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MAKING CITIZENS IN MAKING CITIZENS IN SOUTHEAST EUROPE SOUTHEAST EUROPE THROUGH CE & HRE: THROUGH CE & HRE: Results of a CIVITAS BiH Results of a CIVITAS BiH pilot-studypilot-study
Prof. Vedrana Spajić-VrkašFaculty of Humanities & Social SciencesUniversity of Zagreb
The objectives of the studyThe objectives of the study
• To provide empirical data on the To provide empirical data on the outcomes of CE & HRE outcomes of CE & HRE in SEE with in SEE with a view to:a view to:• improvimprovee the the quality quality and positionand position of of
CE & HRECE & HRE in the national formal in the national formal education systemseducation systems
• promotepromote regional cooperationregional cooperation in the in the development of theory, policy and development of theory, policy and practice of practice of CE & HRECE & HRE
The characteristic of the The characteristic of the studystudy The type of the study:The type of the study: pilot; pilot; explicatoryexplicatory Methodology:Methodology: quantitativequantitative Research instrument:Research instrument: questionnairequestionnaire
(developed by the(developed by the CIVITAS BiH Regional Steering CommitteeCIVITAS BiH Regional Steering Committee on the basis of a on the basis of a questionnaire originally designed by the IOC for HR&DC, Faculty of questionnaire originally designed by the IOC for HR&DC, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb)Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb)
Coordinator: Coordinator: CIVITAS BiHCIVITAS BiH Donor: Donor: US Democracy US Democracy PProgramrogram and and US Embassy in US Embassy in
Bosnia-HerzegovinaBosnia-Herzegovina Participating countries: Participating countries: AlbaniaAlbania, , Bosnia and Bosnia and
HerzegovinaHerzegovina, , BulgariaBulgaria, , CroatiaCroatia, , KosovoKosovo, , MacedoniaMacedonia, , MontenegroMontenegro, , RomaniaRomania, , SerbiaSerbia, , SloveniaSlovenia ( (
Total sample: 2,314 Total sample: 2,314 secondary school studentssecondary school students (grammar & vocational) (200-250 per country)(grammar & vocational) (200-250 per country)
Vedrana Spajic-VrkasVedrana Spajic-Vrkas 44
The origin of the The origin of the questionnairequestionnaire The The regional questionnaire was based regional questionnaire was based onon the following the following
two research instruments:two research instruments:– the questionnaire on the university students knowledge in, and the questionnaire on the university students knowledge in, and
attitudes about democracy, citizenship and human rights attitudes about democracy, citizenship and human rights developed by the Research and Training Centre for Human developed by the Research and Training Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Citizenship of the Faculty of Humanities Rights and Democratic Citizenship of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Zagreb in 2006 and Social Sciences University of Zagreb in 2006
– The questionnaire designed for the The questionnaire designed for the CIVITAS B&HCIVITAS B&H study study on on civic civic knowledge and attitudes knowledge and attitudes of the of the secondary school students in secondary school students in Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina in 2007, which was designed in two in 2007, which was designed in two forms – initial and final, and was accompanied by the forms – initial and final, and was accompanied by the questionnaires for teachers and school principals)questionnaires for teachers and school principals)
The BiH The BiH version version of the students’ questionnaire of the students’ questionnaire was was significantly modified by the members of the CIVITAS significantly modified by the members of the CIVITAS Steering Board in a three-day working session held in Steering Board in a three-day working session held in Promorsko, BulgariaPromorsko, Bulgaria in May 2008 in May 2008
The agreed upon version was edited by Ms. Arlene The agreed upon version was edited by Ms. Arlene Benitez from the Centre for Civic EducationBenitez from the Centre for Civic Education,, CalabasasCalabasas, USA, USA
The content of the The content of the questionnairequestionnaire
Dependent variables:Dependent variables:– knowledge and understandingknowledge and understanding– attitudes towards school subjectattitudes towards school subject– civic and political culturecivic and political culture
Independent variables:Independent variables:– gendergender– school typeschool type– average school gradeaverage school grade– Plans for future educationPlans for future education– level of education of both parents level of education of both parents
Knowledge & understandingKnowledge & understanding
25 25 multiple-choice multiple-choice questionsquestions measuring measuring knowledge and understanding of: knowledge and understanding of: – individual rights and freedomsindividual rights and freedoms– ccitizenshipitizenship– ddemocracyemocracy– ggovernanceovernance– cultural pluralismcultural pluralism– civil societycivil society– international andinternational and European organizations European organizations
Scores: Scores: 1 item – 1 score1 item – 1 score (max 36 scores) (max 36 scores)
Vedrana Spajic-VrkasVedrana Spajic-Vrkas 77
Examples of questionsExamples of questions on on knowledge & understandingknowledge & understanding
2. 2. When we say that someone possesses civic virtues, we When we say that someone possesses civic virtues, we primarilyprimarily mean mean thatthat: :
– He/she is the member of an NGOs, and not of a political partyHe/she is the member of an NGOs, and not of a political party– He/she cares for the community interests He/she cares for the community interests – He/she behaves in a civilized manner He/she behaves in a civilized manner – He/she has the rights of a citizen He/she has the rights of a citizen
12. 12. For each description on the left side select and write a matching For each description on the left side select and write a matching number from the list on the right side:number from the list on the right side:
– Focus is on individual freedoms ____Focus is on individual freedoms ____ 1. Anarchy 1. Anarchy – The ruler is above the law ____The ruler is above the law ____ 2. Democracy2. Democracy– The government is centered in one leader or party ____ The government is centered in one leader or party ____ 3. Tyranny /dictatorship3. Tyranny /dictatorship– Focus is on citizens’ participation ____Focus is on citizens’ participation ____ 44. Liberalism . Liberalism
55. Totalitarianism . Totalitarianism 6. Federalism6. Federalism
21. 21. When a minority group is expected to accept the culture of a dominant When a minority group is expected to accept the culture of a dominant group in the society, it is calledgroup in the society, it is called::
– Assimilation Assimilation – Discrimination Discrimination – AcculturationAcculturation– CohesionCohesion
Attitudes towards the school Attitudes towards the school subjectsubject
8 8 open open and and multiple-choice multiple-choice questionsquestions,, and and the the Likert-type scales Likert-type scales measuring: measuring: – satisfaction with the four dimensions of the school satisfaction with the four dimensions of the school
