Managerial Attitudes of Greeks: The Roles of Culture and Industrialization

Managerial Attitudes of Greeks: The Roles of Culture and IndustrializationAuthor(s): L. L. Cummings and Stuart M. SchmidtSource: Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Jun., 1972), pp. 265-272Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of the Johnson Graduate School of Management,Cornell UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2393960 .

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L. L. Cummings and Stuart M. Schmidt

Managerial Attitudes of Greeks: The Roles of Culture and Industrialization

This study examines the relative roles of cultural background and degree of industrialization in the managerial beliefs of a sample of Greek managers.1 Find- ings are compared with the previous results reported by Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter (1966) and Clark and McCabe (1970). The Greeks were as inconsistent as those in these two previous studies in displaying little belief in their subordinates' capacities for leadership and initiative while advocating the practice of participative management. On two beliefs (capacity for leadership and initiative and belief in internal control) the Greeks tended to cluster with a Latin-European cluster, thereby suggesting a cultural explanation. On the other hand, regarding beliefs in sharing information with subordinates and participative management the Greeks clustered with a developing countries cluster, thereby suggesting an industrialization explanation. Exclusive focus on either explanation of managerial attitudes and beliefs does not seem warranted.

In 1966 Haire et al. conducted a comparative study of implicit assumptions underlying the policies and practices of managers in a variety of countries. These assumptions were based on different beliefs about desirable leadership styles and capabilities of others. Fourteen countries in Europe, North America, South America, and Asia were included in the survey. The results indicated a discrep- ancy between belief in an individual's capacity for leadership and initiative and attitudes about methods of leadership. Generally, across countries, managers indicated approval of participative management practices. At the same time, however, they showed little faith in the capacity of their subordinates for initiative and leadership. Nationality of the managers accounted for 28 percent of the variation in the results, with differences among managers within countries accounting for the remaining 72 percent.

Recently, Clark and McCabe (1970) used the basic questionnaire developed by Haire and his associates to examine the attitudes

1 Research support from the Ford Foundation, the Greek Productivity Center, and The Graduate School, University of Wisconsin, is gratefully ac- knowledged.

of Australian managers towards leadership. Their study indicated that the managers be- lieved in participative management but had little faith in the capabilities of others. These findings are consistent with those of the Haire study. In addition, the Australian sample showed a configuration of managerial beliefs which was closer to the Anglo-American cluster than to any other.

Awaiting further investigation is the question of the relative role of cultural background and degree of industrialization in determining the discrepancies in belief which were apparent in both studies. Ajiferuke and Boddewyn (1970) have pointed out the relatively small number of studies empirically examining the influence of cultural and other variables in comparative management studies. An associated issue is whether it would be possible to predict the pattern of beliefs and clusterings for a country, given certain cultural or industrialization data.

PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND

The study on which this article is based determines the pattern of Greek managerial beliefs as measured according to four scales and compares these results with managerial

265



266 ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE QUARTERLY

beliefs measured on the same scales in other countries. The pattern is determined by the way in which the scores relate to one another according to different scales within a single country. A related question is how one country's belief score pattern clusters with that of another country. This raises the issue of the similarity of belief scores in different countries.

The generality of the Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe findings is considered through an evaluation of whether Greek managers tend to believe simultaneously in participative leadership but not in their subordinates' capacities for leadership and initiative. The study also determines the relative significance of cultural background and industrialization level as correlates of the belief patterns of Greek managers.

The two major hypotheses advanced to explain the differences in managerial beliefs are found in the work of Harbison and Myers (1960), as well as in the study by Haire and his colleagues. The latter authors favor cultural factors in explaining the pattern and clusterings of managerial beliefs. They found, for example, that the Latin countries form a cluster that shifts together on four belief scales. Similarly, the Nordic-European, Anglo- American, developing countries, and Japan form different clusters, as seen in the figure. Further support for the cultural explanation is given by the Clark and McCabe study; it shows that Australia coincides with the Anglo-American group. The Haire et al. study, however, found that the developing countries clustered together cutting across cultures. Thus, Haire and his associates do not dismiss the possible effects of the level of industrialization on the pattern and clustering of managerial beliefs.

