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Specifically, this analysis will review three major themes that run throughout mainstream media accounts of the Syrian conflict. The review and analysis will assess squarely the following themes: 1. The conflict inherently is violent; 2. The conflict inherently is sectarian; and, 3. The conflict has provided an environment for a male-dominated, “jihadist playground” . By doing so, this paper intends to think through where overemphasis on any or all of these themes may obscure, over-inflate or otherwise ignore more marginalized undercurrents of truth – and, how those undercurrents may work to complicate current policy options moving forward.
Citation preview
Mainstream Media Coverage of the Syrian Conflict: Blind Spots and Vulnerabilities
MAAS 587-01: War and Terrorism in the Arab World: The Human Dimension
Amanda Jessen, M.A. Candidate (Conflict Resolution)Final Paper
December 19, 2013
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Introduction
The Arab Spring ushered in a period of time in participating Middle East countries that
promised both great change and great uncertainty. As largely non-violent protests swept through
Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and a host of other Middle Eastern countries, actors both internal
and external to the sites of mass, public demonstration eagerly looked to developments in each
country – and within the region at large – to foretell if and when regime change would lead to
democratic futures. At the tail end of the Arab Spring uprisings, Syrians signaled their
willingness to brave the perils of Assad’s police state to stake their claim in Syria’s future.
Beginning in Dara’a, where the imprisonment and torture of 15 boys in March 2011 generated
organized public outcry, Syrian civilians (and later military officers) gathered to demand the
resignation of President Bashar al-Assad.1 With this very public and deeply subversive rejection
of the regime, the stage was set for what would become a protracted conflict that is yet to be
resolved in Syria.
From the onset of the Arab Spring, the Western media wasted no time in building out
narratives and frames to convey the complexity and dynamism of the social and political forces
on the ground; these narratives “serve[d] as a natural reaction to surplus and abundant
information... [in an attempt to] order, interpret and simplify”2 the diversity of viewpoints and
voices seeking to clarify the issues. Early on, commentators viewed the Syrian uprising within
the general context of the Arab Spring; that is, the mainstream interpretation held that mobilized
Syrians “publicly gathered to cast off that yoke by calling for greater freedoms.”3 But when the
1 Joe Sterling. “Dara’a: The spark that lit the Syrian flame.” CNN. March 1, 2012. Accessed online at http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/01/world/meast/syria-crisis-beginnings/. 2 Michael Bhatia. “Fighting Words: Naming Terrorists, Bandits, Rebels and Other Violent Actors.” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2005, p. 9. 3 Rania Abouzeid. “Arab Spring: Is a Revolution Starting Up in Syria?” Time Magazine. March 19, 2011. Accessed online at http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2060398,00.html.
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government’s response grew violent quickly, Western media outlets scrambled to create more
appropriate prisms through which to view the Syrian case.
It is these active and influential prisms that this paper seeks to better understand.
Specifically, this analysis will review three major themes that run throughout mainstream media
accounts of the Syrian conflict. The review and analysis will assess squarely the following
themes:
1. The conflict inherently is violent;
2. The conflict inherently is sectarian; and,
3. The conflict has provided an environment for a male-dominated, “jihadist playground”4.
By doing so, this paper intends to think through where overemphasis on any or all of these
themes may obscure, overinflate or otherwise ignore more marginalized undercurrents of truth –
and, how those undercurrents may work to complicate current policy options moving forward. In
short, the intention is not to verify whether these themes are valid, as that would require much
more information than is available to the public, but rather to map out what gets lost when these
themes are emphasized and prioritized above competing narratives.
Scope of Inquiry and Methodology
This paper will aid in carefully considering how three common themes have framed the
Syrian conflict within Western media reports. By investigating the conflict’s thematic
dimensions, which include the inevitable violence of the conflict, sectarianism, and the upsurge
in violent extremism, this paper will map out how these frames and narratives have become
4 Christoph Reuter. “Video Games and Cigarettes: Syria’s Disneyland for Jihadists”, Der Spiegel, September 27, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/foreign-jihadists-in-syria-favor-liberal-transit-towns-over-front-a-910092.html.