subjectsubject (the content, teacher’s approach (the content, teacher’s approach, , textbooks, classroom atmosphere)textbooks, classroom atmosphere)
– acquired knowledge acquired knowledge about a about a selected list of selected list of topicstopics– acquired civic skillsacquired civic skills– student-centeredness of instructionstudent-centeredness of instruction– the use of selected the use of selected teaching and learning methodsteaching and learning methods– classroom classroom atmosphereatmosphere– suggestions for improvement of civic educationsuggestions for improvement of civic education
Vedrana Spajic-VrkasVedrana Spajic-Vrkas 99
An example of question An example of question measuring an attitude towards measuring an attitude towards school subjectschool subject
32. To what extent has learning about democracy, human rights and citizenship in school helped you personally to develop or acquire the following: (In each row mark only one answer)
Not at all
A little
Somewhat
A lot
Very much
1 Interpreting political events on the basis of truthful information 1 2 3 4 5
2 Making decision independently 1 2 3 4 5
3 Cooperating with others to solve the problem 1 2 3 4 5
4 Accepting responsibility for own decisions 1 2 3 4 5
5 Critical approach to social events 1 2 3 4 5
6 Understanding that individual engagement is important for social change
1 2 3 4 5
7 Taking part in activities that contribute to wellbeing of others 1 2 3 4 5
8 Better understanding own responsibilities towards school 1 2 3 4 5
9 Understanding that truthful evidence is crucial to expressing one’s point of view
1 2 3 4 5
Civic and political cultureCivic and political culture
10 10 Likert-type scalesLikert-type scales measuring: measuring: – The level of being politically informedThe level of being politically informed– The sources of political information (radio, The sources of political information (radio,
television, newspaper, school subject, Internet, television, newspaper, school subject, Internet, friends, family)friends, family)
– Actual civic and political paticipationActual civic and political paticipation– Anticipated civic and political participation as adultAnticipated civic and political participation as adult– The importance of selected political practices for The importance of selected political practices for
democracydemocracy– Personal valuesPersonal values– Political and socal trustPolitical and socal trust– Social distance towards national and religious Social distance towards national and religious
groups in the regiongroups in the region– The importance of EU membership for a transitional The importance of EU membership for a transitional
country country – The effects of EU membership The effects of EU membership
Vedrana Spajic-VrkasVedrana Spajic-Vrkas 1111
An example of the political An example of the political culture questionsculture questions
43.anon-members
To what extant do you agree that the outcomes of integration of your country are (or will be) the following: (In each row mark only one number!)
Disagree completely
Disagree
Neither
Agree Completely agree
1. The society becomes more democratic 1 2 3 4 5
2. Living standard of citizens improves significantly 1 2 3 4 5
3. The sovereignty of the national government is limited 1 2 3 4 5
4. The number of unemployed is reduced 1 2 3 4 5
5. National treasures are in the hands of foreigners 1 2 3 4 5
6. Better relations with other countries are established 1 2 3 4 5
7. Social differences between citizens become deeper 1 2 3 4 5
8. The judicial system is more just and effective 1 2 3 4 5
9. National identities are jeopardized ………….. 1 2 3 4 5
The sampleThe sample
Total: Total: 11,466,466 respondents respondentsTheThe structure of structure of the the national samplenational samples:s:
gymgymnasiumnasium - 30%- 30%vocational schoolvocational school – 70%– 70%
- - Albania 189
Bosnia and Herzegovina 213
Croatia 247
Montenegro 202
Romania 213
Serbia 200
Slovenia 202
Total 1466
Formal provisions for Formal provisions for learning citizenshiplearning citizenship
AAlbanialbania – CE – CE is an umbrella term for certain objectives from is an umbrella term for certain objectives from grade 1 to 10grade 1 to 10: i: in grades 1-4 it is part of the course on Social n grades 1-4 it is part of the course on Social Education; from grades 5-9 it makes a separate subject of CEducation; from grades 5-9 it makes a separate subject of CEE, and , and in grade 10 it is taught as part of the course on Knowledge on in grade 10 it is taught as part of the course on Knowledge on SocietySociety
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina – – separate subject on Democracy and separate subject on Democracy and Human Rights which is mandatory for all secondary schools, Human Rights which is mandatory for all secondary schools, except for schools with syllabuses in Croatian language in which it except for schools with syllabuses in Croatian language in which it is made a mandatory part of the course on Politics and Economyis made a mandatory part of the course on Politics and Economy
CroatiaCroatia – mandatory part of – mandatory part of Politics and EconomyPolitics and Economy in secondary in secondary school; cross-curricular theme or eschool; cross-curricular theme or extra-curricular activitxtra-curricular activity from 1-8 y from 1-8 grades of elementary school grades of elementary school MMontenegroontenegro - - civic education is, in civic education is, in elementary education, a mandatory subject, and in general elementary education, a mandatory subject, and in general secondary education the so-called obligatory elective subjectsecondary education the so-called obligatory elective subject
RomaniaRomania - - compulsory compulsory CECE in grades 3 and 4, and grades 7 and 8 in grades 3 and 4, and grades 7 and 8 of elementary schools, while in secondary schools it is optional of elementary schools, while in secondary schools it is optional CECE or HRE or HRE programmeprogramme
SerbiaSerbia – CE is – CE is included as a compulsory elective school subject in included as a compulsory elective school subject in grades 1 and 2 of both primary and secondary schoolgrades 1 and 2 of both primary and secondary school
SloveniaSlovenia - - mandatory Civic Education and Ethicsmandatory Civic Education and Ethics is taughtis taught in in grades 7 and 8 of, grades 7 and 8 of, while while the optional course on Civic Culturethe optional course on Civic Culture is is taught intaught in grade 9 grade 9
Civic and political Civic and political knowledge and knowledge and understanding of the understanding of the secondary school secondary school students in 7 countries students in 7 countries of SEEof SEE
Knowledge and Knowledge and understanding: average understanding: average scores: 4 countriesscores: 4 countries
CountryCountry Average score Average score
(max score = (max score = 3636))
Bosnia & HerzegovinaBosnia & Herzegovina 18,8918,89
CroatiaCroatia 16,9816,98
SerbiaSerbia 15,7615,76
SloveniaSlovenia 16,45 16,45
Knowledge about democracy (% of correct answers)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Meaning ofgovernment is limited
Meaning ofseparation of power
Function of theministries
Importance of partypluralism indemocracy
Key characteristicsof democratic
elections
The primary role of ombudsman
