections by
providing employment. But it does not provide for them to pick up skills that will
equip them for the employment market.
Seema Kakade and Prayas (2006)16
felt that there were many women
friendly provisions in EGS, which have been adopted in NREG. Women
constitute a major portion of EGS labourers. It is observed that, whereas men
prefer to migrate to other parts of the district or state, women prefer to work on
EGS in the vicinity of their village. The amenities mentioned in the law are rarely
made available on the sites. Very few women are successful in obtaining
maternity leave, although they are entitled to it. Women from migratory
communities face multiple difficulties, including the question of their validity as
‘EGS’ labour.
50
Kanthimathinathan’s (2006)17
article entitled “The development of rural
infrastructure is crucial for the growth of economy as well as welfare” contributes
directly or indirectly to improvement of living conditions of the people.
Infrastructure facilities and improvement in delivery of services can reduce the
costs and time of the various economic and social activities taken up by the rural
people. Transport Infrastructure has been playing a vital role in promoting
agricultural and allied activities. The various schemes are processing the rural
road network such as food for work Programme, Minimum need Programme,
(MNP) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) and
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). The author has pointed out the importance of the
development of cost effective and extensive network technology and the central
Road Research institute (CRRI) has developed a few cost-effective technologies
which meet the immediate needs and are amenable to stages of development. The
Pradan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana of 15th
August 2000, talks about the salient
features of promoting the rural road network and the sources of fund allocation by
the Central and State Governments and the Rural Road Organization. Panchayat
Raj (PWD) public works Department, Rural Central Road Research Institute
under the rural road development scheme.
Sundar, K.and Murugarathinam (2006)18
in "Poor infrastructure
facilities present a major stumbling block to transformation into a nature market
economy” says that majority of our population live in squalid condition. The civic
51
facilities, poor road conditions, inefficient port services, fragile air services persist
inspite of our initiation of reforms. The authors have explained the financial
sector reports, emerging opportunities in infrastructure service and power front
sector performance, housing, urban infrastructure sector and telecom sector
contributions.
"Provision of good network of roads is one of the major attractions for
triggering industrial development country-wide. The recently passed Central
Road Fund Act (CRFA) envisages setting up a Road Maintenance fund to be
created out of levy cess on petrol and high speed diesel. Most private sector
investment in road sector was confined to small projects such as construction of
bridges, by-passes and rail over-bridges. The national highway project currently
implemented the two lane and four lane highway for 6000 kms." The successful
implementation of central Road fund Act would pave the way for excellent road
service."
Pawankumar (2006)19
says that development of infrastructure in rural
areas is a thrust area to create values through engineering consultancy. The
author has explained that the "Bharat Nirman" Programme has priority on the
rural roads and basic infrastructures, development and similarly on the road
process programme in the (PMGSY, IRDP, RLEGP) in rural areas.
Electrification of rural areas and Indira Awaas Yohana (IAY) on rural household
52
for performance and achievements, has another priority on the Provision of
Urban Facilities to Rural Areas (PURA). Former President Kalam told, in THE
Vision 2020 of the village connectivity like land acquisition, plan preparation,
Economic plan, structure plan, implementation plan and the contribution of the
Panchayat performance for rural development, Economic aspects in rural
development plan, social aspects in rural development plan, spatial aspects in
rural development plan, and rural building centres and industrial extension
services were also mentioned..
Urban facilities to rural areas would be considered as a model for
infrastructure development in rural area. The various programmes that have been
implemented like (NREP) National Rural Employment Programme (RLEGP)
Rural Landless Employment Gurantee Programme (IRDP) Integrated Rural
Development Programme (MNP) Minimum Needs Programmes are creating the
modern rural developments.”
P.K. Nanda and B.Kanagadurai (2006)20
in their article entitled "Bharat
Nirman” says that it has rural roads as one of the six components. To achieve the
targets of Bharat Nirman, 1.46 lakh km length of rural road is proposed to be
constructed to benefit 66,802 unconnected eligible habitations in the country. It is
estimated that approximately Rs.48,000 crore is needed to achieve this objective.