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truisms as well as whether and how alternative explanations or realities should be considered
against the backdrop of policy decisions.
An operative assumption of this inquiry is that media accounts, in some way, shape or
form, influence policy decisions. Whether media accounts influence public opinion, which then
feeds directly into the agendas of elected officials, or media accounts help to prioritize policy
interests at high levels of leadership, an acknowledgement that television, print and online media
are somehow interwoven with the policy decisions they help inform is paramount to the
discussion of how current depictions of the Syrian conflict may produce adverse or inaccurate
foreign policy.
As much of the current debate derives from information culled by mainstream, Western
media sources such as CNN, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Guardian, Time
Magazine, and Der Spiegel, articles from these sources will be analyzed in terms of their various
perspectives on the three themes in question. While Al-Jazeera may not enjoy mainstream
readership in the United States (yet), any discussion of happenings in the Middle East would be
incomplete without reporting from journalists working with this particular news outlet. In
addition to articles lodged in large-scale news and policy analysis publications like The Atlantic,
Foreign Policy, and The Economist, op-ed pieces and blog posts will also factor into the material
analyzed in this paper.
In highlighting narrative blind spots, the goal is to better position academics and
policymakers to anticipate surprising developments on the ground that, perhaps, should not be
surprising at all. For example, where the media are focused myopically on the uptick of Al
Qaeda fighters flocking to Northern Syria, questions around the potential for radicalization of
young boys and girls in refugee camp and urban settings in neighboring countries are not being
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asked. It is this type of creative thinking outside of media-endorsed boxes that offers the best
hope for achieving an informed understanding of the current situation as well as in what
direction the current situation could shift.
Dominant Themes and Their Blind Spots
Theme #1: The Conflict Inherently Is Violent – An Overview
Much of what enthralled Western observers about the Arab Spring revolved around the
degree to which popular protest remained non-violent. In a region rife with persistent
authoritarianism and a history of violent state repression, the change of regime in the wake of
(mostly) non-violent protest in both Egypt and Tunisia startled the entire world. Writing about
the impact of the Arab Spring on Al Qaeda, Bruce Hoffman agrees that the “mostly nonviolent,
mast protests of the ‘Arab Spring’ were successful in overturning hated despots”5, so much so
that the violent pathways to improved governance promulgated by Al Qaeda propagandists
seemed to have been rejected outright by the masses.
In terms of Syria, though, the media have taken to discussing internal dynamics in an
entirely different way. Writing about the uprising roughly two years after the Dara’a skirmishes,
Marc Lynch states simply that Syria “ruined” the Arab Spring with its “unstoppable spiral of
militarization”. In his view, “the Syrian nightmare has destroyed the spirit of fun, hope, and
positive change of the early Arab uprisings” in such a way that
the promise of the Arab Spring has given way to Syria’s highly visible and protracted violence, divisive identity politics, focus on international intervention, crushing of expectations, fragmentation of the media landscape, state failure, and strategic proxy warfare.6
5 Bruce Hoffman. “Al Qaeda’s Uncertain Future”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 36. Taylor and Francis Group, LLC, p. 642.6 Marc Lynch. “How Syria Ruined the Arab Spring.” Foreign Policy. May 3, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/05/03/how_syria_ruined_the_arab_spring.
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Sounding almost personally insulted that the Syrian revolution veered off the beaten path of
other Arab Spring moments, Lynch historicizes the revolution as inherently and immediately
prone to violence, as if the wheels of the revolution were locked into a violent trajectory from the
beginning.
When media reports do not overlook the fact that many of the initial anti-government
actions were non-violent with intention, another troubling bias pops up in other mainstream news
articles: that violence was inevitable. A New York Times article from September 2011 calculates
that the survivability of the Assad regime enjoys a direct relationship with an increase in street
violence; in other words, the longer Bashar remains in power, the more violent the country will
become. Anthony Shadid quotes an International Crisis Group analyst directly as saying, “‘It is
quite simply a trap that the protestors will fall in.’”7 Inherent in this line of thinking is the casual
assumption that the Syrian conflict is constituted by an inevitable and unidirectional thread of
violence. Most troubling, of course, is the inattention to the agency of the protestors themselves.