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Knowledge on the role & rights of the citizen (% of correct answers)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Primary role of citizen indemocracy
Primary role of civil society
Best protection of political rightsby gvt
Category of right to assembly
Meaning of right to employment
Meaning of freedom of religion
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Knowledge about international and European organisations & instruments
(% of correct answers)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
International legal instrument forHR protection
European Court of Human Rights
Main mission of OSCE
Main mission of UNESCO
Main mission of IMF
Main mission of WTO
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Knowledge on concepts defining majority-minority relations
(% of correct answers)
0 20 40 60 80
Minority must accept dominantculture
Our culture is superior to Xculture
X culture is a threat to our culture
X culture has no true values
X culture contributes to ourculture
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Attitudes and opinions of Attitudes and opinions of the secondary school the secondary school students about school students about school subject in which CE is subject in which CE is taughttaught
Satisfaction with the selected dimensions of school subject (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Albania
BiH
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
content of school subject
teacher approach
textbooks
atmosphere in the classroom
Satisfaction with the selected dimensions of school subject
(% of 'a lot' & 'very much')
0 20 40 60 80 100
Albania
BiH
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
content of the schoolsubject
teacher approach
textbooks
atmosphere in theclassroom
0 20 40 60 80 100
What is the citizen
What is democracy
What is the role of the government
How the government may misuse its power
Why is it important to know citizens' rightsand responsibilities
Why is it important to respect the laws
What are my rights and responsibilities inschool
What are my rights and responsibilities ascitizen of my country
How are the rights protected in a democraticway
What are the virtues of a democratic leader
Why is participation in decision makingimportant for democracy
How to cooperate with others to improvecommunity life
Why is media freedom important in ademocratic society
Why is it important to protect minority rightsin my country
How to resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How
mu
ch
have s
tud
en
ts
learn
ed
ab
ou
t sele
cte
d t
op
ics
in d
em
ocra
cy a
nd
cit
izen
sh
ip
(% o
f ‘a
lot’
& ‘
very
much
’)
How often is CE student-centered (% of 'often' & 'very often')
0 20 40 60 80 100
Checking students' understanding ofkey concepts
Connecting topics with studentseveryday life
Respecting students' opinions
Encouraging students to discuss
Presenting topics from differentperspectives
Encouraging students to express theiropinions
Promoting critical thinking
Sharing opinion with students whenassessing
Using various learning resources
Regularly giving feedback to students
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How often are selected methods used in CE (means)
0
1
2
3
4
5
Discussion Projectwork
Role-playing
Teacher'slecture
Debate Analysis ofvideo
materials
LearningthroughInternet
Writingessays
Voluntarywork in thecommunity
Analysis ofnewspaper
article
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Total
How often are selected methods used in CE (% of 'often' & 'very often')
0 20 40 60 80
Discussion
Project work
Role-playing
Teacher's lecture
Debate
Analysis of video materials
Learning through Internet
Writing essays
Voluntary work in the community
Analysis of a newspaper article
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How often does a particular type of classroom atmosphere prevail during CE
(means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Motivating
Relaxed
Competitive
Cooperative
Inquiry-oriented
Busy
Friendly
Boring
Tough (authoritarian)
Uncontrolled
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How often does a particular type of classroom atmosphere prevail during CE
(% of 'often' & ' very often')
0 20 40 60 80 100
Motivating
Relaxed
Competitive
Cooperative
Inquiry-oriented
Busy
Friendly
Boring
Tough
Uncontrolled
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How much have students developed selected civic skills through CE
(means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Interpreting political events bytruthful information
Making decision independently
Cooperating with others to solvethe problem
Accepting responsibility for owndecisions
Critically approaching social events
Understanding importance ofengagement for social change
Participating in activitiescontributing to wellbeing of others
Understanding own responsibilitiestowards school
Understanding that evidence iscrucial for one's point of view
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How much have students developed selected civic skills
through CE (% of 'often' & 'very often')
0 20 40 60 80
Interpreting political events onthe basis of truthful information
Making decision independently
Cooperating with others to solvethe problem
Accepting responsibility for owndecisions
Critically approaching socialevents
Understanding importance ofengagement for social change
Participating in activities thatcontribute to wellbeing of others
Understanding ownresponsibilities towards school
Understanding that evidence iscrucial for one's point of view
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Suggestions for improvement of CE in schools (% of all answers)
0 10 20 30 40 50
Increase number of hours per week
Reduce lectures and increase activemethods of learning
Link instruction with voluntarywork in the community
Integrate civic values into othersubjects and school
More use of modern media andInternet
Discuss socially important andcontroversial themes
Establish better cooperation withlocal community
Run projects that link schoolstogether
Empower students to have moreinfluence in school
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Civic and political culture Civic and political culture of the secondary school of the secondary school students in SEEstudents in SEE
The level of being informed about political events in one's country
(means)
3,4
2,9
3,3
3,5
2,9
3,2
2,8
0 1 2 3 4 5
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
The contribution of different sources of information to students' knowledge about political events in their countries
(% of 'a lot' & 'very much')
0
20
40
60
80
100
Radio TV Newspaper
Specificschoolsubject
Internet Discussionwith friends
Discussionwith family
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Actual civic & political participation (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Voluntarily helped a disabledor elderly neighbour
Gave money to charity
Voluntarily worked in thecommunity
Participated in makingimportant decisions in family
Participated in makingimportant decisions in school
Joined a local protest orsigned a petition
Contacted a local politician
Participated in media or onlinediscussion
Openly objected teacher forunfair treatment of you
Openly objected teacher forunfair treatment of others