The District Rural Roads Plan (DRRP) is a long term plan of road network in a
district. Showing details of all types of existing road network system including
53
tracks and paths that are convertible to all weather roads and the habitations of
various population sizes.
The planning process under this programme has changed the basic
philosophy of preparation of master plan for rural roads. This will provide
efficiency in decision-making and better management of resource allocation for
development of rural road network.
N.Mohan (2006)21
in his article entitled "Roads help in establishing
backward and farward linkages in the rural economy” speaks of bridging rural-
urban divide and help reducing regional disparity. Under Bharat Nirman a total of
66,802 unconnected habitations is proposed to be covered that involves
construction of 1,46,185 kilometers of rural roads. A well designed road network
and transportation system can play a key role in bridging about balanced
development. According to John FG. Kennedy. "It is not wealth that build" Roads
constitute the back bone of the economy. Road connectivity is the new manure in
development parlance. Rural connectivity refers to any linkages between village
connected by road (Surfaced or unsurfaced) and the nearest highway/
town/market/semi-urban service centre
The author has explained the rural marketing infrastructure such as the
agricultural and allied sectors development process. Similarly infrastructure
planning needs for market development. Development holds the key to
sustainable rural development."
54
The Pradhan Manatri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) holds the attempt to
provide road connectivity with proven standard in quality construction of rural
road works to cover the last mile through new connectivity. It has performed in
the various states in India. Roads constitute the life line of a nation. Poverty
assessment studies stress the close relationship between isolation and rural
poverty. Road connectivity has been an important factor to book farm production
and market access for the rural produce. Furthur roads integrate agriculture with
industry leading to value addition, employment generation resulting in rural
prosperity."
B. Manoharan (2006)22
in his article entitled "Next to knowledge
infrastructure is the key ingredient in the development process of any country
sustaining high rate of economic growth” says it is closely linked to
infrastructure. Infrastructure holds the key for balanced growth in the economy in
terms of productivity, efficiency and equity. It is treated as an engine of growth
and provides a basic form of work for economic and social progress.
Government of India has formulated the rural infrastructure programme on
"Bharat Nirman” to be implemented in four years from .2005 to 2009 for
providing the salient infrastructure to the rural areas. Transport and
communications are the basic infrastructure requirement, which ensure rapid
economic development. Quality road infrastructure improves the accessibility of
rural people to markets and facilitates better delivery of services.
55
He has also explained the Bharat Nirman task and linkages and salient
features of the Bharat Nirman Programme, and the status of implementation of
the programme has also been explained. The implementation of "Bharat Nirman"
on the one hand, will establish quality and affordable infrastructure in rural areas
and on the other hand, it will improve the quality of life of the rural citizens of
the country. Thus the programme covers the benefits of alleviating poverty,
generating gainful employment, ensuring social security, enhancing standards of
health, hygiene, sanitation and education.
Anand, S. (2007)23
in his article entitled "Infrastructure is a vital
component for the rural development” says in 1995-96 the budget introduced
RIDF, which was setup in NABARD in the same year. The primary objective of
the fund is to assist the State intervene in completing various ongoing projects,
such as rural roads and irrigation projects. The Tamilnadu Government started
availing of loan assistance under the fund from the year 1996-97 for the
development of roads and bridges Decomposition of the total sanction amount
Rs. 1681.50crore more upto march 2004 shows that thing six road and bridge
sector projects for the development of 15416km with RIDF assistance of
Rs.1237.98 crores and 715 bridge works with a total length of 23688 kms.
involving RID assistance of Rs 466.945 crore. The road and bridge sector
accounted for major share of 69.36 per cent of sanction and 75 per cent of
56
aggregate disbursements. Thus the whole RIDF plays a pivotal role in developing
rural economy in Tamilnadu."
Srinivasan (2007)24
in his article entitled. "Budget ‘Focus on Rual
Development” says that the Finance Minister Mr. P. Chidambaram, has presented
the 2007-2008 budget assigning top priority on rural development programmes
which the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) Government had been
implementing based on the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP).