Theme #1: The Conflict Inherently Is Violent – Blind Spots
The operative discourse around the Syrian conflict as inherently and inevitably violent
completely overlooks the great pains many Syrians took to avoid violence during the early period
of the uprising. A simple Google search for non-violent resistance in Syria does not yield any
dedicated inquiries into the subject through mainstream, Western press channels. Instead, one
finds reports filed by Rania Khalek with Al Jazeera, as well as several articles hosted by Open
Democracy. The Open Democracy articles look directly at the deep currents of non-violent
organizing and strategy early in the uprising and call the impact of non-violence in Syria
7 Anthony Shadid. “Syria’s Protestors, Long Mostly Peaceful, Starting to Resort to Violence”, The New York Times. September 16, 2011. Accessed online at http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/17/world/middleeast/at-least-six-protesters-killed-in-syria.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.
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“tremendous”.8 According to these reports, as momentum in the cities began to snowball,
protesters relied on dodge-and-feint tactics to lure security forces to fake locations while they
captured street protests through film at the same time. The intentionality of pursuing non-
violence, even as protesters were being detained, tortured, and killed, helped generate key
defections from the Syrian army. Bartkowski and Kahf write that the regime’s escalation of
violent attacks on non-violent protesters was viewed by some journalists as an indication that the
non-violent strategy was inherently flawed9, but Sharpe would point out that this mainstream
perception fails to account for the potential of the strategy of political jiu-jitsu, wherein
the non-violent resisters can use the asymmetry of nonviolent means versus violent action in order to apply to their opponents a political operation... [that] throws the opponents off balance politically, causing their repression to rebound against their own power position.10
Contrary to the media’s assumption that non-violence failed because the regime’s violent
response necessitated an inevitable violent counter-response, Bartkowski and Kahf point out that
it was both the mixture of non-violent and violent tactics as well as an absence of an overarching
strategy11 that pushed voices for non-violence to the margins.
Khalek’s article unapologetically criticizes the media for overlooking the fact that non-
violence is not dead in Syria, despite the pervasive narrative that Syrians are either involved in
violent resistance or eager for an external power like the United States to support violent
resistance or become involved militarily itself. Simply put,
8 Macie Bartkowski and Mohja Kahf. “The Syrian resistance: a tale of two struggles”, Open Democracy, September 23, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.opendemocracy.net/civilresistance/maciej-bartkowski-mohja-kahf/syrian-resistance-tale-of-two-struggles. 9 Bartkowski and Kahf, “The Syrian resistance: a tale of two struggles”.10 Gene Sharpe. “There Are Realistic Alternatives”, The Albert Einstein Institution, 2003, p. 11.11 Barkowksi and Kahf, “The Syrian resistance: a tale of two struggles”.
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she and others argue that making sense of Syria, today more than ever, demands that more attention be paid to the opposition voices of Syrian civil society whose voices have been increasingly drowned out by the sounds of war.12
In addition, maps that illustrate rebel control (see Appendix A) can be found on virtually
every major news site or publication. Mainstream media sources routinely and obsessively post
updated maps indicating which areas are under rebel control and which areas are still managed
by the government as if to suggest that all activity within Syria is both militarized and neatly
organized within a pro-/anti-government binary. Conversely, maps that show the persistence and
prevalence of non-violent organizing (see Appendix B) are much more rarely featured in
mainstream news accounts.
In looking at how narratives of inevitable violence stack up next to narratives of non-
violence, Western media sources overwhelmingly favor painting the Syrian conflict as deeply
and unidirectionally violent, which intuitively gives way to support for violent interventions, like
the one briefly considered by the United States and France in October of 2013. In silencing the
civil society groups and individual actors deeply committed to fighting the regime “not by
violence, but – by psychological, social, economic or political methods, or a combination of
these”13 the Western media have marginalized the non-violent movement and pared down the
complexity of involved actors in order to transmit an uncomplicated account of Syrian
opposition tactics, motivations and goals. By equating the Syrian opposition to armed violence,
the Western media have framed solutions to the conflict in such a way that prioritizes a
militarized intervention over an alternative, non-violent intervention, thereby privileging a
violent response to a violent scenario and limiting the overall solution-set available to outside
actors.