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Actual civic & political participation (% of 'at least once a month' & 'at least once a week')
0 20 40 60 80 100
Voluntarily helped a disabledor elderly neighbour
Gave money to charity
Voluntarily worked in thecommunity
Participated in makingimportant decisions in family
Participated in makingimportant decisions in school
Joined a local protest orsigned a petition
Contacted a local politician
Participated in media or onlinediscussion
Openly objected teacher forunfair treatment of you
Openly objected teacher forunfair treatment of others
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Civic & political participation as adults (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Join a political party
Run for a public office
Sign a petition or join a protestorganized by a civil society organization
Establish an NGO
Contact local politician in office aboutimportant social problem
Notify or write to newspaper about thecase of corruption
Get involved in media discussion aboutsocial problem
Openly object to superior at work forunfair treatment of yourself
Openly object to superior at work forunfair treatment of a colleague
Teach your children that truth andhonesty are the supreme values in life
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Civic & political participation as adults (% of 'probably will' & 'definitely will')
0 20 40 60 80 100
Join a political party
Run for a public office
Sign a petition or join a protestorganized by an NGO
Establish an NGO
Contact local politician in office aboutimportant social problem
Notify or write to newspaper about thecase of corruption
Get involved in media discussion aboutsocial problem
Openly object to superior at work forunfair treatment of you
Openly object to superior at work forunfair treatment of a colleague
Teach your children that truth andhonesty are supreme life values
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How much is it important for democracy (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
When citizens support everydecision of the government
When everyone looks after theirown interests
When political parties hold differentviews on social problems
When media are free to publishwhatever they like
When people join political parties toget to power
When citizens are politically literate
When people join NGOs to bettercontrol the government
When government consult religiousleaders in decision-making
When government limits the freeflow of market goods
When there is one candidate forpresidential elections
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
How much is it important for democracy (% of 'important' & 'very important')
0 20 40 60 80
When citizens support everydecision of the government
When everyone looks after theirown interests
When political parties holddifferent views on social problems
When media are free to publishwhatever they like
When people join political partiesto get to power
When citizens are politicallyliterate
When people join NGOs to bettercontrol the government
When government consultreligious leaders in decision-making
When government limits the freeflow of market goods
When there is one candidate forpresidential elections
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Personally important values (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Personal freedom
National identity
Religion
Family
Justice
Material safety
Protection of socially disadvantaged
Friendly relations between nations
Friends
Well-paid job
Home privacy
Tradition
Leisure time
Belonging to the European culture
Protection of minorities
Social status
Freedom of media
Equality of all people
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Political & social trust (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
State government
Parliament
Local government
Public media
Domestic courts
Own religious institution
NGOs
Multinational companies
European Union
NATO
Intl financial institutions
International courts
Teachers
Friends
Parents
Self
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
The importance of EU membership for a transitional country (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
The effects of EU membership on one's country (means)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Society becomes more democratic
Living standard improves significantly
Sovereignty of national gvt limited
Number of unemployed reduced
National treasures in hands of foreigners
Better relations with other countries
Social differences between citizensdeeper
Judicial system more just and effective
National identities jeopardized
Quality of education much better
Material interests prevail in life
Corruption in public offices halted
Politicians more responsible
Foreigners owners of big companies
Rights of workers better protected
Security of citizens improves
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
The effects of EU membership on one's country (% of 'agree' & 'completely agree')
0 20 40 60 80
Society becomes more democratic
Living standard improves significantly
Sovereignty of national gvt limited
Number of unemployed reduced
National treasures in hands of foreigners
Better relations with other countries
Social differences between citizens deeper
Judicial system more just & effective
National identitiesjeopardized
Quality of education much better
Material interests prevail in life
Corruption in public offices halted
Politicians more responsible
Foreigners owners of big companies
Rights of workers better protected
Security of citizens improves
Albania
BiH
Croatia
Montenegro
Romania
Serbia
Slovenia
Summary of findings 1Summary of findings 1
National samples are not equalised satisfactorily, National samples are not equalised satisfactorily, especially in reference to the male-female and especially in reference to the male-female and gymnasium-vocational school ratios, which makes the gymnasium-vocational school ratios, which makes the comparison of datacomparison of data problematic.problematic.
There are important differences in There are important differences in approaches approaches to CE & to CE & HREHRE among the countries studied which makes it difficult among the countries studied which makes it difficult to speak of a regional approach to CE & HRE. to speak of a regional approach to CE & HRE.
These differences are the outcomes of different These differences are the outcomes of different educational traditions, especially in reference to whether educational traditions, especially in reference to whether and to what extent schools are seen as and to what extent schools are seen as tools tools for the for the “creation” of citizens and of democratic development.“creation” of citizens and of democratic development.
CE & HRE CE & HRE are are used as used as generic terms generic terms that that stand for stand for different conceptualizations different conceptualizations andand practices practices of learning of learning citizenship.citizenship.
AlAll national curricula and/or legal and strategic l national curricula and/or legal and strategic documentsdocuments refering to refering to education stress the importance education stress the importance of promoting active and responsible citizens through of promoting active and responsible citizens through educationeducation but fail to promote it in practice. but fail to promote it in practice.