According to Harbison and Myers (1960), as countries industrialize, leadership beliefs shift with increasing constraints placed upon the manager's authority. Thus, they posit that managerial beliefs are correlated with the stages of industrial development in a country moving from autocracy to democracy as it industrializes. Kerr et al. (1960) argue that through the "imperatives of industrialism," the beliefs of industrial elites will become increasingly similar. As countries advance in industrialization, therefore, one might expect

managerial beliefs to become more alike across cultures.

The literature suggests alternative or com- plementary influences on patterns of belief and country clusterings in the Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe studies. The present study does not include an examination of other possible explanations for attitudinal frameworks reported here. Political and social factors, for example, may be related to some or all of the beliefs reported here. It is, of course, possible, or even likely, that economic, cultural (in the sense of nationality), political, and social factors interact as explanatory factors. Our analysis is not intended as arguing the causal or even temporal sequence among these possible explanations.

THE CASE OF GREECE

Greece is a relevant case in light of the above issue because it is a European country whose level of industrialization is between that of a developing country and the South- ern European countries appearing in the Haire et al. study.

According to a level of economic development index devised by Higgins (1968), Greece is on the borderline between the developing and the more developed countries. Key components of the index are real gross national product and percent of labor force engaged in agriculture. Greece's real gross national product is one-third of that of Ger- many and about one-half that of Italy. Ap- proximately 50 percent of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, an indication of a lesser degree of industrialization.

In further support of the argument that Greece is a borderline case, Table 1 shows Greece and the countries comprising the Latin-European and developing nation clusters according to the Haire et al. categories. The countries are shown in approximate order of descending level of industrialization as measured by per capita coal consumption, crude steel consumption, gross national product, percent fixed capital formation expenditure of GNP, and percent origin of gross domestic product from agriculture and industrial activity. According to these measures, Greece is most similar to Spain and Argentina. The former is part of the Latin-European country cluster and the latter is a country in



Capacity for Sharing leadership information Internal

and initiative and objectives Participation control

4.00 4 ~3.95 b 3.90

E 3.85 3.80 3.75 3.70 3.65 3.60 3.55

3.50

3.45 3.40 3.35

3.25 3.20 3.15 3.10 3.05

3.00

1.00

iLULE Anglo-American 2zQLatin-European

Japan _ Nordic-European

Australia m Gec

..@ Developing Gec

FIGURE. ATTITUDES TOWARD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES BY CLUSTERS OF COUNTRIES

Source: Clark and McCabe, 1970, p. 2 (less Greek data).

267




TABLE 1. A COMPARISON BETWEEN GREECE AND LATIN-EUROPEAN AND DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES BY INDICATORS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION, 1968

Percent origin of gross domestic product

Percent capital at factor costt Gross national formation*

Coal Crude steel product at expenditure of Total consumption* consumption* market prices* GNP at industrial

Country (KG/capital) (KG/capital) (per capita in $) market pricesf Ag. activity

Belgium 5,236? 409? 2,154 21 2 35 France 3,282 359 2,537 25 7 38 Italy 2,215 325 1,418 19l 11 31 Spain 1,113 188 773 211 16 29 Greece 1,017 94 813 23 21 19 Argentina 1,411 94 67211 19!! 14 36 Chile 1,151 68 569 16 9g* 38** India 184 11 8011 n.a. 5211 1511

* Statistical Office of the United Nations, Statistical Yearbook, 1969 (New York): Publishing Service, United Nations, 1970).

f Gross domestic fixed capital formation covers the value of purchase and own-account construction of fixed assets by enterprises, private nonprofit institutions, and general government. All expenses directly related to the acquisition of capital goods, such as transportation and installation charges, fees for engineer- ing, legal and other services are included.

I Statistical Office of the United Nations, Yearbook of National Accounts Statistics, 1969 (New York: Publishing Service, United Nations, 1970), Vol. II, International Tables.

? Includes Luxembourg. JJ 1967 data. 0 1966 data.

the developing countries category (Haire et al. ).