12 Rania Khalek. “Syria’s nonviolent resistance is dying to be heard”, Al-Jazeera America. September 9, 2013. Accessed online at http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/9/9/syria-s-nonviolentresistanceisdyingtobeheard.html. 13 Sharpe, p. 4.
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Theme #2: The Conflict Inherently Is Sectarian – An Overview
Another theme that has become prominent in accounts of the ongoing conflict in Syria is
that this conflict emanates from ancient, sectarian hostilities that have exploded to the forefront
of current conflict dynamics. As early as November 2011, writers began foreshadowing the
future of the Syrian conflict using a sectarian/ethnic lens. Anthony Shadid writes “As it [Homs]
descends into sectarian hatred, Homs has emerged as a chilling window on what civil war in
Syria could look like...”14 A Washington Post article reinforces this sentiment, framing initial
violence in Homs in November 2011 as “spiraling sectarian violence”, with “many of those
killed belong[ing] to Assad’s minority Alawite sect.”15 Early on, media consumers are instructed
to view tensions and inter-communal violence as sect versus sect, ethnic group versus ethnic
group.
Two years later, columnists for major media publications have begun to discuss the
potential for partition in Syria along sectarian lines, echoing similar trends that underpinned
projections for the future of post-invasion Iraq. Robin Wright, an author and scholar at the
United States Institute for Peace, argued that Syria is one of several countries being torn asunder
by “centrifugal forces of rival beliefs, tribes and ethnicities.”16 She goes on to state unequivocally
that because Syria is religiously and ethnically diverse, it is naturally fragile, and that the
ongoing fighting has left the country in “three identifiable regions, each with its own flag and
14 Anthony Shadid. “Sectarian Strife in City Bodes Ill for All of Syria”, The New York Times, November 19, 2011. Accessed online at http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/20/world/middleeast/in-homs-syria-sectarian-battles-stir-fears-of-civil-war.html?pagewanted=all. 15 Liz Sly. “Sectarian violence kills dozens in Syria.” The Washington Post, November 3, 2011. Accessed online at http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-11-03/world/35280901_1_arab-league-plan-homs-sunni. 16 Robin Wright. “Imagining a Remapped Middle East”, The New York Times. September 28, 2013. Accessed online at www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/opinion/sunday/imagining-a-remapped-middle-east.html?r=0.
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security forces.”17 In this view, conflict dynamics have well-positioned the country to splinter
along neat, sectarian lines.
Theme #2: The Conflict Inherently Is Sectarian – Blind Spots
By uncritically speaking about the conflict has having arisen out of historic, sectarian
divisions, primarily between the Alawite regime and its supports and the predominantly Sunni
Syrian majority, commentators are, perhaps unintentionally, naturalizing divisions that may not
exist to the extent that current narratives contend. This strategy of compartmentalizing and
categorizing difficult-to-understand dynamics reinforces “the tendency to represent the social
and cultural world as a multichrome mosaic of monochrome ethnic, racial, or cultural blocs”18,
thereby creating and reifying divisions and cleavages that may have no or little meaning at the
local level.
Writing for Democracy Now, Marwa Daoudy states clearly that while the Assad regime
is Alawi and draws support heavily from Alawites within Syria, the vast majority of the country
is not embattled along sectarian lines; in other words, it is not a Sunni country up against an
Alawi leadership because there is something inherently conflictive between Sunnis and Alawites.