Summary of findings 2Summary of findings 2
Students’ knowledge and understandingStudents’ knowledge and understanding – students, in general, demonstrate a moderate level students, in general, demonstrate a moderate level
of knowledge on of knowledge on HRHR, democracy and citizenship, democracy and citizenship– Although students from some countries score Although students from some countries score
better on some questions than their peers from better on some questions than their peers from other countries, no national sample other countries, no national sample isis significantly significantly better or worse than others on all questions. better or worse than others on all questions.
– Majority of students in all national samples Majority of students in all national samples are are familiar familiar with the basics of with the basics of democracy but are far democracy but are far less less knowledgeable about tknowledgeable about the international and he international and European organizationsEuropean organizations, the concepts defining , the concepts defining majority-minority relations and, surprisingly, the majority-minority relations and, surprisingly, the role and the rights of citizensrole and the rights of citizens
Summary of findings 3Summary of findings 3
Students’ opinions and attitudes about Students’ opinions and attitudes about school subject through school subject through they learn about HR & citizenshipthey learn about HR & citizenship– SStudents do not associate tudents do not associate such such learning solely with learning solely with a specific a specific
subject subject but with other school subjects, and extracurricular but with other school subjects, and extracurricular activities in primary and secondary school, as wellactivities in primary and secondary school, as well..
– The The level of satisfaction with the contentlevel of satisfaction with the content of school subject of school subject, , teacherteacher’’s approach, textbooks and the atmosphere in the s approach, textbooks and the atmosphere in the classroom during instruction differs considerably among the classroom during instruction differs considerably among the countries surveyedcountries surveyed
– However, it seems that in all national samples the respondents However, it seems that in all national samples the respondents are, in average, slightly more satisfied with secondary than with are, in average, slightly more satisfied with secondary than with elementary school in all four dimensions, and more with the elementary school in all four dimensions, and more with the teachers’ approach and class atmosphere than with the content of teachers’ approach and class atmosphere than with the content of the school subjectthe school subject and the textbooks. and the textbooks.
– The difference between the most and the least learned topics The difference between the most and the least learned topics confirms the dominance of the “know-what” type of knowledge confirms the dominance of the “know-what” type of knowledge over the “know-how”over the “know-how” and “know-why” and “know-why” approachapproacheses. The findings . The findings indicate that, despite differences among the national samples, indicate that, despite differences among the national samples, secondary schools prepare their students more for secondary schools prepare their students more for aa “thin “thin democracy” and a duty-based citizenship than for a “thick”democracy” and a duty-based citizenship than for a “thick” or or participatory democracy and engaged citizenshipparticipatory democracy and engaged citizenship..
Summary of findings 4Summary of findings 4
It seems that students still learn more It seems that students still learn more aboutabout than than forfor human rights, democracy and human rights, democracy and citizenship in schoolcitizenship in school::– They are instructed a lot about the importance of They are instructed a lot about the importance of
citizens’ participation in decision-making but they citizens’ participation in decision-making but they gain less knowledge on how to cooperate with other gain less knowledge on how to cooperate with other citizens to improve the community life. citizens to improve the community life.
– TThey are well instructed about democracy but not so hey are well instructed about democracy but not so well on how to protect their rights in a democratic well on how to protect their rights in a democratic way. way.
– TThey learn a lot about the role of the government hey learn a lot about the role of the government but far less on how the government may misuse its but far less on how the government may misuse its power or how to recognise a true democratic leaderpower or how to recognise a true democratic leader..
Further remarks on the Further remarks on the quality of citizenship quality of citizenship education education Quality civic and human rights education and training support Quality civic and human rights education and training support
students in their development towards knowledgeable, students in their development towards knowledgeable, participative and responsible citizens. An empowered citizen is an participative and responsible citizens. An empowered citizen is an autonomous citizen, i.e. the citizen who is aware of his/her rights, autonomous citizen, i.e. the citizen who is aware of his/her rights, who knows how to protect those rights and who can actively share who knows how to protect those rights and who can actively share such knowledge with other citizens to improve their democratic such knowledge with other citizens to improve their democratic community and process. community and process.
In order to promote such learning, schools need to reduce In order to promote such learning, schools need to reduce teacher-centred or content-centred instruction and introduce teacher-centred or content-centred instruction and introduce more student-centred approaches. This means, in particular, more student-centred approaches. This means, in particular, encouraging student to participate actively in learning and encouraging student to participate actively in learning and decision-making while paying respect for their opinions and decision-making while paying respect for their opinions and nurturing their critical thinking skills.nurturing their critical thinking skills.
Without mutual respect and critical reflection, the participation of Without mutual respect and critical reflection, the participation of students slips students slips intinto manipulation and tokenism in the context of o manipulation and tokenism in the context of which the authority of a canonised knowledge and its which the authority of a canonised knowledge and its disseminator is far more important than the autonomy of an disseminator is far more important than the autonomy of an individual.individual.
Further remarks on Further remarks on student’s assessment of student’s assessment of teaching approachesteaching approaches In order to see whether teaching about human rights and citizenship promotes In order to see whether teaching about human rights and citizenship promotes
students’ voices, the respondents were asked to assess a selected list of items students’ voices, the respondents were asked to assess a selected list of items that describe various aspects of student-centred instruction. The findings from that describe various aspects of student-centred instruction. The findings from almost all national samples show that teachers often or very often encourage almost all national samples show that teachers often or very often encourage their students to their students to express their opinionexpress their opinion and to discuss, that they respect and to discuss, that they respect students’ opinions and connect topics with everyday life of their students. Yet, students’ opinions and connect topics with everyday life of their students. Yet, they are less ready to promote critical thinking among their students, as well as they are less ready to promote critical thinking among their students, as well as to share their opinion with their students when assessing, and to use various to share their opinion with their students when assessing, and to use various learning resources other than textbooks in instruction. These findings suggest learning resources other than textbooks in instruction. These findings suggest that the principle of student-centeredness and, especially, the practice of that the principle of student-centeredness and, especially, the practice of students’ participation in secondary schools across the region might serve the students’ participation in secondary schools across the region might serve the goals other than students’ emancipation and empowerment.goals other than students’ emancipation and empowerment.