When each indicator is examined, the intermediate position of Greece between the Latin-European and developing countries clusters is seen more clearly. On the basis of coal consumption and crude steel consumption, basic factor inputs in an industrial econ- omy, Greece is similar to Argentina and Spain. Greece ranks above Spain on the indicators of per capita gross national product and percent capital formation expenditure of gross national product. On the basis of percent origin of gross domestic product at factor cost between agriculture and total industrial activity, however, Greece clusters with the developing countries. More indus- trialized countries have a lower percent origin of gross domestic product from agriculture than from industrial activity, but the reverse is prevalent in developing countries.

According to a cultural explanation of managerial belief patterns, one would expect the Greek sample to be similar to the Latin- European countries due to the Greco-Roman tradition shared by Greeks and some of their Southern European neighbors, and to the

high degree of cultural exchange among these countries. Thus, the average belief scale scores would form a pattern similar to that of the Latin-European country grouping. If, on the other hand, the level of industrialization of a country has a greater influence than cultural background in determining the pattern and clustering of managerial beliefs, the average belief scale scores of the Greek sample would be similar to the developing countries cluster.

BELIEF IN INTERNAL CONTROL

Considering Greek managers in relation to those studied by Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe, anthropological literature might lead one to expect a strong belief by Greeks in internal control or self-determination (as opposed to external control or fate). This hypothesis is based on inference from the findings of Mead (1955) and Friedl (1962), which indicate a high tendency among Greeks toward individualism and strength of being.

In describing the Greek culture, Mead (1955: 57) speaks of the Greek philotimo or self-esteem. She relates that "individualism is



Cummings & Schmidt: ATTITUDES OF GREEKS 269

prized and rampant," and also that "self- esteem is paramount" to the Greek. Friedl (1962: 75) describes the attitudes of the Greek villager who uses the expression Pale- vume, which is translated as "We are wrest- ling." He goes on to explain that the Greek villager believes, "Man does not always win (against the forces of nature), but he is obligated to do his best and to use skill in the struggle."

It would be expected that a tendency toward belief in self-determination and internal control2 would be strong in relation to (1) other beliefs of Greek managers as measured in this study and (2) the beliefs of managers in the samples studied by Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe. A purely cultural explanation based on the value attached to self-esteem would require testing a wider sample of Greeks. The purpose of that testing would be to ask if this value is general to all Greeks or specific to Greek managers. Data in this study do not speak to this question. Thus, the findings of others regarding Greek culture are not intended as an explanation for our results but rather more as suggestive of what we expect to find.

METHOD AND SUBJECTS

The Greek manager's beliefs were measured using the Haire et al. questionnaire. The questions utilized are not reproduced here and can be found in Haire, et al. (1966).

The questionnaire was designed to measure beliefs along four scales on a continuum ranging from "democratic" to "autocratic." The respondents answered along a 1-5 Likert- type rating scale indicating whether they agreed or disagreed with the statements pre- sented. The questions were scored so that a low mean score indicated an autocratic attitude on the belief scale and a high mean score indicated a democratic attitude as de- fined by Haire et al.

2 Greece's relatively low level of industrialization may also play a role in generating relatively strong beliefs in internal control. Riesman (1950) specu- lates that as a country industrializes and imperson- alizes its technology, large portions of its population may experience feelings of alienation and loss of self-control in the economic sphere. The data here, however, suggest a relatively stronger influence of culture in the case of Greece.

The questionnaire was translated from English to Greek by an English-fluent Greek and independently retranslated from Greek to English by a second English-fluent Greek. Discrepancies were then resolved by adjust- ing the Greek translation to the satisfaction of the two translators and the senior author. This version was then adjusted for local usage in Greece by a third Greek who was familiar with the normal language used by the managers to be studied. The four scales used were belief in the individual's capacity for initiative and leadership, belief in sharing information and objectives, belief in participative management, and belief in internal control.