“All communities, Sunnis, Christians and Alawites alike, share a fear of radicalism and a descent
to chaos as the country follows in the dreaded footsteps of neighboring Iraq.”19 Instead of
indicating a normative and insurmountable antagonism between religious or sectarian parties, the
narrative of deep-rooted and inevitable sectarianism reflects a geo-political alignment of external
actors, with “the US-Israeli-Saudi-Qatari-Turkish interests on the one hand and Syria, Russia,
17 Robin Wright, “Imagining a Remapped Middle East”. 18 Rogers Brubaker. “Ethnicity Without Groups”, Remaking Modernity: Politics, History, and Sociology. Duke University Press, 2006, p. 471. 19 Marwa Daoudy. “Sectarianism in Syria: myth and reality”, Open Democracy. July 22, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.opendemocracy.net/marwa-daoudy/sectarianism-in-syria-myth-and-reality.
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Iran and Hizbollah on the other.”20 In this view, the narrative of internal sectarian antagonism is
misplaced and more accurately depicts the type of geo-politicking underway between regional
actors and the United States.
Aside from whether the current sectarian emphasis on fighting correctly situates on-the-
ground realities as they are now, there is ample support that in the early days of the fighting,
protestors and activists deliberately eschewed sectarian identities as they mobilized against
Assad, perhaps anticipating that government forces would attempt to manipulate sectarian
distinctions to their advantage. Activists in Banyas sought cooperation with Alawites by singing
“‘Peaceful, peaceful – neither Sunni nor Alawite, we want national unity’” and protestors in
Damascus marched with both a cross and crescent to underscore multi-sectarian unity.21 In fact,
the Assad regime has been charged with manipulating the West’s fascination with sectarian
discord to his advantage, depicting a Sunni versus Shiite showdown reminiscent of the United
States’ experience with Iraq in order to distract external observers from the brutality of his
responses. Playing up ethnic discord also functions to support Assad’s continued claims that
Sunni extremism vis-à-vis Al Qaeda – rather than Syrians with legitimate and sustained
grievances – bears responsibility for continued resistance.
Indeed, Western actors like the United States are all too familiar with the art of accepting
blindly the sectarian character of conflicts, like the one in Iraq. Reidar Visser takes criticism of
the United States’ interfacing with sectarian divisions to another level by alleging that the U.S.
itself has imposed a “a sectarian master narrative upon Iraqi politics”22, which circles back to the
question of whether and how Western media outlets are doing the same with respect to Syria.
20 Daoudy, “Sectarianism in Syria: myth and reality”.21 Bartkowski and Kahf, “The Syrian resistance: a tale of two struggles”.22 Reidar Visser. “The Western Imposition of Sectarianism on Iraqi Politics”, Arab Studies Journal, Fall 2007/Spring 2008, p. 84.
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Visser says that with regard to coverage of Iraqi affairs, the international media relied on
“sectarian narratives...to break news stories from Iraq into neat, digestible pieces crisp enough to
fit into the slots of satellite television newscasts and mainstream newspaper feature articles while
still making for dramatic ‘conflict’ headlines.”23 In one important way, this demands an
investigation of how ethnicized accounts of conflict make the news more interesting, more
readable, and generally more exciting. If this is true, it is very possible that the current emphasis
on the ethnic dimensions of the Syrian conflict is driven by the same sensationalizing and profit-
oriented considerations, a troubling notion to say the least. Visser also notes that the
“Iraq as three distinct states” thread in popular, journalistic accounts served to “make it just
about doable for a correspondent to complete a quick tour d’horizon of the country as a whole in
one single package”; again, there is a distinctive parallel between analyzing the future prospects
of Iraq and commentating on what is next for Syria.
In sum, where journalists have engaged the Syrian conflict with an uncritical view to
sectarian divisions, they have unthinkingly reproduced simplistic and, in some cases, inaccurate
accounts of why and how Syrians are embroiled in conflict. These monochromatic, binary
distinctions also form the underbelly of the insidious discussion that Syria could or should be
partitioned, a discussion that is largely devoid of Syrian voices themselves and reminiscent of the
kind of neo-colonial meddling policymakers toyed with in the years after the 2003 invasion of
Iraq. Overblown and fictive accounts of Sunni-on-Alawite violence distort the unity that many
Syrians sought (and continue to seek) in the early months of the war and present the conflict in
the kind of good versus evil terms that sell papers and inform bad policy, all at the same time.