The data on The data on learning methods learning methods generally support such conclusion. The teacher’s generally support such conclusion. The teacher’s lecture combined with discussion and, to a lesser extent, with debate and lecture combined with discussion and, to a lesser extent, with debate and project work, is still a dominant teaching approach. Other methods, including project work, is still a dominant teaching approach. Other methods, including role-playing, learning through Internet and the analysis of video materials are far role-playing, learning through Internet and the analysis of video materials are far less frequently used in schools in most of the countries. Surprisingly, the less frequently used in schools in most of the countries. Surprisingly, the potentials of voluntary work in humanitarian and other civil society organizations potentials of voluntary work in humanitarian and other civil society organizations for developing an active and socially responsible citizen still remains largely for developing an active and socially responsible citizen still remains largely unrecognised across the region. It would be desired that students would more unrecognised across the region. It would be desired that students would more frequently be involved as trainers and resource persons in the learning process, frequently be involved as trainers and resource persons in the learning process, particularly when they can present their own experiences in democratic particularly when they can present their own experiences in democratic inclusion and participation, show their motivation for social and political work or inclusion and participation, show their motivation for social and political work or transmit their skills to their peers. transmit their skills to their peers.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ assessment of students’ assessment of class atmosphereclass atmosphere The The atmosphereatmosphere in which students from all the national in which students from all the national
samples learn about human rights and citizenship seems to samples learn about human rights and citizenship seems to be friendly and relaxed. At the same time, in half of the be friendly and relaxed. At the same time, in half of the samples it is reported by roughly one third of respondents samples it is reported by roughly one third of respondents as boring, as well as less frequently inquiry-oriented and as boring, as well as less frequently inquiry-oriented and motivating. When these data are combined with the data on motivating. When these data are combined with the data on teaching methods and on student-centeredness, the results teaching methods and on student-centeredness, the results suggest that a relaxed and friendly atmosphere during suggest that a relaxed and friendly atmosphere during instruction in civic and human rights education might lead, instruction in civic and human rights education might lead, at least in some schools across the region, to understanding at least in some schools across the region, to understanding of citizenship as a non-problematic topic in the context of of citizenship as a non-problematic topic in the context of which it is less important to critically examine the rules than which it is less important to critically examine the rules than to obey them. Such a practice has more to do with an to obey them. Such a practice has more to do with an authoritative dissemination of knowledge about human authoritative dissemination of knowledge about human rights, democracy and citizenship than with its construction rights, democracy and citizenship than with its construction through experience, inquiry and interaction which is the through experience, inquiry and interaction which is the reason why such instruction primarily promotes a passive reason why such instruction primarily promotes a passive type of citizens instead of an engaged onetype of citizens instead of an engaged one
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ suggestions how students’ suggestions how to improve teachingto improve teaching
Consequently, when asked about what should Consequently, when asked about what should be done to be done to improve learning improve learning for human rights for human rights and citizenship in schools, the majority of and citizenship in schools, the majority of respondents in all national samples opted forrespondents in all national samples opted for::– more discussion on socially important and more discussion on socially important and
controversial issues in the classroom controversial issues in the classroom – less teachers’ lecturing and more active methods of less teachers’ lecturing and more active methods of
learning learning – more voluntary work in the community as an integral more voluntary work in the community as an integral
part of the civic and human rights education part of the civic and human rights education programmesprogrammes
– more use of modern media, including Internet more use of modern media, including Internet – more students’ influence on school policy and more students’ influence on school policy and
practice. practice.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ civic and political students’ civic and political cultureculture Students’ civic and political cultureStudents’ civic and political culture
– The concept of political culture has been defined and The concept of political culture has been defined and operationalized in research in many different waysoperationalized in research in many different ways. . One One simple but widely accepted definition is that it refers to simple but widely accepted definition is that it refers to values, attitudes and beliefs of citizens regarding a political values, attitudes and beliefs of citizens regarding a political system they live in, which underpin the operation of that system they live in, which underpin the operation of that system. The core dimensions include citizens’ political system. The core dimensions include citizens’ political knowledge and information, political and social trust, value knowledge and information, political and social trust, value orientation and participation. orientation and participation.
– For the purpose of this research we have expanded the For the purpose of this research we have expanded the content of some of these dimensions and added new ones. content of some of these dimensions and added new ones. Apart from political information, political and social trust, Apart from political information, political and social trust, value orientation and actual participation, we make an value orientation and actual participation, we make an inquiry on the sources of students’ political knowledge, their inquiry on the sources of students’ political knowledge, their assumptions regarding their civic and political participation assumptions regarding their civic and political participation as adults; their distance towards a selected list of national as adults; their distance towards a selected list of national and religious groups and their attitudes to the importance and religious groups and their attitudes to the importance and outcomes of the membership in the European Union for and outcomes of the membership in the European Union for democracies in transition. democracies in transition.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ civic and political students’ civic and political cultureculture Students in all samples are in average Students in all samples are in average moderately moderately
informedinformed about political events in their countries about political events in their countries. . TTelevision elevision seems to be the seems to be the most influential most influential source of source of
political informationpolitical information, followed by newspaper, Internet , followed by newspaper, Internet and the family. The contribution of school subjects and the family. The contribution of school subjects vvaries among the national samples but, in average, aries among the national samples but, in average, school impact is rather moderate and lags behind the school impact is rather moderate and lags behind the impact of television, newspaper or Internet. impact of television, newspaper or Internet.