The questionnaire was completed by forty two male, private and public enterprise managers who were natives of either Athens or Thessaloniki and who were employed in these cities. The questionnaire was administered by the senior author during a management development seminar. As shown in Table 2, the

TABLE 2. DESCRIPTION OF GREEK SAMPLE

Mean Range

Age 37.8 24-53 Years in present location 23.4 2-53 Years experience in business 14.5 1-20 Years with present organization 8.3 1-27

average age of the respondents was 37.8 years. They had spent 23.4 years in their respective cities, leaving only for schooling, and had an average of 14.5 years experience in business, 8.3 years with their present organization. The majority of the managers had a general academic education and were func- tioning, for the most part, as general direc- tors in either private firms or public depart- ments employing over 100 people.

RESULTS

The results are shown in Table 3 and in the figure. In both instances, the present findings are shown in comparison to those ob- tained by Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe.

Table 4 indicates the magnitude of the differences among the four belief scales for the Greek managers. The mean score of 2.54 for the first category (capacity), for example,




TABLE 3. ATTITUDES TOWARD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (RAW SCORES)

Capacity for Sharing infor- leadership and mation and Internal Sample

Countries initiative objectives Participation control size

Nordic-European Denmark 2.54 3.09 3.68 3.90 149 Germany 2.38 3.17 3.52 3.88 586 Norway 2.52 4.04 3.47 3.90 221 Sweden 2.22 4.01 3.35 3.88 342 Average 2.42 3.58 3.51 3.89

Anglo-American England 1 2.72 3.78 3.48 3.56 239 United States 2 3.13 3.98 3.56 3.58 464 Average of 1 and 2 2.93 3.88 3.52 3.57 Australia 2.72 3.49 3.35 3.45 1339

Latin-European Belgium 2.29 3.74 3.88 3.74 378 France 2.42 4.04 3.82 3.80 154 Italy 2.40 3.64 3.16 3.72 267 Spain 2.52 3.56 3.65 3.78 203 Average 2.41 3.75 3.63 3.76

Greece Athens 2.66 2.98 3.13 3.74 31 Thessaloniki 2.18 3.00 2.86 3.86 11 Average'* 2.54 2.99 3.06 3.77 42

Developing Argentina 2.64 2.96 3.31 3.62 198 Chile 2.80 3.08 3.32 3.65 159 India 2.81 2.96 3.35 3.38 114 Average 2.75 3.00 3.33 3.55

Japan 2.88 3.58 3.98 3.77 165

* Represents average of individual scores across both samples. Source: Clark and McCabe, 1970, p. 3 (less Greek data).

is significantly lower (less democratic) than the mean score of 2.99 for the second (sharing information and objectives), 3.06 for the third (participation), and 3.77 for the fourth (internal control). In addition, each of these categories is significantly different from the others, with the exception of the difference between the second and the third categories.

The figure shows that the results are con-

sistent with the findings across all of the countries sampled in previous studies with regard to the inconsistency of the belief in the individual's capacity for leadership and initiative on the one hand, and belief in the desired type of management practice on the other. There is a tendency to agree with the belief that the individual has a low capacity for initiative and leadership, but also

TABLE 4. GREECE: MEAN LEADERSHIP BELIEF SCORES AND T-VALUES FOR FOUR CATEGORIES

Category Mean score Capacity Sharing Participation Control

Capacity for leadership and initiative 2.54 2.663* 3.586f 8.978f

Sharing information and objectives 2.99 0.424 4.937f Participation 3.06 5.379 f Internal control 3.77

* p < .01 two tailed test. f p < .001 two tailed test.



Cummings & Schmidt: ATTITUDES OF GREEKS 271

a tendency to agree that the best methods of leadership are the democratic participative methods.

Comparing the Greek scores with the other clusters and countries, the Greek mean score is closer to that of the Latin-European cluster than to the developing countries cluster on the scale of capacity for leadership. The same is true for the Greek mean score on the internal control scale. Given the small size of these differences, caution should be exercised in attaching significance to them as separate findings. Their practical significance is en- hanced, however, when considered in the context of the findings on the remaining scales.

On the scale of sharing information and objectives, the Greek sample mean score is the same as that of the developing countries. The Greek sample mean score on the belief in participation scale is closest to that of the developing countries, though much lower.

Although the pattern of belief scores for the Greek sample is somewhat similar to that of the developing countries, it does not follow their pattern exactly. Similarly, though two of the Greek belief scores are similar to the Latin-European cluster, the sample pattern is not identical with the pattern of Latin-Euro- pean countries.