23 Visser, p. 89.
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Theme #3: The Conflict as “Playground” for Jihadists – An Overview
The notion that the Syrian civil war has been hi-jacked by a colorful array of jihadists
functions as one of the most written about themes thus far. It has been well-established by both
the media and academics that the war in Syria has opened up a staging ground for jihadists eager
to stake their claim in tenuous states within the Middle East. The Islamic State of Iraq and al-
Sham (ISIS), with 8,000 foreign fighters and a “pathological obsession with enforcing Islamist
rectitude in the towns and cities its soldiers have infiltrated”24, is the group on the minds and
tongues of relevant observers. Mainstream media reports suggest that ISIS’s activities in Syria
have been so helpful to the Assad regime in terms of both shifting the world’s attention away
from his brutal tactics to the threat potential of an active Al Qaeda affiliate in Syria and
complicating foreign aid to moderate fighting forces that ISIS may even be a patron of Assad’s.25
Bruce Hoffman, in his assessment of the potential for Al Qaeda regeneration in Syria, writes that
the conflict in Syria has “potentially breathed new life into the Al Qaeda brand...[that it could]
resuscitate Core Al Qaeda’s waning fortunes, much as occurred nine years ago [in Iraq].”26
If one looks to media reports featuring the viewpoints of Al Qaeda operatives themselves,
jihadists could not be happier with the developments in Syria. CNN journalist, Nick Paton
Walsch, reports that the typical jihadist reaction to crossing the border from Hatay, Turkey into
Syria is deeply religious27, reflecting some of the ethos evident in Freedom Fighters taking to
Afghan soil to defend against the Soviet invasion in the 1980s.28 Many fighters believe that this
stage of jihad is the fabled “final battle” known as al-Sham, one that will bring about the end of
24 James Traub. “‘Everyone is Scared of ISIS’”, Foreign Policy, October 4, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/10/04/everyone_is_scared_of_isis_syria_rebels. 25 Traub, “‘Everyone is Scared of ISIS’”.26 Hoffman, p. 646.27 Nick Paton Walsch. “Al-Qaeda-linked group gains strength on NATO’s border”, CNN. November 5, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/europe/isis-gaining-strength-on-syria-turkey-border/. 28 See Lawrence Wright. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. Vintage Publishing, 2007.
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the world. One smuggler commented “When they [jihadists] get to the fence, they kneel and cry,
they weep, like they’ve just met something more precious to them than their own family. They
believe this land, Syria, is where God’s judgment will come to pass.”29 According to this reading
of jihadist involvement in Syria, the conflict increasingly functions as a clarion call to pious men
from all over the world to fight on behalf of what they believe is the Islamic apocalypse.
Apart from the Syrian conflict providing an environment for spiritual fulfillment, the
media continue to report that the inclusion of jihadist fighters has created a second front on
which moderate forces find themselves expending precious human and material resources. In
July 2013, a report detailing the assassination of a top rebel commander by Al Qaeda forces
includes the comment that “[the attack] was tantamount to a declaration of war, opening a new
front for the Western-backed fighters struggling against President Bashar Assad’s forces.”30
Later in the piece, the author states plainly that Al Qaeda elements stand to impede democratic
development in Syria. In the most recent articles that focus on the demographic make-up of
opposition forces, mainstream journalists frequently depict Al Qaeda elements as the single-most
threatening force present in the Syrian theater.
Theme #3: The Conflict as “Playground” for Jihadists – Blind Spots
It would be inaccurate to downplay the danger that violent extremism poses to the anti-
Assad project. However, the media’s almost obsessive focus on Al Qaeda activity in Syria works
to magnify Al Qaeda’s forces and influence beyond what is certainly the reality. There are
approximately 100,000 fighters splintered into 1,000 or more small groups engaged in open,
armed rebellion against government forces. Of these 100,000 fighters, the BBC estimates that
29 Walsch, “Al-Qaeda-linked group gains strength on NATO’s border”.30 Mariam Karouny and Oliver Holmes. “Report: Syria rebels say al Qaeda attack opens new front in war.” NBC via Reuters. July 12, 2013. Accessed online at http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/12/19437578-report-syria-rebels-say-al-qaeda-attack-opens-new-front-in-war.