TThis generation of students seemhis generation of students seemss to be a generation to be a generation of passive citizens. of passive citizens. They They seldom seldom participateparticipate in civic or in civic or (quasi)political activities(quasi)political activities, including, including decision decision-making in-making in their schools. their schools.
The data on The data on students’students’ participation as adults participation as adults suggest suggest that that theythey might might become more engaged in typical civic become more engaged in typical civic activitiesactivities in the future. in the future.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ civic and political students’ civic and political cultureculture TThe most preferred he most preferred valuesvalues across the region are: family, justice, across the region are: family, justice,
personal freedom, home privacy, friends, equality of all, leisure time personal freedom, home privacy, friends, equality of all, leisure time and, to some extent, well-paid job, while the least preferred, and, to some extent, well-paid job, while the least preferred, although still high in rank, are belonging to the European culture, although still high in rank, are belonging to the European culture, freedom of media and the protection of minorities. In addition, to freedom of media and the protection of minorities. In addition, to over three fifths of the respondents in each national sample the over three fifths of the respondents in each national sample the most important values are national identity, tradition and religion. most important values are national identity, tradition and religion. Many of the values preferred the most across the region belong to, Many of the values preferred the most across the region belong to, what Ronald Inglehart calls, post-materialist and self-expressive what Ronald Inglehart calls, post-materialist and self-expressive value categories. However, when these findings are contrasted to value categories. However, when these findings are contrasted to the patterns of students’ civic and (quasi)political actual the patterns of students’ civic and (quasi)political actual participation, as well as to their social and political trust, it seems participation, as well as to their social and political trust, it seems that such value orientation is more an expression of the that such value orientation is more an expression of the respondents’ need for privacy and social insularity than of their respondents’ need for privacy and social insularity than of their preference for a non-conventional type of citizenship. Thus, it preference for a non-conventional type of citizenship. Thus, it remains unclear whether the secondary school students from the remains unclear whether the secondary school students from the region perceive themselves as citizens at all. The findings disclose region perceive themselves as citizens at all. The findings disclose that a substantive majority of them in all the national samples is that a substantive majority of them in all the national samples is attached solely to their small, private worlds in which they act as attached solely to their small, private worlds in which they act as members of the family or a group of friends and neighbours. members of the family or a group of friends and neighbours.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ civic and political students’ civic and political cultureculture Our thesis on the lack of awareness of their roles as democratic Our thesis on the lack of awareness of their roles as democratic
citizens among the respondents from all national samples becomes citizens among the respondents from all national samples becomes plausible when data on plausible when data on political and social trust political and social trust are analysed. With are analysed. With some exceptions, students across the region generally express a low some exceptions, students across the region generally express a low level of trust in all national and local democratic institutions. Their level of trust in all national and local democratic institutions. Their distrust in domestic institutions is even greater than it is in the distrust in domestic institutions is even greater than it is in the European and international political, legal and financial European and international political, legal and financial organisations and institutions, as well as in media and the civil organisations and institutions, as well as in media and the civil society organisations. Religious institutions and teachers are society organisations. Religious institutions and teachers are generally more trusted but are still kept at the moderate level. On generally more trusted but are still kept at the moderate level. On the contrary, a substantive majority in all national samples trust a the contrary, a substantive majority in all national samples trust a lot or very much only to parents, themselves, and friends, i.e., to the lot or very much only to parents, themselves, and friends, i.e., to the actors of the so-called personal and interpersonal sphere. actors of the so-called personal and interpersonal sphere.
Majority of respondents across the region do not trust their Majority of respondents across the region do not trust their neighbours, either. When asked how much they would like to have neighbours, either. When asked how much they would like to have as a neighbour the members of national and religious groups with a as a neighbour the members of national and religious groups with a minority status in their countries or those who are the citizens of minority status in their countries or those who are the citizens of neighbouring countries located in the Southeast and Central neighbouring countries located in the Southeast and Central European regions, it happens that the majority of students in each European regions, it happens that the majority of students in each national sample feel distanced from all out-groups, being they national sample feel distanced from all out-groups, being they national/ethnic or religious. With some exceptions, national/ethnic or religious. With some exceptions, social distance social distance towards other religious groups seems to be higher than towards towards other religious groups seems to be higher than towards other national groups. other national groups.
Further remarks on Further remarks on students’ civic and political students’ civic and political cultureculture
The last issue examined in this section was the The last issue examined in this section was the European integrationEuropean integration. This issue was . This issue was seen as an important part of studying political culture of the secondary school students seen as an important part of studying political culture of the secondary school students in the region for two reasons. First, citizens’ opinions about the integration reflect in the region for two reasons. First, citizens’ opinions about the integration reflect particular understanding and beliefs that have an important impact on national political particular understanding and beliefs that have an important impact on national political leaders and, thus, can significantly underpin the operation of the political system. leaders and, thus, can significantly underpin the operation of the political system. Second, since all countries in transition seeking the EU membership are expected to Second, since all countries in transition seeking the EU membership are expected to prepare their younger generations for living in an integrated Europe, they can make this prepare their younger generations for living in an integrated Europe, they can make this process more successful if the attitudes and opinions of younger generations towards EU process more successful if the attitudes and opinions of younger generations towards EU are understood and taken as the basis of preparation.are understood and taken as the basis of preparation.
When asked to assess the When asked to assess the importance of membership in the European Union importance of membership in the European Union for their for their country the results show significant differences among the national samples. In average country the results show significant differences among the national samples. In average they range from somewhat important to important. In some countries two opposing they range from somewhat important to important. In some countries two opposing groups were identified that can be described as the “Eurosceptics” and the groups were identified that can be described as the “Eurosceptics” and the “Eurooptimists”. “Eurooptimists”.