DISCUSSION

The Greek managers sampled in this study were as inconsistent as those in the Haire et al. and Clark and McCabe studies, displaying little belief in an individual's capacity for leadership and initiative, while advocating the practice of participative management. These results confirm the cross-country generality of managers subscribing to participative management practices, even though they are doubtful of the capacities of their subordinates to participate meaningfully.

The pattern and clustering of the Greek scores is similar to the Latin-European cluster on two scales and similar to the developing countries cluster on the other two scales. This intermediate standing might be expected, given Greece's level of industrialization in relation to the Latin-European and developing nations.

This dual patterning of the Greek sample can be seen as an example of the failure of

an explanation based either on industrialization or cultural differences to account for managerial attitudinal differences. The data indicate that the relative influence of these two factors may be attitude-specific. On the other hand, a suggestive patterning does emerge. The Greeks were found to be most similar to managers in the developing countries in sharing information and objectives and in belief in participation. Both of these scales are measured by questions focusing on a manager's attitudes concerning appropriate administrative styles. In the case of more basic administrative beliefs (belief in capacity for leadership and initiative and belief in internal control), the Greeks were closer to their Latin-European counterparts. This general tendency for expressions of belief concerning leadership capacity and ability for self-control to be culturally associated, while beliefs concerning appropriate managerial behavior are associated with industrialization suggests the need for additional research. Culture may provide a broad framework within which beliefs are developed and rein- forced, while degree of industrialization within a cultural grouping may influence the behavioral manifestation of these beliefs.

With regard to the scale indicating belief in internal control, the Greek managers scored high, toward the "democratic" pole, as might be expected given a strong Greek belief in self-esteem, individualism, and struggle. This finding is consistent with the emergence of a strong belief in self-determination among a different sample of Greek managers in a study by Cummings et al. (1971). Similarly, the developing countries cluster in the Haire et al. (1966) study shows a relatively high "democratic" score on the scale of belief in internal control.

An extension of the industrialization explanation might profitably involve the study of belief patterns as influenced by the partic- ular technology of the industry and of the firm in which the manager is operating. Belief patterns of managers may also be related to the manager's function within the organization, regardless of cultural milieu. General support for this proposition comes from the Cummings et al. study, which found a similarity of managerial beliefs according to one's functional identification in an orga-




nization among managers in five sets of nations. Future research is needed to explore the role of one's function in an organization and the organization's technology in determining managerial belief patterns and clustering across different cultures and nationali- ties.

L. L. Cummings is a visiting professor, Faculty of Commerce and Business Adminis- tration, University of British Columbia and is currently on leave from the Graduate School of Business, University of Wisconsin-Madi- son. Stuart Schmidt is a doctoral candidate in the Industrial Relations Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

REFERENCES

Ajiferuke, M., and J. Boddewyn 1970 "'Culture' and other explanatory vari-

ables in comparative management studies." Academy of Management Journal, 13: 153-163.

Clark, A. W., and S. McCabe 1970 "Leadership beliefs of Australian

managers." Journal of Applied Psy- chology, 54: 1-6.

Cummings, L. L., D. L. Harnett, and 0. J. Stevens

1971 "Risk, fate, conciliation and trust: an international study of attitudinal differences among executives." Academy of Management Journal, 14: 285-304.

Friedl, E. 1962 Vasikika: A Village in Modern Greece.

New York: Holt, Rinehalt and Winston.

Haire, M., E. E. Ghiselli, and L. W. Porter 1966 Managerial Thinking: An International

Study. New York: John Wiley. Harbison, F., and C. Myers

1960 Management in the Industrial World. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Higgins, B. (ed.) 1968 Economic Development. New York:

Norton. Kerr, C., J. Dunlop, F. Harbison, and C. Myers

1960 Industrialism and Industrial Man. New York: Oxford University Press.

Mead, M. (ed.) 1955 Cultural Patterns and Technical

Change. New York: Mentor. Riesman, D.

1950 The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Yale University Press.



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Managerial Attitudes of Greeks: The Roles of Culture and Industrialization