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5,000 to 7,000 jihadists align with the Al-Nusra Front and 3,000 to 5,000 fighters associate with
ISIS. Based on these figures, anywhere from 8,000 to 12,000 jihadists are active currently in
Syria, representing 8% to 12% of the overall fighting force. Without underestimating the
commitment and tenacity of Al Qaeda fighters (and speaking without any sort of military
training or insight), their numbers, even at the high end, do not seem overwhelming enough to
threaten the opposition in the way that the media would have its audience believe (and in the way
Al Qaeda would like the media’s audience to believe as well). 12,000 fighters may be able to
capture undefended towns and function to undermine the opposition’s focus on Assad, but it
seems premature to predict that foreign jihadists are poised to subsume the entire opposition.
In addition, the West’s fixation with embedded or adversarial Al Qaeda elements within
Syrian opposition forces plays directly into the machinations of Assad, who from the beginning
type-cast opposition elements as terrorists31 deserving of extreme, state-sponsored
countermeasures. The more Western observers spin their wheels modeling future scenarios
centered on Al Qaeda, the more the focus is drawn away from the legitimate aims and needs of
moderate fighting forces, which presumably would be a boon to Assad. In reference to the
Obama Administration’s hesitation to arm moderate rebels robustly, analysts concede that it is
too late to shape a favorable outcome in Syria. The media’s focus on the growth and influence of
Al Qaeda in Syria can only further convince lawmakers of the peril involved in dealing directly
with moderate forces. This threat, real or imagined, has been one of the strongest drivers behind
the emptying of promises to equip moderate forces, and the more the media hype the power of
jihadist elements in Syria, the more moderate rebels’ voices will be sidelined.
31 Ian Black. “Syria’s Bashar al-Assad says ‘terrorism’ must stop if he is to accept peace plan”, The Guardian, March 29, 2012. Accessed online at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/29/syria-bashar-assad-terrorism-peace-plan.
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One should also consider the bigger picture in terms of the potential for – rather than just
the presence of – radicalization toward violent extremism. With so much focus on already
radicalized fighters moving through Syria’s porous borders, no one seems interested in thinking
through how forced migration and life in vulnerable urban pockets and refugee camps in Turkey,
Lebanon and Jordan might contribute to the next generation of radical actors. A Google search
for “Syrian refugees radicalization” reveals a dearth of serious writing on the potential for
radicalization in refugee communities outside of Syria. In blogging about the potential for
radicalization in refugee locales, the Clarion Project makes this rather simplistic and casual
claim: “In a bigger sense for the nation of Syria and the region, lost identity leads to
hopelessness, which leads to radicalization which leads to terrorism and destabilization of the
entire region”32, which, in the author’s view, obfuscates rather than responsibly considers how
forced migrants and their children might be more inclined to take radical action as a result of the
war. The idea that “lost identity” plus “hopelessness” equals “terrorist”, overlooks the multi-
variable process(es) of radicalization, which, according to McCauley and Moskalenko, could
include any combination of twelve (or more) pathways toward violent, radical action.33
Where there is limited – and, politically jaded – thought around the potential for
radicalization of children, there is nothing in the public forum to suggest that Syrian women
might also move in the direction of political and violent extremism. Zainab al Suwaij, the Co-
Founder and Executive Director of the American Islamic Congress, alluded briefly to the largely-
ignored reality that Syrian women living Gaziantep, Turkey are adopting radical beliefs and
moving in the direction of radical (and violent) action, saying that Syrian women are “wanting to
32 Dr. M. Zuhdi Jasser. “Syria’s Refugee Children Prime Target for Radicalization”, The Clarion Project. November 21, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.clarionproject.org/blog/syria/lost-generation-syria.33 See Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko. Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us. Oxford University Press, 2011.
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fight and kill”.34 In fact, her current mandate in Gaziantep revolves around reversing processes of
radicalization for both combatants and civilians, of whom women make up a significant enough
percentage. The author could not secure an interview with Ms. Al Suwaij, but even the
whispering of female combatants merits a serious revision of the current assumptions that
underpin the potential for radicalization vis-à-vis the Syrian conflict.