When these data are compared with the students’ assessment of When these data are compared with the students’ assessment of the impact of the impact of integration integration for their respective countries, it was found that students’ assessments should for their respective countries, it was found that students’ assessments should not be solely seen as informed by opposing views on integration. In fact, it seems that a not be solely seen as informed by opposing views on integration. In fact, it seems that a considerable number of respondents in almost all national samples chose a moderate considerable number of respondents in almost all national samples chose a moderate position. With the exception of one national sample which demonstrates a high level of position. With the exception of one national sample which demonstrates a high level of Eurooptimism on almost all the items, majority of respondents in the remaining national Eurooptimism on almost all the items, majority of respondents in the remaining national samples do not believe that their respective societies would become, samples do not believe that their respective societies would become, inter aliainter alia, much , much more democratic, that living standard would improve significantly; that corruption in more democratic, that living standard would improve significantly; that corruption in public offices would be eliminated and that the politicians would be much more public offices would be eliminated and that the politicians would be much more responsible to public in the process of decision-making. Surprisingly, a considerable responsible to public in the process of decision-making. Surprisingly, a considerable number of respondents in each national sample does not agree that the sovereignty of number of respondents in each national sample does not agree that the sovereignty of national governments would be limited, that national treasures would be in the hands of national governments would be limited, that national treasures would be in the hands of foreigners and that the foreigners would become the owners of big companies. The foreigners and that the foreigners would become the owners of big companies. The changes on which the students across the region agree the most refer to the changes on which the students across the region agree the most refer to the improvement of education and the establishment of better relations with other countries. improvement of education and the establishment of better relations with other countries.
ConclusionsConclusions
The results of the presented regional pilot-study show that the current The results of the presented regional pilot-study show that the current systems of civic education as well as their results, reflected by the responses systems of civic education as well as their results, reflected by the responses of participating students in the respective countries of Central and South of participating students in the respective countries of Central and South Eastern Europe can be considered inadequate. Eastern Europe can be considered inadequate.
Despite theDespite the limitations of t limitations of thishis pilot research – in pilot research – in its its approach, scope, approach, scope, methodology and contentsmethodology and contents, it , it provide relevant insights and allowprovide relevant insights and allowss for some for some relevant relevant conclusions. conclusions.
IIn all studied countries there are the need and a lot of space for improvement n all studied countries there are the need and a lot of space for improvement in the field of human rights and citizenship education. However, the in the field of human rights and citizenship education. However, the governments and (political and economic) elites seem to lack the interest and governments and (political and economic) elites seem to lack the interest and political will needed to adequately fund, expand, improve and develop the political will needed to adequately fund, expand, improve and develop the civic and human rights education for active democratic citizenship – possibly civic and human rights education for active democratic citizenship – possibly fearing its impacts on their monopolies of power, as they are aware that the fearing its impacts on their monopolies of power, as they are aware that the increased active and actual democratic participation of the people would increased active and actual democratic participation of the people would decrease their actual social power and increase their political and public decrease their actual social power and increase their political and public responsibility.responsibility.
Knowledge and skills can be acquired and developed in the process of life-Knowledge and skills can be acquired and developed in the process of life-long learning particularly by inclusion, equal and active participation of all long learning particularly by inclusion, equal and active participation of all individuals in actual social, economic and political decision making processes individuals in actual social, economic and political decision making processes at all levels – from local to national, but also in the international community. at all levels – from local to national, but also in the international community.
ConclusionConclusion
IIn all studied countries there are the need and a lot of space for improvement in the n all studied countries there are the need and a lot of space for improvement in the field of human rights and citizenship education. However, the governments and field of human rights and citizenship education. However, the governments and (political and economic) elites seem to lack the interest and political will needed to (political and economic) elites seem to lack the interest and political will needed to adequately fund, expand, improve and develop the civic and human rights education adequately fund, expand, improve and develop the civic and human rights education for active democratic citizenship – possibly fearing its impacts on their monopolies of for active democratic citizenship – possibly fearing its impacts on their monopolies of power, as they are aware that the increased active and actual democratic participation power, as they are aware that the increased active and actual democratic participation of the people would decrease their actual social power and increase their political and of the people would decrease their actual social power and increase their political and public responsibility.public responsibility.
The authors suggest that if the political will exists within societies certain important The authors suggest that if the political will exists within societies certain important results in developing the adequate civic and human rights education for active results in developing the adequate civic and human rights education for active democratic citizenship can be achieved with minimal investments and without democratic citizenship can be achieved with minimal investments and without substantial financial and organizational resources – possibly just by the stimulation, substantial financial and organizational resources – possibly just by the stimulation, inclusion and coordination of all relevant actors, from individuals, particularly educators inclusion and coordination of all relevant actors, from individuals, particularly educators and social/political activists, associations and organizations of civic society and and social/political activists, associations and organizations of civic society and companies to public and state institutions, particularly educational institutions at all companies to public and state institutions, particularly educational institutions at all levels and media. In this context, an important role shall be played by political levels and media. In this context, an important role shall be played by political institutions and politicians that shall contribute to the development and application of institutions and politicians that shall contribute to the development and application of the highest human rights, ethical and moral standards. the highest human rights, ethical and moral standards.
Knowledge and skills can be acquired and developed in the process of life-long learning Knowledge and skills can be acquired and developed in the process of life-long learning particularly by inclusion, equal and active participation of all individuals in actual social, particularly by inclusion, equal and active participation of all individuals in actual social, economic and political decision making processes at all levels – from local to national, economic and political decision making processes at all levels – from local to national, but also in the international community. These considerations shall be included in but also in the international community. These considerations shall be included in educational strategies, policies and legislation of the countries of the region that educational strategies, policies and legislation of the countries of the region that hopefully will determine civic and human rights education as important social and hopefully will determine civic and human rights education as important social and political goals and priorities that shall contribute to the future peace, stability, inclusion political goals and priorities that shall contribute to the future peace, stability, inclusion and integration, democratic and sustainable development in the region and in and integration, democratic and sustainable development in the region and in respective countries.respective countries.