The budget has allocated additional fund for Bharat Nirman programme in
2007-08 for irrigation potential. AIPB-Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
of Rs. 7121 crores in 2006-07 would increase to Rs. 11,000 crores for 2007-08
onwards drinking water and housing for 55,512 habitations. By December 2006,
12,198 kilometers of rural roads have been completed. Another major fund is
Rural Infrastructure Development Fund for the programme by Rs.4000 crore a
year 1,50,000 house holds exceeded the constructions 2007-08 19,578 villages
have been covered so far under the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaram Yojana.
15,054 villages have been provided with a telephone against the target of 20,000
villages. Budget marked an increase of 31.6 per cent for the Bharat Nirman from
Rs. 18,698 crore in 2006-07 to Rs 24,603 crore in 2007-08. This Article has also
been reported in the Agricultural Employment Generation Programmes under the
2007-08 budget process."
57
R.R. Roy (2007)25
pointed out the NREGP programme is creating more
job opportunities for the rural masses by upgrading essential rural infrastructure
that holds the key to the people’s economic empowerment against an ever-
increaseing demand for jobs. The paper indicated that every registrant eligible for
job is given a job card that is the legal document that entitles him to ask for work
under the NREG Act and get work within 15 days of the demand for work. If
employment is not provided within 15 days to a person, he is entitled for daily
unemployment allowance in cash.
Dhurv Singh (2007)26
has studied the issues related to Rural
Development. In his study he appraised various rural development schemes. He
pointed out that the approach to market; cost, co-ordination and facilitation were
the major issues for the failure of these schemes. The progress was not uniform
across all schemes and the achievements were not found similar in the states. The
success of rural development was dependent on the extent of integration of
various programmes with lives and needs of those for whom these schemes are
meant.
Vidhya Das, Pramod Pradhan (2007)27
has pointed out that the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act as implemented by the Orissa Government
which has resulted in grandiose claim of expenditure but very little to show in
reality. The State claims to have issued job cards to 23.30 lakh households and
58
provided employment to 11.19 lakh households on an average. The report say
each household has been provided with 31 days of employment, while no
household has completed 100 days of employment. The Government has taken
several progressive steps. But it should not sit back and count its laurels. The
Government of Orissa must rise to the occasion and take immediate steps to stop
this most hypocritical and cruel joke on its poorest and most vulnerable
communities.
K. Muthalagu (2007)28
pointed out that in August 2005, the Indian
Parliament passed the National Rural Employment Guarantee (NREG), one of the
Independent India’s most ambitious interventions to address rural poverty and
empower poor people. It is incorrect to say that all the poverty eradication
programmes have failed because the growth of the middle class people indicates
that economic prosperity has indeed been very impressive in India, but at the same
time, the distribution of wealth is not at all even across the country. Increasing
globalization and investment opportunities contribute significantly to the
reduction of poverty in India which would accelerate rise in per-capita income and
economic development of our people.
Mihir Shah (2007)29
said that even as we celebrate 60 years of Indian
democracy, with millions of our people hungry, cynical and insecure, and living
under the barrel of the gun (of the state or the extremists), we need to worry about
59
the reach and quality of our political process. He pointed out The National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act has the potential to provide a “big push” in India’s
regions of distress. The backward regions of India suffer from, what in
development economics used to be called, a “low-level equilibrium trap”.
NREGA to be able to realize its potential, the role of civil society organizations is
critical. But this calls for a new self-critical politics of fortitude, balance and
restraint.
Anurekha Chari (2007) 30
critically reviewed Maharashtra’s Employment
Guarantee Scheme (EGS) with Gender concerns. She evaluated the presence of
large number of women as EGS workers at various EGS work sites in
Maharashtra. She evaluated the presence of large number of women as EGS
workers at various EGS work sites in Maharashtra. The mobilization of large
number of women was made by organizations like, Parishad, Shramik
Sanghatana, and Mukti Sanghatna which uphold leftist and feminist ideologies.
She explored the fact of high visibility of women on EGS. The equality of a
radical transformation of self perceptions of both men and women would be a
necessary precondition for evolving a more just order.
Mihir Shah (2007)31
analyzed the difficulties in implementation of
(NREG) schemes and in providing minimum wages of labourers at par with the
statutory minimum wages. The problem in providing labourers of their legal