Conclusion: Blind Spots and the Vulnerabilities They Create
To review, mainstream, Western media outlets have focused intently on the following
themes:
1. The conflict inherently is violent;
2. The conflict inherently is sectarian; and,
3. The conflict has provided an environment for a male-dominated, “jihadist playground”.35
This paper has attempted to point out the serious flaws in each of these contentions. Where the
press has presented the conflict as inherently violent, much of the hard work and intentionality
fueling the non-violent effort has gone unnoticed. That the non-violent movement continues to
persist is almost impossible to believe given the media’s fascination with images of beheadings36
and cannibalism37. In presenting the conflict as unfolding along pre-determined sectarian lines,
the media risk reifying boundaries and human borders that may be anathema to the people on
whom those boundaries and borders impact. And finally, juxtaposed next to the sex appeal of
34 Zainab Al-Suiwaj. “A Status Report on Syrian Refugees: Beyond the Headlines”, Women’s Foreign Policy Group Panel, October 15, 2013.35 Christoph Reuter. “Video Games and Cigarettes: Syria’s Disneyland for Jihadists”, Der Spiegel, September 27, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/foreign-jihadists-in-syria-favor-liberal-transit-towns-over-front-a-910092.html. 36 See Patrick Witty. “Witness to a Syrian Execution: ‘I Saw a Scene of Utter Cruelty’”, Time Magazine. September 12, 2013. Accessed online at http://lightbox.time.com/2013/09/12/witness-to-a-syrian-execution-i-saw-a-scene-of-utter-cruelty/#1. 37 See Salma Abdelaziz and Holly Yan. “Video: Syrian rebel cuts out soldier’s heart, eats it”, CNN. May 15, 2013. Accessed online at http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/15/world/meast/syria-eaten-heart/.
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another Al Qaeda-linked conflict, the viewpoints, objectives and platform of moderate fighters
cannot keep pace with the media’s appetite for juicy narratives.
If the media has any impact at all on policymaking (and it is true that, to some extent and
in some spaces, it does38), how can policymakers smartly respond to the proliferation of these
three themes? To begin, policymakers would be wise to think about how to support non-military
engagement in all of its forms, not just through the extension of humanitarian aid and funding
through actors like the United Nations; this includes thinking about how to creatively engage the
non-violent movement in Syria. To be sure, the security situation does not allow for much direct
engagement, but the time is now to take seriously the power of social mobilization in support of
non-violence. Second – and in reference to the American practice of the lazy ethnicizing of
complex conflicts – policymakers should look to the mistakes made in Iraq before they accept
accounts that play up ethnic divides. This means exercising restraint and caution in analytical
activities as well as taking the time to understand the situation before recommending action.
Ultimately, it means thinking critically about a conflict where multiple ethnicities happen to be
involved, rather than assuming that the conflict exists because of the multiple ethnicities
themselves. Lastly, because violent extremism is on the rise and because Al Qaeda is nothing if
not innovative, policymakers have to shed gender-blind assumptions around who can radicalize
in politically extreme situations, if only to enable the re-working and fine-tuning of
counterterrorism strategies. Where the U.S. believes that only half of the population is likely to
radicalize, the take away for the remaining 50% is that the U.S. is not paying attention, and
therefore, not attuned to new and creative ways to undermine the Western agenda.
38 See Anne-Katrin Arnold’s review of Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies by John Kingdon at http://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere/indirect-media-effects-unknown-quantity-policy-making.
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In the end, blind spots signal an inability or unwillingness to acknowledge a broader
horizon than what is depicted by popular discourse. But it is within the parameters of that
broader horizon that unforeseen consequences have the power to undermine or otherwise derail
efforts predicated on commonly accepted knowledge. It is precisely these blind spots that require
our immediate and utmost attention moving forward.
Appendix A
“Syria: Mapping the conflict”
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Appendix B
“Non-violence Map in Syrian Uprising”
Figure 2 (from Alharak.org)